Chapter 8 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND THE MECHANISM OF ENERGY TRANSPORT 8.1 INTRODUCTION Heat transfer is the transfer of energy occurring as a result of a driving force, which we call a temperature gradient. There are three distinct ways in which heat may pass from a source to.a receiver, although most engineering applications are combinations of two or three. These are conduction, convection and radiation. Conduetion : In conduction, heat can be conducted through solids, liquids and gases The heat is conducted by transfer of the energy of motion between the adjacent molecule: Convection : This term implies transfer of heat due to bulk transport and mixing of macroscopic elements of liquid or gas. Since motion of a fluid is involved, heat transfer by convection is partially governed by the law of Fluid Mechanics such as natural convection and forced convection. Radiation : The transfer of heat by radiation is the energy transferred by electromagnetic radiation, or photons, having a certain range of wavelengths. The most important example of radiation is transfer of heat to the earth from the sun. 8.2 FOURIER'S LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION The basic equation for steady-state heat conduction is known as Fourier's law of heat conduction in one direction. It is Q=-kA Fy aes o + (8.1) where Heat transfer rate in 'x' direction in watts (W) f = Cross-sectional area normal to heat flow. k = Thermal conductivity q = Heat flux T = Temperature. (8.1)aR Rary SSS RA S TAM MS hese three relations are the components of the single vector equation : 4 In addition to the thermal conductivity k, defined by equation (8.1), a quantity as the thermal diffusivity, a is widely used in the heat transfer, r rea ja = "6 8.3 ANALOGY BETWEEN HEAT ANI | | Momentum Transfer 1.1] Tecie: goveraedbpiRtantaelan Ree | viscosity. Zz ee ae | | Sacmies } + — dy i ad 3. | Momentum flux is proportional to the | | velocity gradient. ji ty gre ca fe 4. |Momentum is transferred from a | region of high velocity to'a region of low | velocity. as [ 5. [Momentum diffusivity is =" (ms) ¥: p (m/s, oe ae 8.4 TEMPERA ‘The reduced thermal conductivity is the thermal conductivity at a given temperatur and pressure divided by the thermal conductivity at a critical point. This quantity is plott T as a function of reduced temperature T, = To and reduced pressure P, = c k ke {tis analogous to the reduced viscosity plot. The thermal temperature, temperature. Hence é conductivities of gases a Le. For Gases : k F (Liquids = __| temperature gradient. TURE AND PRESSURE DEPENDENCE OF THERM. CONDUCTIVITY IN GASES AND LIQUIDS ereas the thermal conductivities of most liquids decrease with increasin iD MOMENTUM TRANSFER It is governed by Fourier's law of h conduction, Heat flux is proportional Heat is transferred from hi temperature region to a low temperatur region. Thermal diffusivity is a (m°/s) Pe t low density increase with increasing.‘Transport Phenomena, Ace 83. Thermal Cond. & the Mecharasm of Energy Tramsport 8.5 THEORY OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF GASES AT LOW In gases, the mechanism of thermal conduction is relatively simple The molecules are in continuous random motion, colliding with one another and exchanging energy end somentum. The thermal conductivity increases approximately as the square rect of the where, m = mass, K = Boltzmann constant d@ = diameter, n = moles volume The molecules reaching any plane in the gas have, on an average, had their lest (89) The energy exchanged by smooth rigid sphere in collision is translational energy. the ranslational energy per molecule under equilibrium conditions is 3 1 gm = 5KT (8.10) For such gas, the heat capacity per mole at constant volume is dsl 2) _3. c= Grae )=28 1) which R is gas constant. This equation is satisfactory for monoatomic gases upto very Fig. 8.1 : Molecular transport of energy irom plane at (y ~ 2) to plane at yMein oe sve in the ~ ve 'y! direction, lemperature Je of molecule is linear for a distance of several mean free path, The t profile of molecule is linear