Effect of Penetration Rate on Penetrometer

Resistance in Clay
Shin Fun Chung1; Mark F. Randolph2; and James A. Schneider3

Abstract: This paper discusses the effects of penetration rate on the penetration resistance in soft clay for various shaped penetrometers
共cone, T-bar, ball, and plate兲 and for T-bars with different aspect ratios. Constant rate 共“normal”兲 and variable rate 共“twitch”兲 penetration
tests, where the penetration rate was successively halved over eight steps with the penetrometer advanced by one or two diameters in each
step, were undertaken in the beam centrifuge at the University of Western Australia. The tests were conducted on samples reconstituted
from clay collected from the Burswood site in Western Australia. The twitch tests showed higher penetration resistance than the corre-
sponding normal tests after the penetration rate had been reduced by a factor of 16 due to cumulative effects of partial consolidation. The
penetration rate at which the resistance started to increase due to partial consolidation was used to estimate the consolidation coefficient,
cv, of the reconstituted clay. The interpreted cv values were similar to values estimated from other consolidation data, both in the
centrifuge and from laboratory Rowe cell and constant rate of strain consolidation tests. In addition, results from in situ twitch tests at the
Burswood site were examined to evaluate viscous effects on the penetration resistance.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1090-0241共2006兲132:9共1188兲
CE Database subject headings: Centrifuge model; Clays; Loading rate; Penetration resistance; Penetration tests; Viscosity.

Introduction may be compared by normalizing the rate of penetration, v, as

The tip resistance of an advancing penetrometer decreases as the vd

rate of penetration is decreased—provided the conditions around
the advancing penetrometer are undrained—due to viscous ef-
fects. On the other hand, once the penetration rate has reduced
sufficiently for partial consolidation to occur, with local strength-
ening of the soil around the penetrometer, the tip resistance will
increase as the penetration rate is decreased. Therefore, there is a
transition point from undrained to partially drained response
where the viscous and partial consolidation effects balance out,
leading to a minimum resistance. This phenomenon is clearly
illustrated in the results presented by Bemben and Myers 共1974兲,
who carried out in situ mechanical cone penetration tests with
penetration rates ranging from 0.2 to 200 mm/ s in varved clay,
and by Roy et al. 共1982兲 who performed piezocone tests with
rates varying from 0.5 to 40 mm/ s in sensitive clay. Data from
penetrometer tests of various diameters, and in different clays,
1 throughout without further consideration of the precise nature of
Geotechnical Engineer, Advanced Geomechanics, 4 Leura St,
Nedlands, Western Australia 6009; formerly, Ph.D. Student, Univ. of
Western Australia. E-mail: shinfunc@ag.com.au
2
ARC Federation Fellow, Centre for Offshore Foundation Systems,
Univ. of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western
Australia 6009 共corresponding author兲. E-mail: randolph@civil.uwa.
edu.au
3
Ph.D. Student, School of Civil and Resource Engineering, Univ. of
Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009.
E-mail: schneider@civil.uwa.edu.au
Note. Discussion open until February 1, 2007. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on December 21, 2005; approved on February 2, 2006.
This paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, Vol. 132, No. 9, September 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 1090-
0241/2006/9-1188–1196/$25.00.
V= 共1兲
cv
where d = penetrometer diameter; and cv = coefficient of consoli-
dation 共Finnie and Randolph 1994; Randolph and House 2001兲.
In natural clays, consolidation may be dominated by radial flow
of pore water, and a horizontal consolidation coefficient, ch,
may be more appropriate. A further consideration is whether cv
should be the value associated with normal consolidation or with
swelling. At present, only empirical correlations have been devel-
oped for the variation of penetration resistance with normalized
velocity, and those have been based on a cv value for normal
consolidation. The logic for that choice was that the increase in
resistance due to partial consolidation involves increasing effec-
tive stress levels above the in situ values 共House et al. 2001兲. In
this paper, the symbol cv, corresponding to normal consolidation
as measured in a conventional consolidation test, will be used
the flow regime.
In order to verify the transition point from undrained to par-
tially drained response, a series of constant-rate T-bar penetration
tests at various penetration rates, covering three orders of magni-
tude, were conducted in the centrifuge independently by Watson
and Suemasa 共unpublished data, 2000兲; House et al. 共2001兲; and
Randolph and Hope 共2004兲, who also carried out similar tests
using a piezocone penetrometer. Data obtained from these pen-
etration tests were plotted in the form of normalized resistance
against V, and “backbone” curves giving the relationship between
the two parameters for the T-bar and cone penetrometers were
subsequently derived.
The backbone curves may be used to assess whether a given
penetration test in a particular soil is partially drained or not, or to
deduce the consolidation coefficient, cv, of the soil. For the
former objective, where a single penetration test is performed,

