applied
sciences
Review
A Review of Progress and Hydrodynamic Design of Integrated
Motor Pump-Jet Propulsion
Qiao Li 1,2, *, Shahrir Abdullah 1, * and Mohammad Rasidi Mohammad Rasani 1






Citation: Li, Q.; Abdullah, S.; Rasani,
M.R.M. A Review of Progress and
Hydrodynamic Design of Integrated
Motor Pump-Jet Propulsion. Appl.
Sci. 2022, 12, 3824. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app12083824
Academic Editors: Roberto Camussi
and Maria Grazia De Giorgi
Received: 12 February 2022
Accepted: 29 March 2022
Published: 10 April 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12083824
1 Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia; rasidi@ukm.edu.my
2 Department of Intelligent Manufacturing, Guangdong Technology College, Zhaoqing 526100, China
* Correspondence: lqiao667@gmail.com or p112282@siswa.ukm.edu.my (Q.L.); shahrir@ukm.edu.my (S.A.)
Abstract: The integrated motor pump-jet (IMP) propulsion system is a form of modern underwater
vehicle propulsion that uses a modular design paradigm. The integrated motor propulsor is a
compact construction consisting of a permanent magnet (PM) and a pump-jet propulsor, as well as
the propulsion and electrical systems. Compactness, great reliability, and low noise are the most
significant features of this technology. The primary technology research status and main application
configurations of propulsion devices with an integrated motor were examined based on the working
principles and attributes of the devices. The theoretical and experimental research on the design,
performance analysis, and control of IMPs is discussed, covering electric motors; bearing structures;
hydrodynamic design; and hydrodynamic, electromagnetic, and bearing coupling design technology.
This research investigates the most recent research goals, progress, and applications of IMPs, which
includes their hydrodynamic performance, cavitation, and gap flow. Finally, the future essential
technologies of high power, low vibration, water-lubricated bearings, electromagnetic and bearing
coupling design, and IMP antipollution and antidamage capacity are summarized.
Keywords: rim-driven thruster; propulsion system; hydrodynamic performance; permanent-magnet
motor; water-lubricated bearing; integrated motor pump-jet
1. Introduction
An integrated motor pump-jet (IMP) is a propeller in which the motor stator is embed-
ded in the pump-jet duct and the motor rotor is integrated with the tips of the pump-jet
impeller blades rotating together at the same speed and in the same direction, with an air
gap between the motor stator and rotor. It is a modern kind of underwater vehicle propul-
sion machine, corresponding to the modular design model, and consists of a propulsion
system and an electrical system. The working principle of the IMP is that after energiza-
tion, the motor air gap is opened into an air-gap magnetic field, and the current-carrying
armature winding and the air-gap magnetic field interact to produce raw electromagnetic
torque. The electromagnetic torque drives the motor rotor and, at the same time, drives
the pump spray rotor circumferential rotation of the water work backward spray and the
water flow to the pump spray axial reaction force to drive the propulsion carrier forward,
which is used to ensure the rapidity of the propulsion carrier indicators.
The most important characteristics of this system are the compactness, high reliability,
and low noise. This system could be directly driven by a high-power-density engine,
specifically adapted to low noise, low vibration, and a finite volume as the main design
goals of the underwater vehicle.
The core technical advantage of the pump-jet is the complete integration of the shaftless
propulsion technology motor with the outstanding advantages of the pump-jet’s low noise
and high critical speed, which allows the advantages of the pump-jet’s acoustic performance
to be exploited while eliminating the shaft system’s acoustic excitation. At the same time,
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 27

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 2 of 29

same time, the transplantation of the propulsion motor from inside the boat to the interior
of the thruster allows for a significant improvement in the effective use of space within
the transplantation of the propulsion motor from inside the boat to the interior of the
the cabin. As with conventional pump-jets, the pump-jets can also be divided into two
thruster allows for a significant improvement in the effective use of space within the
types: front-mounted stator shaftless pump-jets and rear-mounted stator shaftless pump-
cabin. As with conventional pump-jets, the pump-jets can also be divided into two types:
jets, depending on the axial position of the pump-jet stator blades in relation to the rotor
front-mounted stator shaftless pump-jets and rear-mounted stator shaftless pump-jets,
blades.
depending on the axial position of the pump-jet stator blades in relation to the rotor blades.
In recent years, pump-jet thrusters (also known as pump-jets) have been widely used
In recent years, pump-jet thrusters (also known as pump-jets) have been widely
in underwater
used in underwater vehicles for their
vehicles for advantages
their advantages such as suchtheir high propulsion
as their high propulsion efficiency, low
efficiency,
radiation
low radiation noise,noise,
strongstrong
anticavitation
anticavitationability,ability,
and high andcritical speed [1],
high critical speedespecially in sub-
[1], especially
marines and torpedo propulsion. For example, the
in submarines and torpedo propulsion. For example, the American “MK48” torpedo, American “MK48” torpedo, the Sea-
wolf-class submarine, the Virginia-class submarine, and
the Seawolf-class submarine, the Virginia-class submarine, and the British Smart-classthe British Smart-class submarine
all make use
submarine allofmake
this technology.
use of this technology.
The
The propellerisisattached
propeller attachedtotothe theshaft
shaftto to
drivedrivethethe
propulsion,
propulsion, while the opposite
while the opposite side
of
sidetheofshaft is putison
the shaft puttheon engine in conventional
the engine in conventional propulsion (Figure(Figure
propulsion 1a). The main
1a). Theengine
main
is located in the hull, so that the entire structure extends through
engine is located in the hull, so that the entire structure extends through the nacelle space. the nacelle space. The
bearings are installed on the stern with the middle circumferential
The bearings are installed on the stern with the middle circumferential and radial fixed and radial fixed shafts.
In addition
shafts. to this, to
In addition it this,
is necessary to decelerate
it is necessary the speed
to decelerate using ausing
the speed gearbox for thefor
a gearbox mainthe
propulsion device of a high-speed ship. When the underwater
main propulsion device of a high-speed ship. When the underwater vehicle is operating, vehicle is operating, con-
siderable
considerable frictional power
frictional loss,loss,
power highhigh
levelslevels
of noise, and high
of noise, and levels of vibration
high levels may occur
of vibration may
in the in
occur shafts, bearings,
the shafts, and gearboxes,
bearings, and gearboxes, etc. etc.
Since the 1990s, researchers
researchers have have been been interested
interested in in podded
podded propulsion
propulsion (Figure
(Figure 1b), 1b),
which is is now
nowaacommon commondesign designininthe themarine
marine industry
industry [1].[1].
TheThe podpodpropeller has ahas
propeller uni-a
formly
uniformly operated
operated wake, low vibration,
wake, low vibration, and low andnoise, and it and
low noise, can also provide
it can thrust atthrust
also provide mul-
tiple angles. angles.
at multiple Therefore, it plays the
Therefore, role ofthe
it plays a rudder
role ofcompared to the traditional
a rudder compared to the propulsion
traditional
method.
propulsion Furthermore, it is beneficial
method. Furthermore, it istobeneficial
the interior to of
thethe engineofroom’s
interior spaceroom’s
the engine layout,spacedue
to its flexible
layout, due toarrangements. A propeller,Aapropeller,
its flexible arrangements. bracket, and a pod make
a bracket, and a uppodthe podup
make propeller,
the pod
propeller,the
whereas whereas
generalthe general is
propeller propeller
a four-blade is a four-blade
fixed-pitchfixed-pitch
propeller.propeller.
Its downside Its downside
is that an
is that an electric-driven
electric-driven motor is mounted motor is in mounted
the pod,incausingthe pod,the causing
diameter the ofdiameter
the podoftothe bepodex-
to be extremely large, reducing the propulsion efficiency even
tremely large, reducing the propulsion efficiency even further [2]. The pump-jet propeller further [2]. The pump-jet
propeller1c)
(Figure (Figure
is usually1c) iscomposed
usually composed
of a pipe, of aa writing
pipe, a writing
elementelement
(guide (guide
vane), vane),
and a and rotora
rotor (impeller).
(impeller). Its working
Its working flow is
flow field field
more is more
complex, complex,
as it isasan
it intricate
is an intricate multiconnected
multiconnected area
area compared
compared to theto the internal
internal flowoffield
flow field of the pump-jet
the pump-jet blade and blade theand
open the open
flow flowpropel-
of the of the
propeller,
ler, due todue the to the existence
existence of theofpipe.
the pipe. The interaction
The interaction betweenbetween various
various components,
components, the
the thruster, and the propulsion carrier affects the overall
thruster, and the propulsion carrier affects the overall performance of the thruster. performance of the thruster.