for a dista oan free pat \e temper We may write 2 aT. Tlyw ® anne hay av Tlysa = Thy aay Combining equations (8.7), (8.12) and (8.13), we get i a Raney 8.14) | a, = -}aKWAg This corresponds to Fourier's law of heat conduction, with the thermal conductivity giventby k = JoKaa= BGT dias (monoatomic) where P =nm, is the mass density of gas. «. (monoatomic) s+ (8.15) This equation gives thermal conductivity of rigid sphere for dilute gas. Chapman-Enskog equation for the thermal conductivity of a monoatomic gas at low density at temperature T (K) is : VT/M) a k = 19891 x10 oa, | 7 - (monoatomic) ++» (8.16) where “en Q, = 9, '= LennarddJones intermolecular potential model ken developed equation for * Polyatomic gases at low density as +» (8.17)Phenomena 85 ‘Thermal Cond. & the Mechanism of Energy Transport Equation (8.17) gives a simple method of estimating the Prandtl number, Co reo a dimensionless quantity of importance in convective heat transfer. out & Pra = Gy 1a5R “*(Polyatomic) .. (8.18) For mixture kg ie So =X xy int where, y 1 1? © My 3 (MY 5) = e(a+at) 1+( SF GE +. (8.19) SA veya 4) (Mi 8.6 THEORY OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUID The physical mechanism of conduction of energy in liquids is somewhat similar to that of gases, where higher-energy molecules collide with lower-energy molecules. The thermal conductivity of liquid varies moderately with temperature and often can be expressed as a linear variation. k = a+bT +++ (8.20) where a and b are empirical constants. Thermal conductivities of liquids are essentially independent of pressure. Water has a high thermal conductivity compared to organic - liquid such as benzene. ‘The development here is based on the rigid sphere gas theory. k = 3 pGar=pC, Ile (8.21) When pC, = (7) v= (8.22) luyl = Vs (8.23) The distance ‘a' that energy travels per single collision is taken to be the lattice spacing, (¥ yr Substituting this in equation (8.21), we obtain equation of thermal XN conductivity for monoatomic liquid. «++ (8.24)‘Tho velocity of low-frequency sound, 'V,’ is given by the relation C, /aP Y= a >), The quantity (s), is readily obtainable from isothermal compressibili G, 5 ag . measurements and e is of the order of unity for liquids except near the critical point. 8.7 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLIDS The thermal conductivity of homogeneous solids varies widely. The metallic solids of copper and aluminium have very high thermal conductivities, while some insulating non-metallic materials such as rock, wool and cork board have very low conductivities. Heat or energy is conducted through solids by two mechanisms. In the first, which applies primarily to metallic solids, heat, like electricity, is conducted by free electrons which move through the metal lattice. The second mechanism, present in all solids, heat is_ conducted by the transmission of energy of vibration between adjacent atoms. In porous solids, the thermal conductivity is strongly dependent on the void fraction, the pore size and the fluid containing in pores. In crystalline materials, the phase and crystallite size are important. In amorphous solids, the degree of molecular orientation has considerable effect. For pure metals, the thermal conductivity k and the electrical conductivity k, related approximately as follows. a = L = constant This is famous equation of Wiedemann, Franz and Lorenz. where L = Lorenz number, of about 22 to 29 x 10? (x) K le ie lee has a thermal conductivity much greater than water. as Hence, the thermal ities of frozen foods are much higher than for unfrozen food: aapter 9 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS IN SOLIDS AND IN LAMINAR FLOW 9.1 APPROACH TO SOLVE HEAT TRANSPORT PROBLEMS We will select a particular thin slab or shell perpendicular to the direction of heat flow 2. Write the energy balance equation for this thin slab. 3. Let, this thickness approach to zero and make use of definitions of first-order differential equation for heat flux. 4. Insert Fourier's law of heat conduction to obtain second-order differential equation for temperature distribution, Integration of these two equations for whole system will give two constants of integrations which are found by applying suitable boundary conditions. 