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Table 1. Soil Properties for Reconstituted Burswood Clay
Soil property Value
Effective unit weight, ␥⬘ 共kN/ m 兲 3
4.4–5.1
⬘
Reconstituted friction angle, ␾centrifuge共°兲 29–32
Moisture content, ␻ 共%兲 55–86
Liquid limit, ␻L 共%兲 120
Plastic limit, ␻ P 共%兲 51
Plasticity index, I P 共%兲 69
Compression index, Cc 0.66–0.82
Coefficient of consolidation, cv 共m2 / yr兲 0.5–0.75
Particle size ⬍0.02 mm 共%兲 75
Particle size ⬍0.006 mm 共%兲 40
Clay content 共⬍0.002 mm兲 共%兲 10

some independent assessment of cv is needed in order to calculate

V for the test; for the latter objective, multiple tests performed at
different penetration rates are needed to assess a transition in the
measured penetration resistance. A value of cv can then be de-
duced by matching the transition point to an appropriate backbone
curve. The transition point, and hence estimate of cv, may also be
assessed from a single variable rate penetration test 共referred to as
a “twitch” test兲, where the penetration rate is successively halved
with the penetrometer advanced by one to two diameters of the
probe at each new rate 共Randolph and House 2001兲.
This paper presents the results of twitch penetration tests for
different shaped model penetrometers conducted in a centrifuge.
The model penetrometers tested included cone, T-bar, ball, and
plate. The effect of partial consolidation on the penetration resis-
tance has been used to estimate the consolidation coefficients of Fig. 1. Consolidation of samples in the centrifuge at 100 g: 共a兲
the reconstituted samples. The interpreted cv is compared with first centrifuge strongbox sample 共Box 1兲; 共b兲 second centrifuge
values deduced from other consolidation data including bulk con- strongbox sample 共Box 2兲
solidation of the sample in the centrifuge, and laboratory Rowe
cell and constant rate of strain consolidation 共CRSC兲 tests. Vis-
cous effects on the tip resistance are also examined in light of in in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. In the CRSC tests 共Fig. 2兲, the
situ twitch test results reported by Schneider et al. 共2004兲. values of cv corresponding to the yield 共or preconsolidation兲
stress are in the range 1 – 1.2 m2 / year, but reduce to between 0.5
and 0.7 m2 / year at stress levels beyond three times the yield
stress. The Rowe cell tests performed on Burswood clay material
Soil Properties
reconsolidated from a slurry gave rather low values of cv, be-
Clay samples for the centrifuge testing were reconstituted using tween 0.35 and 0.54 m2 / year 共Fig. 3兲.
bulk material collected from a depth of about 6 m at the Bur-
swood site, located a few kilometers from Perth, Western Austra-
lia. Soil properties of the reconstituted samples are summarized in Centrifuge Testing
Table 1. The properties are mostly based on results from labora-
tory tests conducted on tube samples retrieved after completion of The model penetrometer tests were carried out “in-flight” in the
the centrifuge tests. beam centrifuge at the University of Western Australia, a detailed
The values of cv shown in Table 1 have been estimated using description of which has been given by Randolph et al. 共1991兲.
data during consolidation of the strong-box samples in the centri- Two centrifuge strongbox samples were prepared using bulk clay
fuge, which are presented in term of surface settlement against from the Burswood site, reconstituted at a water content of 125%.
root time 共in minutes兲 in Fig. 1. The time for 90% degree of Both samples were consolidated in a press under a vertical stress
consolidation 共t90兲 has been estimated using Taylor’s root time of 35 kPa, and then transferred to the centrifuge for consolidation
method, as indicated in the figure. The values of cv for the at a centrifugal acceleration of 100 g. A final sample thickness of
samples are then calculated as between 200 and 230 mm was targeted, which is equivalent to a
prototype depth of 20– 23 m.
T90h2 In the first strongbox sample 共Box 1兲, various model pen-
cv = 共2兲 etrometers were employed, comprising cone, ball, and plate pen-
t90
etrometers with respective diameters of 10, 11.9, and 11.2 mm,
where T90 = time factor 共taken as 0.848兲; and h = length of the and a T-bar penetrometer 共Stewart and Randolph 1991兲 of
drainage path. 20⫻ 5 mm. In the second sample 共Box 2兲, four T-bars of different
Independent measurements of cv were also obtained from lengths—20, 30, 40 and 50 mm, all with the same diameter of
CRSC and Rowe cell tests, the results of which are presented 5 mm—were tested.