Figure 1.
1. Different
Differentmarine
marinepropulsion
propulsionsystems:
systems:(a) (a)
conventional propulsion
conventional system;
propulsion (b) podded
system; pro-
(b) podded
pulsor; (c) pump-jet
propulsor; propulsion;
(c) pump-jet andand
propulsion; (d) (d)
shaftless IMPIMP
shaftless [3].[3].

The rapid development of today’s power electronics technology has subsequently

promoted the birth of a new type of underwater propulsion device, the integrated motor
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 3 of 29

propulsor (IMP), also known as the shaftless rim-driven propulsor/thruster (RDP/RDT)

(Figure 1d). Yan et al. (2017) explained that this type of propeller is driven by the rim
instead of by the shaft [3]. In the IMP propeller equipment, the drive motor is integrated
into the structure, while the motor stator is embedded in the shield (pipe). The rotor is
distributed on the rim or in the rim, and the propeller blades are directly connected to the
rim. When the motor is operating, the blades follow the rotor, and they rotate together. The
motor rotor and stator need to be equipped with sealing devices to prevent the entrance of
water and various marine debris, because the propeller works underwater. Figure 2 shows
three integrated motor thrusters with different structures. In Figure 2a,b, the structure is
the same, the only difference being whether there is a hub between the two blades, which
is evident in Figure 2b. As shown in Figure 2c, Cheng and He (2014) explained that, in
addition to the hub, there are more guide vanes (rear spiral) behind the rotor [4]. The
rotor blades generate thrust, while the guide vanes are used to eliminate the rotational
movement of the liquid flow and play a role of diversion. A deceleration-type duct is
used. Most of the ducts in the IMP thruster are of the decelerating type, which can achieve
the effect of deceleration and pressurization to delay the generation of cavitation and
achieve the purpose of noise reduction [5]. According to Wang et al. (2020), the IMP has
several advantages compared to the conventional shaft-driven thruster, pod propulsor, and
pump-jet propulsor [6]:
(1) The IMP thruster has a high degree of integration, and the cabin reduces the compli-
cated propulsion drive shaft system, auxiliary components, propulsion motors, and
other equipment into a compact structure with a light weight.
(2) According to previous research, it has a low vibration and noise, since the motor and
the propeller are integrated; the motor eliminates the noise in the split propulsion
device when driving the propeller, and there is no longer any deceleration between
the prime mover and the propeller transmission gear reduction gearbox, which is the
main source of underwater radiation noise [7]. The back spiral stator eliminates the
rotational movement of the fluid, reduces the flow velocity into the rotor blade, and
increases the static pressure around the blade. The back spiral stator also delays the
onset of cavitation at the tip of the blade and reduces the vortex cavitation noise, thus
improving the invisibility.
(3) It has a high propulsion efficiency, eliminating friction loss at the output shaft and
improving the system propulsion efficiency. The back spiral stator can recover the
rotational energy of the liquid flow by effectively increasing the propulsion energy.
The IMP thruster is energized by the motor stator coil to generate a magnetic field,
and the permanent-magnet motor rotor drives the impeller to rotate. Hence, there is
no need to provide electricity to the magnetic field, which can eliminate the power
loss of the magnetic field.
(4) It has good operability and strong adaptability—due to the lack of intermediate
transmission links, the reliability of the propeller transmission is improved. The
pump flow does not change much at different speeds when it has already maintained
a certain speed.
(5) The entire system works in fluid, which can solve the heat-dissipation problem of
the motor by cooling the motor and the bearing. This can also reduce the energy
consumed by these cooling systems. Seawater can lubricate the bearings without oil
lubrication, which is not only environmentally friendly but also eliminates the energy
consumed by the lubrication system.
As a result, the emphasis of this study is on the advancement of IMP research in terms
of theoretical and practical investigations into driven motor performance, motor control
systems, hydrodynamic performance, and optimization. Within this study, future research
directions are also offered.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 27
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 4 of 29
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 27

Figure 2. Structural diagrams of (a) hubless RDT, (b) hub-type RDT, and (c) hub-type IMP [3,4].
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Structural
Structuraldiagrams
diagrams ofof
(a)(a)
hubless RDT,
hubless (b) hub-type
RDT, RDT,RDT,
(b) hub-type and (c) hub-type
and IMP [3,4].
(c) hub-type IMP [3,4].
2. Electric Motor and Control Technology
2. Electric Motor and Control Technology
2. Electric
The IMP Motor anddeveloped
was first Control Technology
by the U.S. Naval Underwater Warfare Center in col-
The IMP was first developed by the U.S. Naval Underwater Warfare Center in collabo-
laboration with the Applied Research Laboratory of Pennsylvania State University. Orig-
ration The
with IMP
the was firstResearch
Applied developed by the U.S.
Laboratory Naval Underwater
of Pennsylvania Warfare
State University. Center in col-
Originally,
inally, it was used for unmanned submersibles. However, the motor was placed in the
laboration
it was cover with
used for the Applied
unmanned Research
submersibles. Laboratory of Pennsylvania State University. Orig-
outer of the submersible; hence, theHowever,
motor and thethe
motor was placed
propulsion in the
impeller outer
were stillcover
inally,
of
twothe it wasparts
separate used
submersible; for
hence,
[8]. unmanned
Then, the
themotor
IMP was submersibles.
and the propulsion
used for a lightHowever,
impeller
torpedo the motor
were
(Figure still
3). The was
two placed in the
separate
electric
parts
outer [8].
coverThen,
of the
the IMP was used
submersible; for a
hence,light torpedo
the motor (Figure
and 3).
the The electric
propulsion
power which the light torpedo uses is an advanced lithium-ion battery and an integrated power
impellerwhichwere still
the
two
motorlight torpedo
separate
thruster.partsuses is an advanced
[8]. Then,
According theand
to Qian lithium-ion
IMPAnwas used
(1997), battery
thisfor and
a light
battery an integrated
hastorpedo motor
(Figure
a high energy thruster.
3). The electric
density
According
[9].
power whichto Qian and An
the light (1997),uses
torpedo this battery has a highlithium-ion
is an advanced energy density [9]. and an integrated
battery
motor thruster. According to Qian and An (1997), this battery has a high energy density
[9].

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Prototype
Prototypeofofintegrated
integratedmotor
motorpropulsion
propulsiondeveloped by by
developed thethe
U.S.U.S.
Navy [8]. [8].
Navy

Figure
Figure 44shows
showsaaschematic
schematicdiagram
diagram ofof
ananIMP IMPthruster. A hub,
thruster. A hub,a duct, a motor
a duct, stator,
a motor stator,
a rotor impeller
impellerwith withpermanent
permanentmagnets,
magnets, andandguiding
guidingvanes are are
vanes the the
major
majorcomponents.
components.
The stator
The stator isis supported
supportedby bythe
theoutermost
outermost component,
component, which is aisduct
which similar
a duct to that
similar of a of a
to that
Figure
pump-jet
pump-jet3. Prototype
propeller.of
propeller. Theintegrated
The stator
statorofofmotor
the propulsion
themotor
motor is is
fixed developed
in in
fixed thethe
outer by the
pipe,
outer U.S.and
and
pipe, Navy
the [8].
outer
the ringring
outer
of the
of the rotor
rotor impeller
impellerisisattached
attachedwith withpermanent
permanent magnet
magnetpieces to the
pieces main
to the mainshaft and and
shaft can can
rotate around the shaft. The guide vane can be integrated with the shaft
rotate around the shaft. The guide vane can be integrated with the shaft as a staticmotor
Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of an IMP thruster. A as
hub, a
a static
duct, blade
a bladestator,
cascade.
acascade. Its
rotor impellerfunction
Its function is
with to eliminate
permanent
is to the
eliminate the rotational
magnets,
rotational andmovement
guiding of
movement of the
vanes water sprayed
are the
the water from
majorfrom
sprayed components.
the
the back of the impeller so that it can effectively recoverthe
theenergy
energyofofthe
back
The of the
stator impeller
is so that
supported byitthe
can effectively
outermost recover
component, which isthe sprayed water
a sprayed
duct water and
similar to that of a
and balance
balance the torque.
thepropeller.
torque. When When operating themotor,
motor, thestator
stator coil of
of the
themotor is energized
pump-jet The operating
stator of thethe motor the is fixed incoil
the outer motor
pipe,isandenergized to ring
the outer
to generate
generate a a magnetic
magnetic field.
field. The
The impeller
impeller with
with permanent
permanent magnets
magnets rotates
rotates as
as the
the rotor
rotor of
of the
of the rotor impeller is attached with permanent magnet pieces to the main shaft and can
motor. The blades pump water and discharge backward. The rotating energy is recovered
rotate around the shaft. The guide vane can be integrated with the shaft as a static blade
by the stator blades, and the guide vanes are sprayed out through the nozzle to provide the
cascade. Its function is to eliminate the rotational movement of the water sprayed from
device with forward momentum.
the back of the impeller so that it can effectively recover the energy of the sprayed water
and balance the torque. When operating the motor, the stator coil of the motor is energized
to generate a magnetic field. The impeller with permanent magnets rotates as the rotor of
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 27

the
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEWmotor. The blades pump water and discharge backward. The rotating5 energy
of 27 is recov-
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 ered by the stator blades, and the guide vanes are sprayed out through the nozzle to5pro-
of 29
vide the device with forward momentum.
the motor. The blades pump water and discharge backward. The rotating energy is recov-
ered by the stator blades, and the guide vanes are sprayed out through the nozzle to pro-
vide the device with forward momentum.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of integrated motor pump-jet thruster.