6. From above two equations, various other quantities like maximum temperature, average temperature, ete. can be calculated. 9.2 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS USED IN THE HEAT TRANSPORT PROBLEMS 1. The temperature at the surface may be specified, T = T,. 2. Heat flux at the surface may be specified, q = q,. 3. At solid-fluid interface, heat flux is given by Newton's law of cooling. q = h(T-T) + 9.1) where, h = Film heat transfer coefficient T, = Temperature of fluid 4. At solid-solid interface, heat flux and temperature are continuous across the interface. 3 SHELL-HEAT BALANCE The shell-heat balance is given by : ests of Thermal Rate of ree) ( Rate of Thermal ) ae (02) Energy In ) (0 Energy Out 7 * \Energy Production a)‘This equation gives the temperature distribution for aluminium cladding. BC.2:Atr=Ry,T,=Ty Equating equations (9.62) and (9.64), we get S,,[Rt_ b Re 8K Su[BE, BRE) ot | Sei bya 4 ky [5 DRe\*? * ke (+5) ®-Re|*7 (9.65) S,oRe (1, b R ‘2 bar a pe, i a SR (1, b Hence, Cz = T, +o (aes) eoneleert (+m) (9.66) Substituting this value in equation (9.62), we get, S,.[r2 ._br* S,Rr (1, b (Tp= Tp ve aoe [Eg BE) Snot (2, if ky [i 20K] 4 We 6. 1, .b er ia) kr 6 ») non LOG) BEI C- gives temperature distribution in Nuclear fuel sphere element. T; ea mae 8, Rr{. au) Sela ab Ry op yz SmeBel, 2], SooBt[(, By Br aus ~ Te [a+ les ae [0+ al “a (9.68) 9.7 HEAT CONDUCTION WITH CHEMICAL HEAT SOURCE Consider fixed bed axial flow reactor as shown in Fig. 9.3, The reactor is divided into three zones. Entrance and exit zones are packed with inert particles. Chemical reaction is carried out in a region between z = 0 and z = L which is packed with catalyst pellets. Here, we will assume plug flow conditions. The walls of the reactor are well insulated. We want to find axial temperature distribution, T (2). Reactants Fig. 9.3 : Fixed bed axial-flow reactorsive the product. Rate of thernial energy production per unit volume is given by, =S, where, T = Temperature of catalyst surface T, = Inlet temperature of reactant at z= © S,, and, = Empirical constants. Consider a disc of radius 'R' and thickenss Az as shown in Fig. 9.3. The therm energy balance for this disc is, (Rate In) ~ (Rate Out) + (Rate of Production) = 0 [ (nR?q,)|, +p VaR? C, (T mh e [ (HR?G leas an) + PVR? C, (T- Ty Ihe, al + (S, - mR? Az) = 0 Dividing this equation by (nR? Az), we get lim [{ %l¢ 420 a+ as) ~ Sele 4 Az +1 PV C4 d « aT dz (+ 9VC, 5" iz 0 “6 limi Bog =e Az Applying Fourier's law of heat conduction, The above e 0) db (Il) = (-* a) "V6 tt dz (*e dz Pde or A ar k, ag? + PVC, dz ae te uations for three different zones are er «aT ~k Gr +pvG d ak Ge rov-6,a0 ape ~ kur tev: C2 ] =8, ( (9.70)nome 2:13. Temp. Distri. in Solids and in Laminar Flow ‘The different boundary conditions those could be used are, Boundary Condition 1: At zee, T = T, 2, ToT Boundary Condition 2: At oz=L, T'=T and q'=q" z=, T = finite Now, om oa ed Hence, (T-T,) = o(r,- aT ‘deus 2 (T, -T,) (9.76) Now, zat dz CA ve Also, Bie woh ie cu pV, (T, -T,) 146 a6 pata 7° (977A) Equation (9,76) becomes a. a-y er ae and a > vag M-h) kz d’@ 140 | (1) becomes -—= ae ae pvc, 29: #2 ra + 8.77) pvc, ? 9 S40 eee (I) becomes = — Me oe ia ore pvc, pVC, (T; -T,) cae nage OL eee e dz? dz pi oa pvG, (Ty ~ T.) 1¢e @ _ ng ..- (9.78) “Baz ‘dz ~ N°m . Om nee “fees Now, equation (8.77 A) becomes ; ' wo pee wo s da? de @ = O+Gje™ Rquation (9.78) becomes ao do” de? ~B ay (De BD + NBO © 0 +NBO = 0 Dem, = whore, 8 a Cr Cae Similarly, equation (9.79) gives (cates m, my O = 1) a et awring 2 mile esa 9.8 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH COMPOSITE WALLS 3 ADDITION OF RESISTANCES Consider (xy =) & composite wall made ) (ry — 2m) and (x — x4) respecti respectively. up of three different materials of thick vely with thermal conductivities k®1, 12 At the boundaries, the w:Ce snenomena, 9.15 Temp. Distri. in Solids and in Laminar Flow Temperature Fig. 9.4 : Heat conduction