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Fig. 2. CRSC tests: relationship between cv and ␴⬘v: 共a兲 tube samples
extracted from Box 1; 共b兲 tube samples extracted from Box 2
Both constant rate 共“normal”兲 and variable rate 共“twitch”兲 pen-
etration tests were conducted for each penetrometer. In a normal
test, the penetrometer was pushed in and pulled out at a rate of
1 mm/ s.
A twitch test commenced by first pushing the penetrometer
through the upper lightly overconsolidated layer at 1 mm/ s down
to a depth of 60– 110 mm; the rate was then successively halved
over seven steps to a final value of 0.0078 mm/ s. Each succeed-
ing step was triggered after the penetrometer had advanced by
either 1 or 2 diameters. Discrete steps for the penetration rate
reduction were used, rather than a continuous and smooth de-
crease in penetration rate, so as to overcome the effects of creep
and to allow the penetration resistance to develop fully and
achieve an approximate steady state 共Randolph and House 2001兲.
It has been found that advancing the T-bar by two diameters is
sufficient to reach a steady-state resistance 共House et al. 2001兲.
For the larger-diameter ball and plate penetrometers, the available
Fig. 3. Rowe cell tests: relationship between cv and ␴⬘v
1190 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / SEPTEMBER 2006
Fig. 4. Penetration resistance profiles of constant rate 共1 mm/ s兲 tests
for various shaped model penetrometers
depth of travel only allowed a one-diameter advance at each step,
which may be insufficient to achieve the steady-state resistance.
However, it was found sufficient to identify the point at which
partial consolidation effects become apparent and, as the results
presented later will show, the penetration resistances at the end of
each step stay relatively close to those for the T-bar.
During completion of the final step of the twitch tests, the
penetrometer was either pulled out immediately at a rate of
1 mm/ s, or pushed in further at the original rate of 1 mm/ s be-
fore being extracted at the same rate.
The use of a nondimensional velocity, as in Eq. 共1兲, overcomes
scale effects in respect of consolidation at model and prototype
scales, but it is also necessary to consider scale effects due to
shear strain rates. As will be discussed later, the shear strain rate
is determined by the ratio of velocity to diameter 共v / d兲. The
model penetrometers were advanced at a maximum rate of be-
tween 0.1 共ball, plate兲 and 0.2 共T-bar兲 diameters per second, com-
pared with typical field rates of 0.2 to 0.5 diameters per second.
The effect of shear strain rate on the penetration resistance will
therefore be slightly lower in the model tests compared with a
field penetration test.
Resistance Profiles for Various Penetrometers
Normal Penetration Tests
Fig. 4 presents the resistance profiles from the constant rate 共nor-
mal兲 penetration tests for the different model penetrometers. Note
that the resistance profiles are plotted against the equivalent pro-
totype depth, where 1 mm in the centrifuge represents 0.1 m at
prototype scale.
The measured cone resistance, qc, should be corrected appro-
priately for the effects of unequal pore pressure 共Baligh et al.
1981; Campanella et al. 1982兲. Although the pore pressure at
the cone shoulder was not measured, since there was no pore
pressure transducer in the 10-mm diameter model cone, the net
cone resistance, qcnet, may be estimated using the following equa-
tion 共Robertson and Campanella 1983; Watson et al. 1998兲
 Fig. 6. Penetration resistance profiles of normal and twitch tests for
Fig. 5. Penetration resistance profiles of normal 共1 mm/ s兲 tests for T-bar 20⫻ 5 mm
Model T-bars with various aspect ratios