thruster.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of integrated motor pump-jet thruster.
As mentioned
As mentioned above,
above, when
when installing
installing the
the IMP
IMP integrated
integrated motor,
motor, which
which is is required
required to to
be Asthin
as mentioned
as above,inwhen
possible the installing
radial the IMPand
direction integrated
as motor,
short as which isinrequired
possible the to direction to
axial
beasas
bereduce
thin
thinthe
as possible
as possible
in the radial
in the radial
direction and as short as in
possible in the axial direction
to reduce duct
the resistance,
duct resistance,thedirection
the
and as short
electromagnetic
electromagnetic airas possible
gap
air should
gap
the
should
axial direction
be large
be enough
large enough to fill
to in
fillthe
in
to reduce the duct resistance, the electromagnetic air gap should be large enough to fill in
air
the gap
air of
gap the
of internal
the stator/rotor
internal anticorrosion
stator/rotor anticorrosionsheath [10].
sheath The
[10]. first
The publicly
first disclosed
publicly dis-
the air gap of the internal stator/rotor anticorrosion sheath [10]. The first publicly dis-
integrated
closed
closed
motor
integrated
integrated motor
propulsion
motor
propulsion
solution
propulsion was a was
solution
solution
patent
was a patent
authorized
aauthorized
patent by Luwig
authorized Kort, Hannover,
by Luwig
by Luwig Kort, Han- Kort, Han-
Germany
nover,
nover, Germany[10],[10],
Germany as [10],
shown as in
as shown Figure
in
shown in 5.
Figure 5.The
Thetypes
Figure types oftypes
5. Theof electric
electric motors
ofmotors
electric that
that areare
motors applicable
applicable
that to IMPs
are applicable
are
toto
IMPsreviewed
are in thein
reviewed following
the section
following to provide
section to a clear
provide a overview
clear overview and
and detailed
detailed summary of
IMPs are reviewed in the following section to provide a clear overview and detailed
the controller
summary of the IMP
of the controller system
of the (see Table 1). 1).
summary of the controller ofIMP
thesystem (see Table
IMP system (see Table 1).

Figure 5. The earliest patent of IMP: (a) rotor; (b) stator; (c) bearings; (d) bearings; (e) bearings and
Figure 5. The earliest patent of IMP: (a) rotor; (b) stator; (c) bearings; (d) bearings; (e) bearings and
attachment;
attachment; (f) propeller;
(f) propeller; and
and (g) (g)[10].
duct duct [10].

Traditional permanent-magnet synchronous motors generally use vector control. The

control5.system
Figure needspatent
The earliest to obtain accurate
of IMP: position
(a) rotor; information
(b) stator; to control
(c) bearings; the speed
(d) bearings; and current
(e) bearings and
of the motor.
attachment; (f) However, because
propeller; and the[10].
(g) duct integrated motor propulsion device stops the rotating
shaft, and traditional mechanical position sensors are difficult to install, position sensor control
technology [11,12] is used quite often. The control scheme mainly has two technical routes:
one is to obtain the rotor position based on the basic equations of the motor, which requires a
high degree of accuracy regarding the motor parameters and does not perform well at low
speeds; the other is to use the salient pole characteristics of the motor to extract the rotor
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 27
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 27