through a composite wall We will consider a slab of thickness Ax, width W and height H in the region of naterial 01 as shown. The thermal energy balance for this slab can be written as : Rate of thermal energy |_ (3 of thermal é t td energy Out F o1 (w-H- @®)|,- (Wea )iu.ay = 0 Dividing this equation by W.H.Ax o1 01 lim 4x |xsan7 Ix |x Ax 30 Ax Ry deo Hence, aa ay) =0 where q,’ = constant = q, Similarly, for second material, 2 23 qx =4, 4x =q, and q, =q, Applying Fourier's law of heat conduction, 47°! o dT" ve age By integrating this equation, we get, , (x, -x, al (T, -T)) = = ee (9.84) 4, (Xp = X1) (9.85) Similarly, Qala ar «+. (9.86) a (yy =We have Newton's law of cooling, a, = b, (T,-T,) (T,-,) = R Go Similarly, (T, -T)) = #e Adding equations (9.84), (9.85), (9.86), (9.88) and (9.89) we get, 1 (x -x,) (x, -x,) (T,-T,) = alg + oe +Aaarh LD ook) Hence, hg = ED tee 1) Goa Gas) Ge a [i+ Shar Sear. Sa Also, Ch i (tin) The above two equations describe heat flux for a composite wall, where 'U,' is o heat transfer coefficient. In general, | oe eeTemp. Distri. in Solids and in Laminar Flow ider the fin of length L, thickness 2B, and width 'W' as shown in Fig, 9.5. Its one is parallel to the wall to which it is attached. Heat lossed from end edges is ble. al energy balance oi ; WHET es (ccceee by conduction) = (2B-W-q,) (Pate of thermal serey) 5 ++ (9.94) Out by conduction FOR ale as) pee} ( Rate of thermal energy Out by conyecdiet ) = 2W (Az) h(T-T,) -.. (9.96) e thermal energy balance is BB-Wea,|,— 2 BW, 2, ay [2W-dz-h (T ~ T,)] =0 (9.97) viding this equation by (2BW Az) gives lim ‘elect 1h | Az 30 ‘Aaa iy - (9.98) cording to first-order differential equation, above equation can be written as, da h az WS 7 Boa (9.99) an h ~ ko = ee eT h [aa hae B‘T-T.| --- (9.100) Now, Za Dimensionless temperature : 0, ee =a By T = 6(r, 0 T, Dimensionless heat-transfer coefficient, hl? Then equation (9.100) becomes he ~ a ie kB (T-T) Pe _ hi (T-T dz? ~ kB (r,=7 ae i az Mest, “a i-7.) ae = No @ = C,ek%+C,e™ .. (9.101)Z=0, 0=1 7 Boundary Condition (2) : qT _ At Z=L, Gp = ao Z=1, 4,20 1 C +e8 Henee, equation (9.101) becomes, Sol oodca ames 8 gM a at +oNO tN ene aN Dv + eNiZ-1, ez ) 0 = : adil ctf ‘e temperature distribution for a ' fin’.‘Phenomena 919 EFFECTIVENESS OF A FIN 1 = — Actual rate of heat loss from the fin Rate of heat loss from an isothermal fin n= Saas freee T,) dz dy Lp ~T,) dz dy on fee Joo va 2) "cosh (N)- 1 w fas = ae sinh IN ail tanh (N) N «+ (9.105) .11 HEAT CONDUCTION WITH A VISCOUS HEAT SOURCE Consider a flow of a incompressible Newtonian fluid between two coaxial cylinders as ‘Temp. Distri. in Solids and in Laminar Flow hown in Fig. 9.6. As the outer cylinder rotates, each cylindrical shell or fluid rubs wainst an adjacent layer, this rubbing will provide the surface for thermal energy. This iscous heat produced per unit volume is 'S,' and it depends on local velocity gradient. Outer cylinder moves with Angular velocity © Inner cylinder is stationary Fig. 9.6 : Flow between cylinders with viscous heat generationTransport Phenomena 9.20 ‘Temp. Distri. in Solids and in If the width between two cylinders 'b' is very small as compared to radius cylinder 'R', then, curvature effects can be neglected. The problem can then be m Cartesian co-ordinates. Stationary surface Fig. 9.7 : Idealisation of portion of flow system Volume rate of thermal energy production is av, av,y ae Br (Ge “(ae As velocity distribution is linear, av, /V-0_¥ dx b Consider a shell of length 'L', width 'W' and thickness 'Ax'. ‘The various components of thermal energy balance are, = (L-W-4,) Rate of thermal energy , - (wee) Rate of thermal energy In by conduction at 'x' x Out by conduction at 'x + Ax' eke Rate of thermal energy Coe per unit volume) = (L-W-ax-S,) The thermal energy balance is given by, (twa) (Wea) Dividing this equation by (L-W-Ax) and taking ae i hea +(L W- Ax S,) =0 lim 4x}x+ ax > x 50 RO FO Hence, a vy ax = “(5)Phenomena 9. ‘ 4 2 _Temp. Distri. in Solids and in Laminar Mow > Integrating this equation gives, 2 as »G) ssi) ve (Q.114) We have, Fourier's law of heat conduction as a = -4 St (9.115) Substituting this equation in above equation gives, oan y iets “G) x+C, (9.116) By integrating this equation gives, 2 42 -k: “a x f k:T a HS) 2 +em-¢ + (9.117) ; at Cx Hence, 193 mr tete ee +c, (9.118) For evaluating constant of integration, we have, Boundary Condition (1): At x = 0, T = 7, Coa andat x=b,T=T, Equation (9.118) becomes, -1 - oe 1-1) 2 2 So, Cc, = Elena ee] -.