normal test. The end of each step of the twitch test is also indi-
cated in the figure.
qc − 共␴⬘v + uo␣兲
qcnet = 共3兲 It may be seen in Fig. 6 that the T-bar twitch test initially
1 − 共1 − ␣兲Bq shows similar 共but slightly lower兲 penetration resistance to the
where ␴⬘v⫽estimated effective vertical stress; uo⫽estimated hy- normal tests at 1 mm/ s down to a rate of 0.062 mm/ s from where
drostatic water pressure; ␣ = unequal area ratio; and Bq⫽ratio the twitch test starts to show resistance increasing more strongly
of the excess pore pressure to the net bearing pressure. The value with depth than the normal test. At the end of the final step, where
of Bq was estimated to lie in the range 0.45–0.6, with the lower the rate is 0.0078 mm/ s, the resistance of the twitch test is ap-
limit corresponding to field measurements in natural clay at the proximately 78% higher than that of the normal test. As the pen-
Burswood site and the upper limit being typical for normally etration rate of the twitch test reverted to 1 mm/ s at completion
consolidated reconstituted clay 共Chung and Randolph 2004; of the final step, the resistance continues to increase over a short
Chung 2005兲. In practice, however, the net cone resistance is distance before reducing rapidly, forming a peak of resistance
relatively insensitive to Bq in this case, since the calibrated area between depths of 14 and 16 m. The resistance then slowly
ratio for the model cone penetrometer is relatively high, with merges with the normal test result. This phenomenon has also
␣ = 0.86 共Chung 2005兲, and a value of Bq = 0.45 was adopted. been reported in centrifuge tests by House et al. 共2001兲 and field
Tip resistances for the model T-bar, ball, and plate 共“full- data 共Schneider et al. 2004; Randolph 2004兲.
flow”兲 penetrometers were not corrected, since the area of these Fig. 7 shows the resistance profiles of the twitch tests con-
penetrometers is much larger than the area of the penetrometer ducted for the various shaped model penetrometers. The profile of
shaft so that the correction becomes insignificant 共Chung and
Randolph 2004; Chung 2005兲.
As may be seen in Fig. 4, the T-bar and ball penetrometers
demonstrate very similar resistance profiles. The plate shows
共unexpectedly兲 lower resistance than the T-bar and ball, while the
cone resistance appears to be the lowest.
Fig. 5 presents the resistance profiles of the normal tests for
the T-bars with aspect ratios 共L / d兲 from 4 to 10. It is evident that
all the T-bars show very similar resistances, suggesting that the
aspect ratio does not have any obvious effect on the T-bar resis-
tance, at least for L / d of 4–10.
Results for the “normal” constant rate tests have been dis-
cussed in detail by Chung and Randolph 共2004兲 and Chung
共2005兲. This paper concentrates on interpretation of the twitch test
results and discussion of partial consolidation and viscous effects
in clayey soils. Penetration resistance profiles presented in Figs. 4
and 5 have been used as reference values for normalizing corre-
sponding twitch tests.

“Twitch” Penetration Tests

The resistance profile of the variable rate 共twitch兲 penetration test Fig. 7. Penetration resistance profiles of twitch tests for various
for the 20⫻ 5 mm T-bar is presented in Fig. 6, together with its shaped model penetrometers