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 Traditional permanent-magnet synchronous motors generally use vector control. 6 of 29
Traditional
The control system permanent-magnet
needs to obtain accurate synchronousposition motors
informationgenerally use vector
to control the speedcontrol.
and
The control
current of the system
motor. needs to obtain
However, accurate
because the position
integrated information
motor propulsion to control the speed
device stopsand the
current
rotatingofshaft,
the motor. However,mechanical
and traditional because theposition integrated motor
sensors arepropulsion
difficult todeviceinstall,stops the
position
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER rotating
sensor
REVIEW
position signal shaft,
control
after and traditional
technology
injecting mechanical
[11,12] is used quite
high-frequency position often.
signalssensors
The areThis
control
[13]. difficult
scheme to install,
method mainlycanposition
has
6 of
also two
27
achieve better
sensor
technicalcontrol
routes: technology
one is to[11,12]
obtain isthe used quite
rotor often. based
position The controlon thescheme mainly has
basic equations oftwo
the
estimation results
technical routes: in the
one isa tolow-speed
obtain and
theofrotor zero-speed
position range.
basedthe on motor However,
the basic equations it is not
the suitable for
motor, which requires high degree accuracy regarding parameters andofdoes
surface-mount
motor, which
not perform motors
requires witha a
high
wellpermanent-magnet low
degree salient
at low speeds; the other of pole
accuracy rate,
regarding
is to usemotors and the
the
the salient algorithm
motor parameters
pole characteristics is more
and complicated.
does
of the It
Traditional synchronous generally use vector control.
shouldnot be
motor
The
pointed
perform
to extract
control
out
well
system
atthat
low
theneeds the
rotorto unsteady
speeds;
position the otherpulse
signal after
obtain accurate
is to power
use the
injecting
position
and
salient jitter
pole
high-frequency
information
generated
characteristics
to control signals by the
of rotation
the
[13]. This
the speed and
of the
motor
integrated tocan
motorextract the
propeller rotorbetter
position
blades signal
in thetheafter
water injecting
flow high-frequency
can be directly signals [13].range.
transmitted This
method
current of thealso achieve
motor. However, estimation
because results
integratedin themotor
low-speed and zero-speed
propulsion device stops theto the motor
method
However, canit also
is and
not achieve
suitable better
for estimation results
surface-mount motorsin thewithlow-speed
aare
low and zero-speed
salient pole range.
rate,position
and theof the motor
rotor through
rotating the
shaft, integrated
traditional rotating
mechanical structure,
position which
sensors causes
difficult theto fluctuation
install,
However,
algorithm itisismore
not suitable
complicated.for surface-mount
It should be motors
pointed with
out a lowthe
that salient
unsteady pole rate,
pulse and
powerthe
sensor
torque.algorithm control
In addition, technology
thecomplicated.[11,12]
integrated is used quite often. The control scheme mainly has two
is more
and jitter routes:
generated Itmotor’s
shouldthe be
low speed,
pointed outfrequent
that starting,
the unsteady highwater
pulse
in thepower
acceleration and
technical oneby is the rotation
to obtain theofrotor integrated
position based motor propeller
on the basic blades
equations of the
deceleration
and
flow jitter
can dynamic
generated
be directly performance,
by the rotation
transmitted to and
of
the the high
integrated
motor system
rotor motor
through operation
propeller
the integratednoise
blades requirements
in the water
rotating struc- make its
motor, which requires a high degree of accuracy regarding the motor parameters and does
position flow
ture, can
sensorless
which be causes
directly
control transmitted
the more
fluctuation toofthe
difficult,
the motor
and
motor rotor
it is
torque.through
alsoIn one theofintegrated
addition, the
the key rotating
technologies
integrated struc- that restrict
motor’s
not perform well at low speeds; the other is to use the salient pole characteristics of the
ture, which causes
low speed, frequent thestarting,
fluctuation highofsignal
the motor torque.
acceleration and In addition,dynamic
deceleration the integrated motor’s
the development
motor to extract of thehigh-performance
rotor position shaftless
after injectingpropellers.
high-frequencyHence, forperformance,
signals the high-performance
[13]. This
low
and speed,
high frequent
system starting,
operation highrequirements
noise acceleration make and deceleration
its position dynamic performance,
sensorless control more
method
controland can also achieve
requirements of better estimation
integrated motors, results
new in the low-speed
integrated and zero-speed range.
position-sensing technologies can
high and
difficult, system isoperation noise requirements make itsrestrict
position sensorless control more
However, it isitnot also one for
suitable of the key technologies
surface-mount motors that
with a lowthe development
salient pole rate, of and high-
the
also bedifficult,
explored
performance in the
and shaftless overall
it is also one plan.
of the key
propellers. technologies that restrict the development of high-
algorithm is more complicated. It Hence,
should for the high-performance
be pointed out that the unsteady control requirements
pulse power
performance
of integrated shaftless
motors,bynew propellers. Hence, for the high-performance controlalsorequirements
and jitter generated the integrated
rotation of position-sensing
the integrated motor technologies
propellercan blades bethe
in explored
water
Table 1. of integrated
inTypes
thecan
overall motors,
of directly
electric new integrated
motors
plan. transmitted applicable position-sensing
to IMPs. technologies can also be explored
flow be to the motor rotor through the integrated rotating struc-
in the overall plan.
ture, which causes the fluctuation of the motor torque. In addition, the integrated motor’s
Table 1. Types of electric motors applicable to IMPs.
Electric Motor low speed, frequent of
Geometry starting, high acceleration and deceleration dynamic performance,
the applicable
Year Table 1. Types
Reference of electric motors to IMPs. Performance Problem
Type Electric Motor and highElectric
system operationMotor noise requirements make its position sensorless control more
Year Reference Geometry of the Electric Motor Performance Problem
Electric
Type Motor difficult, and it is also one of the key technologies that restrict the development of high-
Year Reference Geometry of the Electric Motor Performance Problem
Type 1989 [14] performance shaftless propellers. Hence, for the high-performance control requirements
1989 [14]
of integrated motors, new integrated position-sensing
A 16-pole
A 16-pole 3-phase
3-phase
technologies
motor
motor
canprototype
Theexplored
also betest
prototype test
with 48 stator slots The
and detected de- the problem
in the overall plan. A 16-pole
with 48 3-phase
stator slots motor
and 72
The prototype
tected test de-
the problem of bear-
1989 [14] 72 48
with
rotor rotor slots,
stator
slots, 394slots
mmand in394
72 mm in
di-
tected
of bearing
the problem
friction loss
ing friction loss andofthe
bear-
1989 [15] rotor slots,
ameter, and394 mm
with a 1inmm
di-
diameter,
Table 1. Types of electric motors applicable to IMPs. and with a 1friction loss
ing
eddy-current and and
loss thetheeddy-current
ofthe
1989 [15] ameter, and used
air gap was with ain1the
mmsys-
Electric Motor
mm
air
tem.
air used
gap was gapinwas used
the sys- in stator
eddy-current
excessive loss
loss of the excessive
of the
sheath.
Year Reference Geometry of the Electric Motor Performance excessive
Problem stator sheath.
Type the system.
tem. stator sheath.
1989 1989 [15]
[14]
Iduction motor
Iduction motor
(IM) A 16-pole 3-phase motor
Iduction
(IM) motor The prototype test de-
(IM)
with 48 stator slots and 72
Due tothe
tected
Due to a substantial
a substantial
problem of bear-
rotor slots, 394 mm in di- amount
The motor provided the Due
amount
ing to a of
substantial
friction power
loss andlost toof power lost
the
1989 [15] Thefull-load
ameter, motor
and withprovided
a 1 mm the of power
The
samemotor provided
torquethe
as a amount
friction and
eddy-current to
eddyfriction
loss lost to and eddy
currents
of the
2010, 2010, 2011, [16–18] air gap
same
same
regular
was used in
full-load
full-load torque
industrial
the
IM, as
sys-
torque
a friction
while in theasstator,
excessive and eddy currents
thesheath.
stator power
2010,
2013 2011, tem. currents in the stator,
2011, 2013 [16–18]
[16–18] a regular
regular
only weighing industrial
industrial IM, while
around 60% in IM,
the stator,
factor, powerthe powerand
density,
only weighing the all lowand factor,
power
2013 aswhile
much. onlyaround 60% factor,
weighing power
efficiency weredensity,
as much. efficiency
(less than werepower
50%). all lowdensity, and
Iduction motor around 60% as much. (less than 50%).
(IM)
efficiency were all low
(less than 50%).
Due to a substantial
The motor provided the amount
The radial of power
thickness lostoftothe
same full-load torque as a The motorradial
friction andthickness
was eddy
too of the
currents
large.
2010, 2011,
[16–18]
The motor used a 3-phase
regular industrial IM, while motor
in was
the stator,
Hence,
The
thistoo the
led
radial
large.
topower
the large
thickness of
2013 The motor
6-pole used a 3-phase
electromagnetic
only weighing around 60% Hence, factor,
size of power
the the
thisduct
led tomotor
thethe
density,
and and was too
large
6-pole
schemeelectromagnetic
to complete a 5 kW
Switched reluc-
as much.
scheme
prototypeto complete a 5 kW
design. There
size
low of the were
efficiency large.
duct
hydrodynamic andlow
all Hence, this led
the
effi-
low
(less hydrodynamic
ciencythan 50%).
of the effi-The
propeller.
Switched reluc-
tance motor 1995 [19] prototype design. There
was anticorrosive paint on to the large size of the
ciency
motor structure was to The
of the propeller. ac-
tance
(SRM)motor 1995 [19] was anticorrosive paintwind-
on duct and ac-the low
the surface, the stator
motor structure
commodate the was
statortoand
(SRM) the
ing surface,
was made theofstator wind-
insulated
rotor sheathhydrodynamic
commodate the stator
in the air and
gap
The
ing
cables, motor
wasandmade used
theofair
insulateda rotor
gap was The radial
sheath
to prevent
thickness
in the airofThe
corrosion.
the
gap
cables,
0.6 mm. and the air gap was motor was too efficiency
large.
of the
3-phase
Themm. 6-pole
motor used a 3-phase to prevent
protective corrosion.
layer caused The the
0.6 Hence, thislayerpropeller.
led to the large The motor
electromagnetic
6-pole electromagnetic scheme protective
large air-gap sizecaused
to the
reduce
scheme to completeaa55 kW kW
size ofair-gap
large the ductstructure
and
size to the
reduce was to
to complete low hydrodynamic effi-
Switched Switched reluc- prototype design. There accommodate the
prototype design. There ciency of the propeller. The
reluctance tance motor1995 1995 [19]
[19] was anticorrosive paint on
motor structure stator was and
to ac- rotor sheath
(SRM) was
the anticorrosive
surface, the stator wind- paint
motor (SRM) commodate in thethestatorair
andgap to
on the surface, the stator
ing was made of insulated
rotor sheathprevent
in the air gap
cables, and thewasair gap was of corrosion. The
winding made to prevent corrosion. The
0.6 mm. protective layer caused
insulated cables, and the layer caused the
protective
large air-gapthe sizelarge
to reduce air-gap size
air gap was 0.6 mm.
to reduce the
electromagnetic
performance, which
turned out to be a
disadvantage in the
motor.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 7 of 29

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 27

Table
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER 1. Cont.
REVIEW 7 of 27