- (9.119) Substituting equation (9.119) in equation (9.118), we get, Xe v? To EE)s -i5 [7 - -T,)- e alt. «» (9.120) By rearranging, equation (9.120) becomes, H(VYx x uv? x T-T, =-E(6)3 +5 (T, - T,)+4 2bk T-T, v? oo ee a aan Gls ce “3-104. » (9.121) ve Maal serer % | where me it, =) een nee eee portance of viscous heat flow compare« kman number measures the relative im] hea ” resulting from temperature difference (T,, —Transport Phenomena __ 9.22 9.12 COMPARISON ‘OF FORCED AND FREE CONVECTION ~~ Forced Convection Free Conv determined | The alow faire are determined buoyant effect of the heated fluid. No. 1. |The flow patter y some external force. locity profiles are found,| The velocity profiles and tempe profiles are intimately connected. sare primarily b: 2. | First, the ve then they are used to find the temperature profiles, 3. The Nusselt number depends on| The Nusselt number depends on Gri Reynolds number and Prandtl) number and Prandtl number. number. [SOLVED PROBLEMS) Problem 9.1 : Calculate the heat loss per m? of surface area for an insulating: composed of 25.4 mm thick fibre insulating board, where the inside temperature is and the outside temperature is 297.1 K. The thermal conductivity of fibre is 0.0048 Wh Solution : Given Data: Ax = 0.0254m Ww k = 0.048% 7, = 3527K T, = 2971K ‘The rate of heat transfer per unit area, _ (AT) _ 0.048 x (352.7 - 297.1) Peri: 0.0254 105.1 W/m? Te Plo >lo = 105.1 W/m? Problem 9.2 : A thick-walled “gindtal tubing of hard rubber having an in! radius of 5 mm and an outside radius of 20 mm is being used as a temporary cooling ‘ bath. Ice water is flowing rapidly inside, and the inside wall temperature is 274.9 K. ee surface temperature is 297.1 K. A total of 14.65 W heat must be removed from ee by the cooling coil. How many m of tubing are needed ? The thermal condueti = 0.151 Wim-K. Solution : Given Data: k = 0.151 W/mK 510% m¢ Phenomena 9.23 T, = 2749K T, = 2971K Q = 14.65 Ww Temp. Distri. in Solids and in Laminar Flow 2nr, L = 2n (1.0) (0.005) L 0.0314 Lm? 0.1257 L m? Kg 0 A,~A, Ay,’ © peau " In (A,/A,) _ (0.1257 ~ 0.0314) L ay Qa (00si4) = 0.068 Lm? The rate of heat transfer is given by, Q = kA? a (274.9 ~ 297.1) = 0.068 L x 0.15179 99 — 0.005) = -152LW 14.65 = -15.2LW Here, -ve sign shows that heat flows from r, to r,. Problem 9.3 : A cold-storage room is constructed of an inner layer of 12.7 mm of pine, a middle layer of 101.6 mm of cork board, and an outer layer of 76.2 mm of concrete. The wall surface temperature is 255.4 K inside the cold room and 297.1 K at the outer surface of the concrete. Use thermal conductivities for pine, 0.151; for cork board, 0.0433; and for conerete, 0.762 W/m:K. Calculate the heat loss in W for 1 m? and the temperature at the interface between the wood and cork board. Solution : Given Data : T, = 255.4 K, T, = 2971 K A~ Pine material. B Cork. C Concrete.9.24 ky = 0.151 W/mK ky = 0.0433 W/mK ko = 0.762 WimK ‘Transport Phenomena Ax, = 0.0127m Axy = 0.1016m Axe = 0.0762m =. The resistances for each material are, for an area of 1 m?, Ax, Ry? yk 0.0127 = (Cusp os eae Axp Rp = (0.0433) (1) AX, Ro = nk _ _0.0762 = (0.762) (1) 0.100 K/W W We have the rate of heat transfer per unit area, AD eS Os 4 >SR TaR\ + Rp + Re ey, Since answer is in negative, heat flows from outside. To calculate the temperature the interface between the pine, wood and cork, ts Rae Ry _ 255.4-T, o.0841 256.79 K 256.79 Kport Phenomena _ 9.25 7 ————————__Temp. Distri, in Solids and in| Problem 9.4 : A thick-walled tube of stainless steel (A) having k = 21,93 W/m:K with co . mee and 9.0508 m O.D. is covered with 0.0254 m thick layer of sulation : a a ; mS ‘The inside wall temperature of the pipe is 811 K and the outside surface 0 4 nsulation is at 310.8 K. For a 0.305 m length of pipe, calculate the heat Joss and also the temperature at the interface between the metal and the insulation. Solution : Given Data : T, = 811 K, Ty = interface temperature, T, = 310.8 K » T, = 310. 