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Fig. 8. Penetration resistance profiles of twitch tests for Model T-bars
with various aspect ratios
the normal T-bar test is also plotted in the figure as a broad ref-
erence for the tip resistance under undrained conditions.
As may be seen in Fig. 7, the T-bar and ball penetrometers
exhibit very similar resistances even at different penetration rates
共at different stages of the twitch tests兲, implying that the two
penetrometers experienced similar degrees of local strengthening
of the surrounding soil. The reasons may be attributed to the
relative size and flow pattern of the two penetrometers. The di-
ameter of the model ball 共11.9 mm兲 is considerably larger than
that of the Model T-bar 共5 mm兲, so a given penetration rate gives
a larger normalized velocity, V = vd / cv, suggesting lower veloci-
ties for a given degree of partial consolidation. However, consoli-
dation under conditions of axial symmetry occurs more rapidly
than for plane strain 共Davis and Poulos 1972兲, and this appears to
compensate for the larger diameter in this case. The consequence
is that both of the penetrometers show similar tip resistances re-
gardless of the penetration rate, although this would only be the
case for this particular relative size 共or diameter ratio兲 between
the T-bar and ball penetrometers.
The plate twitch test gave lower resistance than the T-bar and
ball twitch tests, which is consistent with the normal tests. It
should be noted that the peak of resistance, which is seen in the
T-bar resistance profile, is not observed in profiles for the plate
and ball. This is because they were pulled out immediately 共with-
out further penetration兲 at completion of the final step of the
twitch tests.
The net resistance for the cone twitch test has been calculated
using Eq. 共3兲, with an initial Bq of 0.45. As the penetration rate is
decreased during the twitch test, the conditions change from
undrained to partially drained, leading to a reduction in Bq. In
correcting for the pore pressure at the cone shoulder, the value of
Bq has been assumed to decrease linearly with each reduction in
penetration rate, to 50% of its initial value in the final step. This
assumption is based on the Bq results presented by Randolph and
Hope 共2004兲, where Bq decreases to half its initial value as the
rate is decreased by about two orders of magnitude. As seen pre-
viously in the normal test results, the cone twitch test also gave
the lowest resistance 共Fig. 7兲.
Fig. 8 presents twitch test results for T-bars with different as-
pect ratios. The resistance profiles of the various T-bars are tightly
1192 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / SEPTEMBER 2006
Fig. 9. Evaluation of cv using twitch test data of T-bar 20⫻ 5 mm
bunched, suggesting that the aspect ratio in the range 4–10 does
not affect the T-bar tip resistance, even at low penetration rates
where the conditions are partially drained.
Interpretation of Twitch Test Data
Evaluation of Consolidation Coefficient
Fig. 9 plots the “backbone” curves for T-bar penetrometer derived
independently by Watson and Suemasa 共unpublished data, 2000兲
and based on results presented by Randolph and Hope 共2004兲.
The backbone curves can be expressed as
q b
=a+ 共4兲
qref 1 + cVm
where q = penetration resistance at any rate; qref = reference 共un-
drained兲 resistance; V = nondimensional velocity; and a, b, c, and
m = constants for the backbone curves 共see Table 2兲. As V ap-
proaches zero, the penetration resistance will approach a value
relevant for drained conditions. Therefore, the sum of a and b
can be considered as the ratio of drained to undrained penetration
resistance. A relatively constant ratio of drained to undrained
penetration resistance has been observed for clayey soils in the
centrifuge, but it is noted that this ratio is likely to be influenced
by friction angle and other soil parameters.
Also plotted in Fig. 9 are the normalized resistances of the
twitch tests for the 20⫻ 5 mm T-bar. The normalized resistances
Table 2. Summary of Constants Derived for the Backbone Curves
Parameters
Type of test and source a b c m
T-bar: Watson and Suemasa, 1 2.77 0.57 1.45
unpublished data, 共2000兲
T-bar: after Randolph and Hope 共2004兲a 1 2.1 1.1 1.6
Cone: after Randolph and Hope 共2004兲a 1 2.65 1.5 0.83
a
Constants derived based on data from Randolph and Hope 共2004兲,
without correction for viscous effects.
 Fig. 10. Evaluation of cv using data from cone twitch test
are computed as the ratio of the resistance developed at the end of
each stage of the twitch test to the corresponding reference resis-
tance at 1 mm/ s from normal T-bar tests. Since the penetration