Electric Motor Geometry of the the electromagnetic perfor-

Year Reference Performance Problem
the electromagnetic
Type Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW Electric Motor mance, which turned out7perfor-
of 27
mance,
to be which turned
a disadvantage in theout
In this design, themotor.
stator
to be a disadvantage in the
and rotor structuremotor. were
all design,
installed inside the the electromagnetic perfor-
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW In this the stator 7 out
of 27
mance, which turned
Induct,
and this which
rotordesign,
structure eliminated
thewere
statorall
to be a disadvantage in the
installed inside the duct, The manufacturing
Permanent- therotor
and existence
structure of liquid
were
which eliminated the exist- Themotor.
all
2001, installed inside the duct,
manufacturingcostcostwas high, and the
magnet Permanent-mag- enceflow airflow
of liquid gaps andwas
air gaps did high, and the produc-
2004, 2001, 2004, [20,21] which eliminated the exist- The production
the electromagnetic
manufacturing perfor- of slotted
cost
direct-current net direct-current
Permanent-mag- [20–23]
2003, 2003 [22,23]
andnot
ence ofaffect
did not affectthe
liquid flow
the flowflow
air gaps area.
tion of slotted brushless
mance,
was high,which
and turned out
the produc-
2003,
motor (PM DCM) In this
area. Thisdesign,
reducedthe thestator
in- PM machines was brushless
com- PM
motor (PM net direct-current 2001, 2004, [20,21]
This
and
and
fluence
did
rotor reduced
not affect the
of thestructure
stator and
the to beofa slotted
flowall tion
were
ro- plex.
disadvantage in the
brushless
2003
motor (PM DCM)
2003, 2003 [22,23]
area. This reduced the in- motor.
PM machines
machines
was com-
was
DCM) influence
torinstalled
structureinside
on theof
the the
duct,stator
propul-
fluence
which of the
eliminatedstator and ro-
the exist- Theplex. complex.
sion
tor
performance
and of the
rotoronstructure
structure the air
propul-
on manufacturing cost
Permanent-mag- ence
propellerof blades.
liquid flow gaps was high, and the produc-
net direct-current
2001, 2004, [20,21] Inthe
sion
and this propulsion
design,
performance
did theof
not affect stator
the the
flow tion of slotted brushless
2003, 2003 [22,23] performance
and rotor
propeller structure of in-
were theall PM machines was com-
motor (PM DCM) area. Thisblades.
reduced the
installed ofinside the duct,
propeller
fluence blades.
the stator and ro- plex.
which eliminated
tor structure the
on the exist- The manufacturing cost
propul-
Permanent-mag- ence of liquid flow air gaps was high, and the produc-
sion performance of the
net direct-current
2001, 2004, [20,21] Low Low
and
eddy-current
eddy-current
did not
losses losses
affect the flow tion of slotted brushless
2003, 2003 [22,23] propeller
and cost wereblades.
achieved
motor (PM DCM)
Permanent mag-
and
area.
with
cost
This were
reduced the achieved
To remove
in- eddy-current
PM machines was com-
Lowa PM motor thatlosses
eddy-current used
losses in the motor, the
Permanent net direct-current 2003 [24] with
fluence
composite a
of PM
the motor
stator
materials forand
the that
ro- plex.
and cost were achieved cost and weight must be
To remove
motor (PM DCM) tor structure
propeller, on the
housings, propul- To remove eddy-current
struc-
magnet Permanent mag- used
with a PMcomposite
motor that used lowered. eddy-current losses in
sionblading,
tural performance of the
motor can- losses in the motor, the
direct-current 2003 2003
net direct-current [24]
[24] materials
composite
propeller
ning,
for the
materials
blades.
and fairings.
for the the motor, the cost and
cost and weight must be
motor (PM motor (PM DCM) propeller,
propeller,
Low housings,losses
eddy-current struc-
housings, lowered. weight must be
tural blading,
and cost weremotorachieved can-
DCM) structural
ning, blading, lowered.
To remove eddy-current
Permanent mag- with aand PMfairings.
motor that used
motor canning, losses in the motor, the
net direct-current 2003 [24] The PMs were
composite rectangular
materials forandthe
cost and weight must be
motor (PM DCM) and fairings.
were installed
propeller, housings,on the struc- Thelowered.
RDT was put to the
Low
rotor eddy-current
yoke’s surface, losses
which
tural blading, motor can-test as an onshore genera-
and
The
was cost
PMs
made were
ofwere achieved
solidrectangular
soft iron.
Theand
ning, PMs were tor, To
fairings. andremove
its average eddy-current
effi-
Permanent mag- with
and
The a PM
were
stator motor that
installed
lamination on used
hadthe a
rectangular and were losses
ciency
The was
RDT infarthe
was motor,
lowerputthantothe
the
net direct-current 2003 [24] thickness
composite
rotor of 0.5
yoke’s mm. The
materials
surface, for
whichthe
2004 [25] the test
0.97 as
cost predicted.
andanweight
onshoreLosses
must be
genera-
motor (PM DCM) installed
magnets
propeller,
was used
made housings, on the
were
of solid neo-
soft rotor
struc-
iron.
in parallel
dym magnets (NdFeB) with tor, andcircuits
lowered. The and RDT
its average the
effi- was put to
tural
The blading,
stator
yoke’s
The PMs motor
lamination
surface,
were can-
rectangularhad
which a
proximity
1.2 T remains. Harmonics ciency of wasthefarcoil ends than
thelower test as an onshore
ning, and of
thickness
and were fairings.
0.5 mm.onThe
installed theto the iron case created the
2004 [25] and was
windingmade overhangof solid soft
the
The 0.97
RDT predicted.
was put to Losses
the
magnets
rotor yoke’s usedsurface,
were neo- which difference.
in parallel generator,
circuits and the and its
wereiron.
dym
decreased
magnetsThe stator
with
(NdFeB)
a two-
with test as an onshore genera-
tor, and its average effi-efficiency was
average
wasfractional
layer made of winding.
solid soft iron. proximity of the coil ends
lamination
1.2
The Tstator
remains. hadhad
Harmonics
lamination a a to
The
and PMs
winding were rectangular
overhang
the iron
ciency wascase farlower
far lower
created the
than than the 0.97
2004 [25]
thickness
thickness of 0.5 ofmm. 0.5The mm.difference.
the
The0.97 predicted. Losses
2004 [25] and
were were
magnets installed
decreased
used with
were on athe
neo-two- predicted. Losses in
magnets
Because
rotor
layer
used
a largesurface,
yoke’s
fractional magnetic
winding.
were
which Thein
The RDT was
parallel
slotless motor,
put to
circuits
which andthethe
dym magnets (NdFeB) withtest as an onshore parallel circuits and
genera-
gap neodym
was
1.2
was
Tmade
required
remains. magnets
and
of solid slot
soft iron.
Harmonics
had proximity
a longer of
active the coil
length, ends
leakages werelamination
absent, thehad tor, and thecreated
its case
average proximity
andeffi-the of the
The stator
(NdFeB)
and winding with
overhang 1.2longer
Ta ciencyend
to the windings,
iron
was far lower thanto the iron
slotless motor
thickness of design
0.5 mm. The thicker magnets,
difference. coil
was ends
2004
2006 [25]
[10] remains.
were
Because
avoided the largeHarmonics
decreased with a two-
a tooth-ripple
magnetic theand
The 0.97 predicted.
slotless motor, Losses
which
magnets
layerwas used were
fractional neo- found to be less case
winding.
efficient in
created the
winding inofparallel circuits and the
magnets overhang
(NdFeB) withwere
gap
component required and slot
of the cogging, a sethad a longer
comparative active
stud-length,
dym
decreased
leakagesharmonic
were absent, effects, proximity
theies with
longer endof
a slotted difference.
the coil
motor
windings, ofends
and
and
decreased
1.2 T remains. Harmonics
had low winding
with a to
in- the thickersametheactive
iron radial
case di-
created the
slotless motor design magnets, was
and winding overhang
two-layer fractional
2006 [10] ductance.
avoided the tooth-ripple mensions.
difference.
found to be less efficient in
Because a large magnetic
were decreased with a two- The slotless motor, which
winding.
component
gap
layerwas of the cogging,
required
fractional and slot ahad
winding.
set aoflonger
comparative stud-
active length,
decreased
leakages were harmonic
absent, effects,
the ies withend
longer a slotted
windings,motor andof
2010 [26] Because
and hadmotor
slotless
adesign
low winding largein- the samemagnets,
thicker
Theradial
active slotless motor,
was di-
2006 [10] magnetic
ductance.
avoided gap was mensions.
the tooth-ripple found to bewhich less efficienthadin a longer
Because a large magnetic
required
component ofand
the slot The
cogging, a setslotless motor, which
active
of comparative length,
stud- longer
gap was required
decreased harmonic andeffects,
slot had a longer
ies with active length,
a slotted
2010 [26]
leakages
leakages were were
absent, absent,
the longer end end motor
windings, windings,
and
of
and
and had low winding in- the same active radial di-
the
slotless
ductance.slotless
motor motor
design design
thicker
mensions. thicker
magnets, was magnets, was
2006 2006 [10]
[10] avoided
avoided the tooth-ripple
the tooth-ripple found to be found less efficientto bein less
component of the cogging, a set of comparative stud-
component of the
decreased harmonic effects, ies with a slotted motor of
efficient in a set of
2010 [26]
cogging,
and had low winding decreased in- the same active comparative
radial di- studies
harmonic effects, and
ductance. mensions. with a slotted motor of
had low winding the same active radial
2010 [26]
inductance. dimensions.
2010 [26]
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 8 of 29

Table 1. Cont.