0.0508 r, = 0.0127 m, r= 5 = 0.0254 m, ry = 0.0508 m ‘The areas are as follows for L = 0.305 m A, = 2Lr, = 21 (0.305) (0.0127) = 0.0243 m? A, = 2ncLr, = 2r (0.305) (0.0254) = 0.0487 m? A, = 2nlr, = 27 (0.305) (0.0508) = 0,0974 m? Let, A > Stainless steel; B > Insulation ta Ay na Ay ~ Tn (AVA) _ 0.0487 - 0.0243 ~ in (0.0487/0,0243) = 0.0851 m* ee = Th (Ay/Ay) 0.0974 ~ 0. oe ETE eat in (20974 a (cous) Agim (Agim The resistances can be ealeulated as, 2 A ky Agim 0.0127 = 91.68 (0.0861) ~ 001673 KW 4-F Bs is Gah 0.0254 = 92193(0.0703) = 1491 KW Hence, the heat transfer rate is eae = R,+Ry 811-310.8 2 ee | as. W = 901673 +1491 ~ **Temp. Distri. in Solids and in Transport Phenomena To calculate temperature T; SLi 0.01673 Bu f 7 jaturated steam at 267°F is flowing inside a 4 in. steel pipe having ID of 9.824 in. and an OD of 1.050 in. The pipe is insulated with 1.5 in. of insulation on outside. The convec ve coefficient for the inside steam surface of the pipe is estimated h, = 1000 Btu.h".ft"/°F and the convective coefficient on the outside of the lagging estimated as h, = 2 Btwhr.ft? °F. The mean thermal conductivity of the metal is 45 W/m: or 26 Biwh.ft.°F and 0.064 W/m-K or 0.037 Btw/h.ft.°F for the insulation. (a) Calculate the heat loss for 1 ft. of pipe using resistances if the surrounding air is SOF. (b) Repeat, using the overall U, based on the inside area A. Solution : (a) Let r; the inside radius of the steel pipe, r; and r, the outside radius of the lagging, then 0412 0.525 aay 5 ae the outside radius of the pi For 1 ft. of pipe, the surface areas are as follows : A,=2nLr, = 2n Cz) = 0.2157 f2 0.52 Ay = 2nLr, = 2n Ce) = 0.2750 f? A, = 2nLry = 2n Cz) 1.060 82 Let A — Steel, B > Lagging The log mean areas for A and B are A,-A, (A, = 1 wim = in (AAD (Anim0 e rate of heat transfer, Then to calculate Q, 03 se ~ 4nk Jee 9.27 ‘Temp. Distri. in Solids and in Laminar Flow, Sat hy Ay pe LO 1000x0.2157 = 00464 n-1 Ky * Ay im (0.525 - 0.412)/12 $6245) qa eee per ky 7 Ag im (2.025 ~ 0.525)/12 _ (0.087) (0.583) = R+R +R, +R, 267 — 80 0.00464 + 0.00148 + 5.8 + 0.472 267 —80 6.278 = 29.8 btwh an U,A(T,-1,)= 5p 0215x6278 = 0-738 BtwhttF U;,A; (Ti, — 3), 29.8 Btwh. = 0.738 (0.2157) (267 — 80) Problem 9.6 ; A 60 W bulb is buried in soil (k = 0.84 W/m-K) and burnt until a steady ite is reached. Find the temperature 0.3 m away from it. Solution : Consider the bulb as a spherical body and heat loss from sphere is, Q 0 d aie? 4nr? ky My Je 0Problem 9.7 : An electric current of 200 Amp. is passed through stainless r= 1.26 mm and length L = 91 cm. The wire has a resistance of 0.1: having radius js held at 422.1 K. The average thermal condi outer surface temperature Ty k = 22.5 W/mK. Calculate the centreline temperature. Solution : Given Data : j r = 126x10%m ‘ T = 200A L = 091m R = 0.1262 Ty = 4221K k = 22.5 W/mK Power =I7R = (200)?x 0.126 P = 5040 W S.x mL = Power ee ge © 1x (1.26 x 10°) x 0.91 = 1.12 x 10° Wim’ Temperature variation in cylindrical wire, Sr? ‘max ~ Tw = “gi _ 112 10° x (1.26 x 10%) - 4x 22.5 = 19.75 Tray = 19.75 +422.1 Tae = 441.85 K] i Problem 9.8 : A current of 250 amp is passing through stainless steel wire havil diameter of 5.08 mm. The wire is 2.448 m long and have a resistance of 0.0843 @. The surface held is constant at 427.6 K. The thermal conductivity is k = 29.5 W/m-K. Cal the centreline temperature at steady state. ~ aPhenomena 9.29 Temp. Distri. in Solids and in Laminar Flow. jution : Given Data : = 2.54x10%m = 250 amp 2.448 m = 0.0843 2 = 22.5 Wim-K T, = 4276K w Woe oe 4 zg in " = Heat generated per unit volume PR mL (250)? x 0.0843 © wx (2.54 x10)? x 2.448 1.061 x 10° W/m® S._ = 1.061 x 108 W/m? =e Trax—Tw = Gy _ 1.061 x 108 x (2.54 x 10%)? * 4X 22.5 = 7.605 = = 427.6 + 7.605 = 435.2 K 435.2 K| " max Problem 9.9 : A copper wire has a radius of 2 mm and a length of 5 m. For what voltage drop would