rate and the probe’s diameter are known, the only variable in V is
cv 关see Eq. 共1兲兴. The value of cv can be obtained by adjusting it to
fit the twitch test data onto a backbone curve, with the value that
gives the best fit corresponding to the average cv for the depth
over which the twitch test is conducted. The best fit has been
obtained using a least-squares approach, based on the difference
between the normalized resistance and the backbone curves for
each data point.
As illustrated in Fig. 9, the cv values deduced from the curve
fitting method using the T-bar backbone curve from Watson and
Suemasa 共unpublished data, 2000兲 are 0.45 and 0.4 m2 / year for
the first 共Box 1兲 and the second 共Box 2兲 centrifuge samples, re-
spectively. However, using the curve from Randolph and Hope
共2004兲, higher cv values of 1 and 0.9 m2 / year are obtained for
sample Boxes 1 and 2, respectively.
Randolph and Hope 共2004兲 also derived a backbone curve for
the cone penetrometer, as shown in Fig. 10. Similarly, normalized
resistances from the cone twitch test have been fitted to the curve,
resulting in a cv value of 0.6 m2 / year for sample Box 1.
The values of cv deduced from the twitch test results, based on
the T-bar backbone curve from Watson and Suemasa 共unpublished
data, 2000兲 and the cone backbone curve from Randolph and
Hope 共2004兲, appear to be reasonably close to the cv ranges esti-
mated using data from consolidation of the samples in the centri-
fuge, Rowe cell tests, and CRSC tests at high stress levels, as
presented previously.
Effect of Partial Consolidation for Various
Penetrometers
Fig. 11 plots the normalized resistances against nondimensional
velocity, V, for the different shaped penetrometers. For the pur-
poses of comparison, a single value of cv = 0.45 m2 / year has been
adopted for all penetrometers.
As may be seen in Fig. 11, the normalized resistance profile
for the ball penetrometer plots horizontally to the right of the
profile for the T-bar by a factor of about 2.5. This suggests that
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Fig. 11. Normalized resistance profiles for various shaped
penetrometers
the rate of local consolidation is relatively higher around the ball
than around the T-bar 共for a given diameter兲 by a ratio of about
2.5. Therefore, if the ball diameter is two to three times the T-bar
diameter 共the actual ratio dball / dT−bar being 2.38兲, the absolute
consolidation rates for the two penetrometers will be similar, as
reflected by the similar resistance profiles previously noted in the
twitch tests for the two penetrometers 共Fig. 7兲.
Although, to the authors’ knowledge, no analysis has yet been
undertaken to study consolidation rates for the penetration prob-
lems, the rates of consolidation under rectangular and circular
surface footings may be used as an analogy to the rates of con-
solidation around the T-bar and ball penetrometers during pen-
etration. Theoretical solutions presented by Davis and Poulos
共1972兲 showed that, for an infinitely deep layer, the rate of con-
solidation under a surface footing is determined by the area of the
footing and is virtually independent of the shape. Likewise, the
similar resistance profiles for the T-bar and ball seen earlier in
Fig. 7 may be owing to the similar projected areas of the two
penetrometers 共100 mm2 for the T-bar compared to 111.2 mm2
for the ball兲. With that reasoning, it may be more appropriate to
plot the normalized resistances against V⬘ = vde / cv, where de is
the diameter for a circle with area equivalent to the penetrometer,
rather than against V based on the actual diameter. Given the deep
embedment of the penetrometers, it might also be argued that an
equivalent diameter based on the volume of the T-bar or ball
should be adopted, which would weight the equivalent diameter
of the T-bar more toward that of the cylinder. However, for the
present, given the similar resistance profiles for the T-bar and ball
in Fig. 7, an equivalent diameter based on the projected area
rather than the volume will be adopted.
Normalized resistances for the ball and various T-bars with
projected areas from 100 to 250 mm2 are plotted in Fig. 12 nor-
malized resistance profiles for ball and T-bars with various aspect
ratios 共a兲 against V; and 共b兲 against V⬘. Note that the backbone
curve of Watson and Suemasa 共unpublished data, 2000兲 must be
adjusted accordingly in the plot against V⬘. The original profile
for the T-bar will be shifted horizontally to the right by a factor of
2.26 共=de / d for the T-bar兲 and will almost coincide with the ball
profile, which is not affected by V⬘. It may be seen that the nor-