Electric Motor Geometry of the

Year Reference Performance Problem
Type Electric Motor
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 27
The IMP motor was
shown to have
two-segment
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW Halbach-array
The IMP motor was shown 8 of 27
topermanent
have two-segment Hal-
magnets with
bach-array permanent mag-
unequal segment arcs.
nets with unequal segment Because of the friction
TheTheuneven-segment-arc
arcs. uneven-segment- Because of the friction loss,
The IMP motor was shown loss, the rotational
Halbach
arc array
Halbach array waswasopti- the rotational speed and
2019 2019 [27]
[27] to have two-segment Hal-
mized to maximize the output thrustspeed and output
were lower
optimized
bach-array to maximize
permanent mag-
electromagnetic torque, ac- than expected. thrust were lower
thewith
nets electromagnetic
unequal segment
cording to the optimization
arcs. The uneven-segment-
than expected.
Because of the friction loss,
torque,
and according
fabrication results, as to the
arc Halbach array was opti- the rotational speed and
2019 [27] optimization
well and output thrust were lower
as the experimental
mized to maximize the
motor performance results.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW fabricationtorque,
electromagnetic results, as expected.
ac- than 8 of 27
well as
cording the
to the optimization
A narrow
and rotor results,
fabrication and a large
as
experimental
air gap characterize
motor
the
well as the experimental The PM brushless motor’s
performance
Halbach-array results.
motor.
motor performance results.
Permanent mag- The IMP was shown most significant dimen-
When themotor
PM thickness
net alternating-
2013 [28] toAhavenarrow
two-segment rotor
reached a particular value, andsional
Hal- a limitation Thewas PMthe brushless
current motor (PM Alarge
narrowair rotor a large high current density
and characterize in-
bach-array
the air-gap gap
permanent
flux densitymag- motor’s most
ACM) air gap
nets characterize the duced by the stator’s ther-
Permanent thewith
rose, and
Halbach-array
unequal
Halbach-array segment
thus the Halbach
motor.
motor. significant
The PM brushless
mal condition.
motor’s
Permanent mag- arcs.
arrayThe uneven-segment-
would have a clear Because of the friction
most significant dimen-loss,
magnet When
When
arc the PM
Halbach the PM wasthickness
thickness
array opti- the rotational dimensional
speed
net alternating- 2019 [27] advantage. sional limitation wasand
the
2013
alternating-current motor (PM
2013 [28]
[28] reached
reached
mized toamaximizea particular
particular value, output thrustlimitation
the were lower
high current density in-
was the
the air-gap flux density
Avalue,
two-segment
electromagnetic Halbach
torque, ar-
ac- than expected.
current motor
ACM) the air-gap flux duced by the high
stator’scurrent
ther- density
rose,
ray was
cording andto thus
usedtheto the Halbach
produce
optimization
(PM ACM) density
array wouldrose,
goodfabrication
and cooling have
and a and
clear
strength
results, as
thus the induced by the
mal condition.
Halbach
advantage.
performance
well array
in a seawater-
as the experimental would stator’s thermal
haveperformance
cooled
motor a clear advantage.
high-power-density results. condition.
A two-segment Halbach ar-
magnetically slotless PM
ray was used
A two-segment to produce Halbach
brushless AC motor. The The power loss was high,
A narrow
good coolingrotorand and a large
strength
2016 [29] array
closed-slot
air wasstatorused
gap characterize
performance
tooth to and the RDT was not so
the
in a seawater-
body of the magnetically The PM brushless motor’s
compact.
Permanent mag-
produce
Halbach-array
cooled good
motor.cooling
high-power-density
slotless structure was made most significant dimen-
When the PM thickness
ofand strength
net alternating- magnetically slotless PM
stainless steel, which hadsional limitation was the
2013 [28] reached
brushlessa AC particular
motor.value, The high
current motor (PM performance
good
the
thermal conductivity,
air-gap stator
flux density
in a The powercurrentloss was high,
density in-
ACM) 2016 [29] closed-slot tooth and the RDT was not so
anticorrosion,
seawater-cooled compressive duced by the stator’s ther-
rose,
body andof thethus the Halbach compact.
magnetically
strength, and magnetic mal condition.
high-power-density
array
slotlesswould havewas
structure
nonconductivity.
a clearmade
advantage.
ofmagnetically
stainless steel, which slotless
had PM
good thermal conductivity,
Abrushless
two-segment AC Halbach motor.
ar- The The power loss was
anticorrosion,
This type of motor compressive
could
2016 [29] closed-slot
ray was used to produce
strength,
obtain higherand magnetic stator tooth
electromag-
high, and the RDT
good cooling and strength
body of theand
nonconductivity.
netic efficiency, magnetically
the was not so compact.
High-temperature performance in a seawater-
superconducting 2013 [30] slotless
thinner
cooled structure
structure could re-was
high-power-density The cost was very high.
duce resistance to a certain
motor (HTSM) made
magnetically
This type of ofmotor
stainless
slotless PM steel,
could
extent. This was a big im-
brushless
which
obtain AC
higherhad motor.
good
electromag- Thethermal
The power loss was high,
provement compared to the
2016 [29] closed-slot
netic statorand
efficiency, tooththe and the RDT was not so
High-temperature conductivity,
previous
body
motor type.
of structure
the magnetically
thinner could re- compact.
superconducting 2013 [30] anticorrosion,
slotless structuretowas
duce resistance made The cost was very high.
a certain
motor (HTSM) ofcompressive
stainless
extent. Thissteel,
was awhichbigstrength,
had
im-
good
andthermal
provement magnetic conductivity,
compared to the
3. IMP Bearing and Hydrodynamic Design anticorrosion, compressive
previous motor type.
3.1. Bearings Used in IMPs nonconductivity.
strength, and magnetic
nonconductivity.
The open structure of the integrated motor This type ofrequires
propeller motor its could
bearings to be able
to operate in a seawater environment. If a nonaqueous
3. IMP Bearing and Hydrodynamic Design
obtain higher
lubricant is used for the bearing, a
sealing device is required, which increases theThis type of motor
difficulty, could
complexity,
electromagnetic and cost of the entire
High- 3.1. Bearings
system and isUsed in IMPs
likely to cause water pollution. obtain
Thehigher
use electromag-
ofand
water-lubricated bearings can
efficiency, the thinner
temperatureHigh-temperature reduceThethe
open structure
weight of the integrated
and complexity
netic efficiency, and the
motor
of the integratedpropeller
motor requires
thruster its bearings
system and to be able
better re-
structure
thinner could
structure could reduce
re- The cost was very
superconduct- 2013 2013
superconducting [30]
[30] to operate
flect in a seawater
the advantages environment.
of the If a nonaqueous
integrated motor thruster. lubricant
The suitable is used for
The cost
bearing the
was bearing,
very
arrangement a
high. is
resistance
duce toaacertain
resistance to certain high.
ing motor motor (HTSM) sealing device
determined is required,
according which
to the increasescharacteristics
application theextent.
difficulty, complexity,
and
This This
was use
a big and cost of of
im-arequirements thethe
entire
de-
extent. was big
(HTSM) system
vice. Theand is likelycan
bearings to be
cause water either
arranged pollution. Thehub
onprovement
the useorofrim
water-lubricated
compared or in a mixed bearings
to the arrangementcan
improvement
previous motor
compared
reduce the weight and complexity of the integrated motortype.thruster system and better re-
to the previous
flect the advantages of the integrated motor thruster. The suitable bearing arrangement is
determined according to the application characteristics motor type. and use requirements of the de-
3. IMP Bearing and Hydrodynamic Design the hub or rim or in a mixed arrangement
vice. The bearings can be arranged either on
3.1. Bearings Used in IMPs
The open structure of the integrated motor propeller requires its bearings to be able
to operate in a seawater environment. If a nonaqueous lubricant is used for the bearing, a
sealing device is required, which increases the difficulty, complexity, and cost of the entire
system and is likely to cause water pollution. The use of water-lubricated bearings can
reduce the weight and complexity of the integrated motor thruster system and better re-
flect the advantages of the integrated motor thruster. The suitable bearing arrangement is
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 9 of 29

3. IMP Bearing and Hydrodynamic Design

3.1. Bearings Used in IMPs
The open structure of the integrated motor propeller requires its bearings to be able
to operate in a seawater environment. If a nonaqueous lubricant is used for the bearing,
a sealing device is required, which increases the difficulty, complexity, and cost of the
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 27
entire system and is likely to cause water pollution. The use of water-lubricated bearings
can reduce the weight and complexity of the integrated motor thruster system and better
reflect the advantages of the integrated motor thruster. The suitable bearing arrangement is
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
(Figure 6). To obtain a good hydrodynamic performance from 9 of 27
the requirements
IMP propeller,
determined according to the application characteristics and use of the
the device.
thickness of the duct and the diameter of the hub must be as small as possible,
The bearings can be arranged either on the hub or rim or in a mixed arrangement which leads
(Figure 6).
to the
To complexity
obtain a good of the bearing design.performance from the IMP propeller, the thickness of
hydrodynamic
(Figure 6). To obtain a good hydrodynamic performance from the IMP propeller, the
the duct and the diameter of the hub must be as small as possible, which leads to the
thickness of the duct and the diameter of the hub must be as small as possible, which leads
complexity
to of the
the complexity bearing
of the bearingdesign.
design.