the temperature rise at the wire axis be 10°C, if the surface temperature of the wire is 20°C ? volt? k Lorenz. number for copper = a = 228% 10° (ie ) 0 Solution : Given Data : Ta a L = 5m R = 2x10%m We have, maximum temperature rise at r = 0 PR? Tox To = 4 ikkeee a st Phenomena ae, te erent dents ond j voltage drop are relate ecu Le ky 2 Re Daag My = (ke BL) ate, IE? R? = LF ak ky BER? - Je) EB? = E = z oe a — 93x 10 = 5000 (1.49 x 10) (64.1) = 40 volt E = 40 volt Problem 9.10 : Heat is being generated uniformly by a chemical reaction ii cylinder of radius 91.44 mm. The generation rate is constant at 46.6 W/m*. The the cylinder are cooled so that wall temperature is held constant at 311K. The conductivity is 0.865 W/m-K. Calculate the centreline temperature. Solution : r = 914x10%m S, = 46.6 W/m® k = 0.865 Wim-K 1, =siK +: The temperature rise in cylinder, 2 _ 46.6 x (91.4 x 10-3)? 4x 0.865 = 0.1125 Troe = $11 +0.1125=31111K Trae = 311.11 K ~ ,aii, O82 dosed 3000 * 0.138 * 0.138 * a9 @ = 293.36 W/m? rate of heat transfer per unit area of wall, a= 5h ty a x hy k = ,-my= aT) ; 293.36 = 3000(1100-T,) T, = 1099.9K ae a, =T,) 1 293.36 = oa (1099.9 -T,) 1099.9-T, = 255.09 [T, = 844.81 K perature at the interface T, = 844.81 K] blem 9.13 : A furnace wall consists of 3 layers as shown below. First layer is of tory bricks, second is of insulating bricks and third layer is of steel plate 0.25 inch R.B. TBs Steeltenp. SS ————————— 9.34 i ive minimum total wall thickness, ickness of each layer to give minimum ae Brie call A Btwft?-hr. Assume the layer is in good the through the wall is following information is available. S ‘Thermal conductivity [ Material | Max. eens Btwhr-ft°F oe oe OOrA 2 | 2000°F 5 3.6 “a 18 2600°F RF 18 LF 2000°F Steel 2 For steel, 26.1 5000 x 0.02 Tle oe T, = 103.83 °F) ee rae Rar) nO aan +100 Thermal conductivity variation with temperature is given as 5 yee Te 1 T-100 2000-100 (103.83 ~ 100; Kroaaa = “Gow Son x(1.8-0.9)+0.9 3 = 0,9018 °F 1.8 + 0.9018 ky = “2+ 09018 = 1.35 Btwhr.ft.orSolids and in Laminar F Kggo9 ~ 1.8 =2e00= "5 _ 2600-100 36-18 = 2000-100 2600 = 4.168 Btu/hr.ft.°F 2 = 3.884 Bewhr.ft.°F = 2600-2000 ¥9/3.884 X) = 0.466 ft. fe x, jem 9.14 : Saturated steam at 0.276 MPa flows inside a steel pipe having an inside of 2.09 cm and an outside diameter of 2.67 cm. The convective coefficients on the ind outer pipe surfaces may be taken as 5680 W/m?K and 22.7 W/m?-K, ly. The surrounding air is at 204 K. Find the heat loss per meter of bare pipe and having 3.8 cm thickness of 85% magnesia insulation on its outer surface, 1 ft, x, = 0.466 ft ition : In the case of the bare pipe, there are three thermal resistances to be Ry = Reonvection tube = Ry = Reonvection outside = In (r,/r)) oe Ry = Ronducton 2nkL le inside temperature is at 0.276 MPa and saturated steam is at 404 K. The heat T rate per meter of pipe is calculated as, sam q 5 404 — 294 pe) = R, +R, +R; 110 1, lneln) iA, 2nkLTEMP. Distr), in Solids and in Laminar Plow Heat transfer with fing 4 oo. 4T. 1 — ‘ ' lo Min + Mvare| 200-30 0.1626, = 1114.02 w = 1114.02 ~ 639,09 = 474,93 W percentage increase in rate of heat transfer 474.93, * 639.09 “ 100 = 74.31% Increase in rate of heat transfer blem 9.21 : A glass rod of diameter 1.3 mm is 1 m long. One end is maintained at boiling point of toluene at 110.6°C, ‘The other end is fixed to a block of ice. The conduction along the rod is at Steady state. The heat of fusion of ice is gm, k for glass = 0.86 W/m:K. Assume no heat loss from exposed surface of rod. (i) Amount of heat transferred in watt; (ii) Number of grams of ice that melt in lution : Given Data : d = 13x10%m L=i1m Heat of fusion of ice = 79.7 cal/gm , there is no heat loss from exposed surface of rod, s-sectional area of rod for heat conduction is nd? _ (0.0013) 4 4 A = 1.32710 m? ing Fourier's law of heat conduction, Oy = i A-AT 9.86% 1.327% 10° = 1,327 x 10% m? (110.6 - 0) 1 Q = 0.1262 x 10% watt Amount of heat transferred in 30 min = 0.1262 x 10% x 30 x 60S 0.2271 J = 0.054 cal ‘ Amount of heat transfer in 30 min ‘Auibiink Obl mea= Heat of fusion of ice 0.054 = 797. = 0.00067 gm9.46 Transport Phenom« Problem 9.2: velocity of outer cy between cylinders are at temperature of 70° C. Viscosity Density Thermal conductivity ‘An oil is acting as a lubri Jinder is 7908 rpm. Outer cy is 0.027 em. What is the maximu ‘The physical properties of oil are, cant for a pair of cylindrical surface. linder has a radius of 5.06 em and m temperature in the oil if both 93.3 ep 1.22 gm/cm® 0.0055 cal/sec.em."C 93.3 x 10° Ne/m? Solution : Given Data : n= p = 1220 ke/m® ke = 231 Jseem.