Fig. 12. Normalized resistance profiles for ball and T-bars with
various aspect ratios: 共a兲 against nondimensional velocity, V; 共b兲
against V⬘ = vde / cv
malized data appear to fit relatively better to the adjusted back-
bone curve in the plot against V⬘ 关Fig. 12共b兲兴 compared to the
original backbone curve in the plot against V 关Fig. 12共a兲兴. This
implies dependency of the consolidation rate on the projected area
of the penetrometer, rather than its physical diameter, although
more experimental results are necessary to verify this observation.
It is interesting to note that the plate penetrometer demon-
strates very similar normalized resistance response to the ball
共Fig. 11兲, even though its “actual” penetration resistances are
lower than for the T-bar and ball both in the normal and twitch
tests 共Figs. 4 and 7兲. This suggests that the ball and plate have
similar rates of local consolidation around them, despite the round
base for the ball compared to the flat base for the plate.
In Fig. 11, the normalized cone resistance profile plots to the
left of the ball and plate profiles, suggesting a lower rate of con-
solidation around the cone than around the ball and plate. The
1194 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / SEPTEMBER 2006
Fig. 13. Rate effects in the undrained 共viscous兲 region
reason may be due to the fact that soil is displaced by the cone but
is able to flow around the ball and plate, thus resulting in a more
extensive field of excess pore pressure generated during penetra-
tion around the cone than around the ball and plate. This results in
the cone requiring lower penetration rates for a given effect of
partial consolidation compared to the ball and plate.
Effect of Penetration Rate in Viscous
„Undrained… Region
Mitchell 共1976兲 suggested a hypothetical relationship between
undrained shear strength and strain rate expressed in the form of
an inverse hyperbolic sine function. Based on the suggested rela-
tionship, the following expression is derived to define viscous
effects on penetration resistance
␭
1+ · sinh−1共␥˙ /␥˙ o兲
q ln共10兲
= 共5兲
qref ␭
1+ · sinh−1共␥˙ ref /␥˙ o兲
ln共10兲
where ␭ = rate parameter 共typically 0.1—0.2: Randolph 2004;
Einav and Randolph 2005兲, ␥˙ = strain rate, ␥˙ o = strain rate for
which the viscous effects start to decay; and ␥˙ ref = reference strain
rate corresponding to qref .
Note that ␥˙ will be a function of the ratio v / d of penetration
rate to diameter of the penetrometer. It is also the only variable
in Eq. 共5兲. Although cv will influence the value of v 共perhaps also
␥˙ 兲 at the transition point from undrained to partially drained,
within the undrained region, ␥˙ 共or v / d兲 is the primary governing
parameter for viscous effects.
Fig. 13 plots the data from all model T-bar twitch tests in terms
of normalized resistance against v / d. Data from the field T-bar
twitch tests reported by Schneider et al. 共2004兲 are also plotted in
the figure for comparison. It may be seen that the model T-bar test
data are rather scattered in the undrained region; some model tests
demonstrate very marginal decrease in normalized resistance as
the penetration rate is decreased. Perhaps this is partly due to the
reference v 共or reference V兲 corresponding to qref for the model
tests being rather close to the transition point.