Figure 6. The location of the bearings in an IMP [10].

Figure
Figure6.6.The location
The of the
location ofbearings in an IMP
the bearings [10].
in an IMP [10].
The research work on water-lubricated bearings started earlier in countries with de-
The research workwork
on water-lubricated bearings started earlier in countries withinde-
velopedThe research
shipbuilding on water-lubricated
industries, such as the United bearings started
States, Canada, earlier
Japan, countries
Australia, and with
veloped shipbuilding industries, such as the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, and
developed
thethe
United shipbuilding industries, suchthere
as the United States, Canada,shipsJapan, Australia,
UnitedKingdom.
Kingdom. As As early asthe
early as the1940s,
1940s,
there areare records
records of American
of American ships using using
and the United
water-lubricated Kingdom.
bearings. AfterAs early
years as
of the 1940s,
development, there are
some records
companies
water-lubricated bearings. After years of development, some companies have formed
of American
have formed
a
ships
a using
water-lubricated
series of water-lubricatedbearings.
bearing After years
products of development,
suitable for various some
workingcompanies
series of water-lubricated bearing products suitable for various working conditions, suchconditions,have formed
such a
series
as the
as the of water-lubricated
Thordon
Thordon bearing
bearing series bearing
[31],
series [31], the products
thePerform
Perform suitable
bearing
bearing for [32]
series
series [32] various working
of theofBritish
the British
TENMAT conditions, such
TENMAT
as the Thordon
company,
company, the bearing series
thewater-lubricated
water-lubricated [31],material
bearing
bearing the Perform
of of
material bearing
thethe
British series
Countrose
British [32] ofcompany
company
Countrose the [33],
British TENMAT
[33],
thethe American
company,
American Duramax
the Marine Johnson
water-lubricated
Duramax Marine Cutless
bearing
Johnson water-lubricated
material
Cutless bearing
of the British
water-lubricated seriesseries
Countrose
bearing [34],company
and
[34], and[33], the
thethe water-lubricated
American Duramax
water-lubricated bearing
Marine
bearing series ofofBFGoodrich
Johnson
series Cutlessand
BFGoodrich Johnson Rubber
water-lubricated
and Johnson (Figure
bearing
Rubber 7). The7).[34],
series
(Figure Theand the
types of bearing suitable for IMPs are covered in this section to provide a clear picture and
water-lubricated
types bearing
of bearing suitable seriesare
for IMPs ofcovered
BFGoodrich
in thisand Johnson
section Rubber
to provide (Figure
a clear 7). The
picture andtypes of
complete explanation of the IMP system’s controller (see Table 2).
complete
bearingexplanation
suitable forofIMPs
the IMP
are system’s
covered in controller (seeto
this section Table 2). a clear picture and complete
provide
explanation of the IMP system’s controller (see Table 2).

Figure 7. (a) Thordon bearing of Thomson–Gordon, (b) water-lubricated bearing mate-

rial of Countrose, (c) Feroform bearing of TENMAT, (d) Johnson Cutless bearing of Du-
Figure 7. (a) Thordon bearing of Thomson–Gordon, (b) water-lubricated bearing material of Coun-
ramax
Figure 7.Marine [35]. bearing of Thomson–Gordon, (b) water-lubricated bearing mate-
(a) Thordon
trose, (c) Feroform bearing of TENMAT, (d) Johnson Cutless bearing of Duramax Marine [35].
rial of Countrose, (c) Feroform bearing of TENMAT, (d) Johnson Cutless bearing of Du-
ramax Marine [35].
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 10 of 29

Table 2. Types of bearings applicable to IMP.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW Geometry of the 10 of 27

Bearing Type Year Reference Performance Problem
Bearing
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 27