°C = 2.31 Win."C fe T7070. R = 0.0506 m N = 7908rpm ‘The angular velocity is given by, @ 2 2EN _ 2xx7008 @ 60 = 827.7 rad/sec V = R-@=0.0506 x 827.7 V = 41.88 m/s We have, the temperature distribution in coaxial cylinders. fia ea Re: io, 9 Br b(1-5) where, 1 nee kb (T, -T,) Br(t, -T,) = HY" b-T) = T-1, =F cr,-T,) 2H x, x For temperature to be maximum 2k o( 7. aT dx = 0 Differentiati ating above e quation, we ” get aT dx ~ort Phenomena a Solids and in Laminar Flow ature will be maximum at the centre, (Toes eT i ete ed Was aie 1-3) Says * “ak = 92.3% 10 x 41.88 8x23 Tyo >70 = 8.798 [Tmax = 78.79°C| blem 9.23 : Water and air are separated by a mild-steel plane wall. It is proposed to the heat transfer rate between these fluids by adding straight rectangular fins of thickness and 2.5 em length, spaced 1.27 em apart. The air side and water side sfer coefficients may be assumed constant with values of 11.4 and 256 W/mK, ively. Determine the percent change in total heat transfer when fins are placed on jater side, (b) the air side and (c) both sides. tion : Let us consider 1 m? section of the wall. The areas of the primary surface and s are A, = 1m? 79 fins) am] aa = 0.9m? A, = 79(1) (2) - (0.025)] +0.1 = 4,05 m? h les of fin efficiency can now be determined from a graph of Le\f j¢¢_ versus ny. h 4 ae LeVice = 9975| 49.9 x 0.00127 kt = 0.362 12 for the water side, LeVie = 0.025| ax5,sator2t| LITransport Phenomena __ 19:56 — ation (3) becomes, Equa (ty TB in terms of radius 'r’ le i ‘This equation describes temperature profil (c) Heat flux at surface is, dT alen = ae (using equation ( 2)) w acy Rig a kg = 7) {using equation (a)) ton's law of cooling at surface, Also, by New! Shaya) Gr|r-R Equating equations (4) and (5), we get k (Tp - T.) pore h(T, -T.) Problem 9.28 : Derive the expression for heat flux for the composite cylinders of ry Tp respectively. Solution : The thermal energy balance for the cylindrical element of thickness can be given by, f Ge of thermal) Ca of thermal enereyin J 7. fenergyOugey 7 a (Qn qy)|,- @nrL ar lesa = Dividing by '2narL’, ‘i got fe lim T° Gr lo+an7 Tr ar>0 ie d ar fa) = 0Tem. Dist. in Solids and in Laminar Flow 9.14 tegrating equation (A), we get dy = constant =r, q, od ly, we can have ray = 14, 23 ray, =a ituting Fourier's law in equation (1), 0 pot Tae =a (T, -T): ae n(2) (2) ilarly, (ye pass i in(72) ; (3) (T, —), pase (2) w) Newton's law of cooling, a? = h,(T,-T,) 01 qT _%*% 4s) (T, -T,) = Feet as 1) es (i 195 =ra =r, 4} (6) -T) =i9.58 ‘Temp. Distri. in Solids and in Transport Phenomena feeb a On adding equations (2), (3), (4), (5) and (6), we have, Ty In 1 | In (r/r,) Tp (T,-y) = Rent RT * kt kee In Gi Also, the total rate of heat flux transferred U, (T,-T,), where, qo U, = Overall heat transfer coefficient Q, = 4, (2mr,L) = 2nL (T,-T,)U In general, where, In general, Problem 9.29 : Derive the expression for heat flux for composite sph. Solution : Refer Fig. 9.14 of previous problem. a The thermal energy balance is given by, (Bate of thermal ) a (Rate of thermal energy In energy Out ei) = 0 Care? | _ deck Dividing by azar (r+ar) = 0 lim (r7q%) 5 aro lesan (98), Ar a9 Eq)tograting equation (A), we have, Tem in Solids and in Laminar qe 6 ilarly, Pq? _ 2 28 r eee qr =rq ituting Fourier’s law, we get, oa, @ art wouter dr tegrating, we have 2 Coreen alee ei 14 ee * wee) (2) 2 Tod) (1 (T,-1) = 2 (eyes) (8) 1% ha, oir k (T,-T,) = 3a ae) a) Newton's law of cooling, o1 Gg subs, a), 01 2 GF T,-7, = +3 byt 2 (T,-7,) = BS 18) h, % 2 Th ‘larly, (T,-7,) = 23 6) hg - rg ing all equations from (1) to (6), 2 1 2 2 eee (T,-T,) = rp af teeane-s +h (7,73, )* To