Fig. 14. Fitting results of field T-bar twitch tests
By contrast, the field T-bar twitch tests show clear reduction in
normalized resistance as the penetration rate is reduced. This is
due to the fact that the field T-bar tests have two-orders-of-
magnitude greater “undrained” range than the model T-bar tests,
since the product 共vd兲field corresponding to qref for the field T-bar
tests is 160 times greater than 共vd兲centrifuge for the model T-bar
tests. Therefore, the field tests can define viscous effects much
better than the centrifuge tests.
The contrasting ratios of the product vd for field and centri-
fuge tests accounts for the fact that the value of v / d correspond-
ing to the minimum normalized resistance for the field T-bar tests
is significantly lower than that for the model T-bar tests, by a
factor of between 10 and 30.
Both the field and centrifuge test data in the undrained region
have been fitted with the curves computed using
␭ or projected area of the probe, but virtually independent of its
1+ · sinh−1共v/d␥˙ o兲
q ln共10兲
= 共6兲
qref ␭
1+ · sinh−1共vref /d␥˙ o兲
ln共10兲
as shown in Fig. 13. Following a least-squares approach, it is
found that, taking ␭ = 0.18 and ␥˙ o = 0.061 s−1, the curve fits very
well to the field data. However, the centrifuge data are fitted bet-
ter with ␭ = 0.2 and ␥˙ o = 0.23 s−1, although the quality of fit is
uncertain due to the scatter observed in the limited undrained
region.
Viscous effects may be incorporated in the backbone curves of
Watson and Suemasa, unpublished data, 共2000兲 and Randolph and
Hope 共2004兲 by multiplying the inverse hyperbolic function of
Eq. 共6兲 by the right-hand side of Eq. 共4兲. This has been performed
using the backbone curve from Watson and Suemasa 共unpub-
lished data, 2000兲 and the parameters for viscous effects 共␭ and
␥˙ o兲 calibrated based on the data from the field T-bar twitch tests.
The resulting curve is plotted in term of normalized resistance
against “alternative” nondimensional velocity, V⬘共=vde / cv兲, as
shown in Fig. 14. Note that the physical diameter, d, rather than
de, is used in the viscous part of the “combined” equation, since
v / d determines the average strain rate. Also note that, since the
relationship between V⬘ and v / d is a function of cv for a given set
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / SEPTEMBER 2006 / 1195
of d and de, varying the value of cv will also influence the viscous
portion of the “modified” backbone curve in the plot with a hori-
zontal axis of V⬘.
However, the value of cv may be estimated by fitting the field
data with the modified backbone curve. This results in a cv value
of 1.5 m2 / year 共Fig. 14兲. This value is slightly higher than the
values measured from oedometer tests on undisturbed field
samples reported by Chung 共2005兲, which were 1 to 1.25 m2 / year
at the yield stress. A similar procedure can be performed using the
backbone curve from Randolph and Hope 共2004兲, although a
higher cv will be obtained.
It should also be pointed out that the partially drained portion
of the modified backbone curve of Watson and Suemasa 共unpub-
lished data, 2000兲 has been shifted to the left from its original
position 共Fig 14兲. This is due to the influence of the multiplier for
viscous effects 关Eq. 共6兲兴 extending to the partially drained portion
of the curve. One option to avoid this would be to derive the
constants of the backbone curves after incorporating viscous
effects.
Conclusions
This paper has presented results of model twitch tests performed
in the centrifuge for various-shaped penetrometers. The effects of
penetration rate on the tip resistance both in partially drained and
undrained regions have been discussed.
It has been shown that, by fitting data of the twitch tests to
backbone curves derived by Watson and Suemasa 共unpublished
data, 2000兲 and Randolph and Hope 共2004兲, it is possible to de-
duce a cv value reasonably close to the values estimated from the
data from sample consolidation in the centrifuge, Rowe cell tests,
and oedometer tests at high stress levels. There is some variation
among the experimentally derived backbone curves, and this
leads to a range of a factor of about 2 in the deduced cv values.
Analytical or numerical confirmation of the position of the back-
bone curves would be beneficial in reducing this uncertainty.
The rate of consolidation around a “full-flow” penetrometer
共T-bar, ball, or plate兲 appears to be determined solely by the size
shape. Hence, it may be argued that the rate of penetration should
be normalized to nondimensional velocity using the diameter of a
circle with projected area equivalent to the penetrometer, instead
of the physical diameter of the penetrometer.
There is still limited understanding of the parameters govern-
ing viscous effects. Nevertheless, an expression based on an in-
verse hyperbolic sine function was used to quantify viscous
effects on the penetrometer tip resistance. The expression was
calibrated using data from field T-bar twitch tests, taking the
strain rate as proportional to the ratio, v / d, of penetration rate to
diameter. Further study is required on the effects of strain rate on
penetration resistance, and how the rate for minimum resistance is
affected for materials of differing rate dependency.
Acknowledgments
This work forms part of the activities of the Center for Offshore
Foundation Systems 共COFS兲, established and supported under the
Australian Research Council’s Research Centers Program. The
first and third authors hold International Postgraduate Research
Scholarships and University Postgraduate Awards from the Uni-
versity of Western Australia. Acknowledgment is made of the
excellent technical support for the centrifuge and field penet-
rometer tests, principally Mr. Don Herley and Mr. Alex Duff, and
also of the advice provided by Professor Marcio Almeida of the
Federal Univ. of Rio de Janeiro in the planning and execution of
the centrifuge tests.
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