Table 2. Types of bearings applicable to IMP. The test results of these prototypes
Bearing Type Year Reference Geometry of the Bearing Performance Problem were not ideal, mainly due to the
Table 2. Types of bearings applicable to IMP. The test results lowof thesereliability
prototypes of the ball bearings in
Hubless RDT with
Bearing Type Year Reference Geometry of the Bearing
Hubless RDT with
Performance Problem the mud
were not ideal, mainly due to andthe lowsand environment and
grooved
grooved bearing
bearing races on reliability of the ball bearings in the
1995 1995 [36][36] both edges of the rotor mud and Thesand the excessive
test environment
results of these bearing wear;
and prototypes
the ex-
races on both edges
ring.
Hubless RDT with cessivewere not furthermore,
bearing wear;
ideal,furthermore,
mainly duedue due
to to bearing friction,
the low
of thebearing
grooved rotor races
ring.
to on
bearing friction,
reliability ofthe the rotor
ball could
bearingsnot in the
1995 [36] reach the
the
predetermined
rotorspeed
could
under
not reach the
Rolling bearing both edges of the rotor mud and sand environment and the ex-
Rolling bearingAppl. Sci. 2022,
structure
12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
ring. predetermined
rated voltage conditions.
cessive bearing
In addition, 10
wear; furthermore, speed
of 27 under rated
due
ball bearings also have inherent short- 10 of 27
structure Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW to bearing voltage
friction, the conditions.
rotor could notIn addition, ball
The hubless RDT was comings in terms of vibration, noise,
reach thebearings
predetermined
capacity. also speedhave under inherent
Rolling bearing 2007 [37] embed with rolling bear- and load-carrying
Table 2. Types of bearings applicable ings
to IMP. rated voltage
In high-power propellers,conditions. In addition,
large axial
structure in the duct.
ball
shortcomings
bearings also have inherent
in short-
terms of vibration,
The hubless RDT thrust is required, and rolling bearings
Bearing Type Year ReferenceTable 2. Types
Geometry of of
thebearings
Bearing applicable to The
IMP.
Performance
hubless Problem
comings
wasexperience
RDT with
noise,
in terms
excessive strainand
of load-carrying
vibration,
under high noise, capacity.
was embed
Bearing Type2007 Year [37]
2007 [37]
Reference Geometry of the Bearing embed loads.The
with rolling bear-
Performance and test
Problem In high-power
load-carrying
results capacity.
of these prototypes propellers, large
Magnetic bear- rolling
Hubless bearings
RDT with Thein In high-power
difficulty,
were notcomplexity, propellers,
ideal, mainly andduecostlarge
of theaxial
to low
Lowings in and
noise the duct.
high car- Thesystem axial
test results thrust
of these is required,
prototypes and rolling
ings/sliding 2003 [38] the
grooved
rying duct.
capacity
bearing racesthe
onentire
thrust ofis the
is required,
reliability increased,
balland and it isinbearings
rolling
bearings the
bearings 1995 [36] Hubless RDT with
both edges of the rotor
were
likelymud
to causenot bearings
ideal,
andwater
experience sand
mainly
pollution.
excessive experience
due to
strain under
environment
the lowexcessive strain
and thehigh ex-
19952017 [36][39] Thegrooved bearingand
bearing capacity
ring.
races
Theonconstruction,
reliability of
under
loads. bearing
cessive onthe
the ball
high
other
wear;
bearings
hand, is in the
loads.
furthermore, due
2017 [40] both edges of the rotor
service life of oil-lubri- complex,mud and
with sand environment
significant machining and the ex-
MagneticOil-lubricated
bear- to
Thebearing friction,
difficulty, the rotor and
complexity, could notof
ring.
cated
Lowbearings are higher
noise and cessive
and installation
high car- bearing
requirements. Oil-leak- cost due
The difficulty, complexity, and cost
wear; furthermore,
bearings reach the predetermined speed and
under
Magnetic ings/sliding
Rolling bearing20032017[38][41] than those of water-lubri-
rying capacity age the entire
prevention
to bearing system
and is
sealing
friction, increased,
systems
the rotor it is
could not
bearings
structure 2003
Low noise and high
cated bearings.
rated
likely
must also be toof the entire system is increased,
voltage
cause
reliable.
conditions.
water In addition,
pollution.
bearings/sliding [38]
Rolling bearing 20172015[39][42]
reach the predetermined speed under
ball bearings also have inherent short-
carrying
The capacity
bearing capacity and The
rated and
construction,
voltage itofon
isvibration,
likely
the
conditions. otherto cause
hand, is
In addition, water
bearings structure 2016[40][43]
TheThe
thrust bearing
hubless
service sup-was
life ofRDT
oil-lubri-
comings
complex,
in terms
with significant
noise,
machining
Oil-lubricated
2017
2007 [37] ported by rubber
embed
To obtain
pads bear-
with rolling
ball
and pollution.
abearings
good hydrodynamic
also
load-carrying have per-
inherent
capacity. short-
cated bearings are higher and
formance installation
from
comings the IMP requirements.
in terms propeller, the Oil-leak-
of vibration, noise,
bearings usesThe
ings hubless
rubber
in the RDT was
deformation
duct. In high-power propellers, large axial
than those of thickness
water-lubri- age of the duct and
prevention thesealing
and diametersystems
2017
2007
[41]
[37] The bearing capacity
to adjust the inclination
embed with rolling bear- and
thrustload-carrying
is required, capacity.
and rolling bearings
2016 [44] cated
of the bearings.
pad, which has
of the hub
must must The construction, on the other hand,
be as small
also be reliable.
In high-power
as possible,
propellers, large axial
and service life of
ings in the duct. whichexperience
leads to theexcessive
complexity strain
of theunder high
2017 2015 [42]
[39] great potential for damp- thrust
loads.
bearing
is complex, with significant
is required, and rolling bearings
design.
Oil-lubricatedMagnetic bear- 2016 [43] oil-lubricated
The thrust
ing vibration. bearing sup-
experience
To obtain a excessive strain underper-
good hydrodynamic high
ported by rubber pads The machining
difficulty, complexity,and installation
and cost of
bearings Water-lubricated bearings
Low noise andare highhigher
car- formance
loads. from the IMP propeller, itthe
ings/sliding
thrust bearings 2003 [38] uses
ryingrubber
capacitydeformation the entirerequirements.
system is increased, Oil-leakage
and is
Magnetic
bearingsbear- than
to adjust those
the of
inclination
thickness of the
The difficulty,
likely to cause ductpollution.
and the
complexity,
water anddiameter
cost of
ings/sliding 2017 2017[40]
2003 [38]
Low noise and
Many units are also ex- high car- of
thethe hub
entire
prevention
must be
system isas
and
small sealing systems
ashand,
increased, possible,
and itisis
2016 [39]
[44] water-lubricated
The
of bearing
thethe
rying
ploring pad, capacity
use which
capacity hasand The
of a sup-
construction, on the other
bearings 2017 [40] service
great life of oil-lubri-
potential for damp-
which
likely to
complex, must
leads
with also
tosignificant
cause the
water be
complexity reliable.
pollution.of the
machining
201720172017
Oil-lubricated [41]
[39][45]
bearings.
port/thrust
The
integrated
catedbearing
bearingscapacity
The practicality
bearing
and and
are higher
has yet to be tested
design. requirements.
Theinstallation
construction,
by
on the otherOil-leak-
hand, is
bearings ing vibration.
structure which can bear engineering.
2017 [40]
2017 [41] boththan those
service life
gravity andof water-lubri-
oil-lubri- age
ofthrust prevention
complex, with and sealingmachining
significant systems
Water-lubricated
Oil-lubricated The thrust bearing
loads. bearings. are higher must
cated bearings also be reliable.
and installation requirements. Oil-leak-
thrust bearings
bearings
2015 [41]
2017 [42] supported
than by rubber
those of water-lubri- To obtain
age prevention a good
and sealing systemshydrodynamic
Many unitsbearing
The thrust are alsosup-
ex- must also be reliable.
2016 [43] cated
pads bearings.
uses rubber To obtainperformance
a good hydrodynamic from per-the IMP
ploring
ported bytherubber
use ofpads
a sup-
20152015 [42][42]
3.2. Hydrodynamic Design deformation
port/thrust
uses to formance
integrated
rubberbearing
deformation
from the IMP propeller,
propeller,
The practicality has yet the
the
to bethickness
tested by of the duct
2016 [45][43] The thrust sup- thickness
2017 To obtainofa the
goodduct and the diameter
hydrodynamic per-
3.2.1. Hydrodynamic Performance to adjust
adjust
structure
ported bythe
theinclination
which
rubberinclination
can bear engineering.
pads of
and
the hub from
the
must the
be as
diameter
small
of
as possible,
the hub must
2016 [44] of thegravity
both pad, which has
and thrust formance IMP propeller, the
uses rubber deformation be as small as possible, which leads
The hydrodynamic performance of of an
great
loads.
the
IMP pad,
potential
which
thruster is
for damp-
which
the key leads
to
thickness to the
ensuring
of the complexity
ductits
andthrust
the of the
diameter
to adjust the inclination bearing design.
and power index, which directly affect
has
ing
of
the propulsion
great
vibration.
the pad, which
efficiency,
potential
has
of the hubtomust
thebecomplexity
vibration, and noise.
as small of the bearing
as possible,
20162016 [43]
[44]
With the continuous development of computer which leads
technology, numerical to thehas
testing
design. complexity
gradu- of the
Water-lubricated
Water-lubricated for damping
great potential for damp-
bearing design.physical test-
ally become an important means of keeping pace with and complementing
thrust bearingsthrust bearings
2016 [44] ingHydrodynamic
in the research Design
ing vibration.
vibration.
and development of the hydrodynamic performance of propulsion de-
Water-lubricated 3.2. Many units are also ex-
vices, as well as effectively promotingploring
the research and development of propulsion de-
thrust bearings 3.2.1. Hydrodynamic Performance Many units
the use of are
a sup-also
vices in general. It is critical to match propeller
port/thrusthydrodynamic
integrated Thecharacteristics
practicality has to
yetspecific
to be tested by
2017 [45] Thetohydrodynamic
achieve efficientperformance exploring
Many units are
of significant
an IMP the
also use
ex- of
factors IMP. The moststructure whichthruster
canmetric isthe
is thepropeller
key to ensuring
bear engineering. its thrust
pitch ratio.
ploring
aaffectedthe use
support/thrust of a sup-
and
Thepower index, which directly affect the propulsion efficiency,
hydrodynamic efficiency is furtherboth gravityby the
and propeller’s
thrust
port/thrust integrated Thevibration,
structural
The practicality
design, and
practicality the noise.
hasbyyet
has yet to be tested to be tested
20172017 [45]
[45] formthe
With andcontinuous
size of the development
duct, the air-gap integrated
thickness,
loads.
ofstructure
computer and
which structure
other parameters.
technology, numerical
can bear engineering.
Computational
testing has gradu-
analyses and experimental research on some IMP parameters are by engineering.
presented in this section
ally become an important means of keeping which
both can
pace
gravity andbear
thrustboth
with and complementing physical test-
to in
ing provide a clear picture
the research and detailed loads.
and development explanation
of of IMP thrusters’
the hydrodynamic hydrodynamic
performance per-
of propulsion de-
formance (see Table 3).
gravity and thrust
vices, as well as effectively
3.2. Hydrodynamic Design promoting the research and development of propulsion de-
loads.
vices
3.2.1.inHydrodynamic
general. It is critical to match propeller hydrodynamic characteristics to specific
Performance
factors to achieve Design
3.2. Hydrodynamic efficient IMP. The most significant metric is the propeller pitch ratio.
The hydrodynamic performance of an IMP thruster is the key to ensuring its thrust
The hydrodynamic
3.2. Hydrodynamic Designefficiency is further affected by the propeller’s structural design, the
and power
3.2.1. index, which
Hydrodynamic directly affect the propulsion efficiency, vibration, and noise.
Performance
form and size of the duct, the air-gap thickness, and other parameters. Computational
With thehydrodynamic
3.2.1. Hydrodynamic continuous development
Performance of computer technology, is numericalto testing hasits
gradu-
analyses and experimental research onof
The performance an IMP
some IMPthruster
parameters the
arekey ensuring
presented in this thrust
section
ally
and become
poweraindex, an important
which and means
directly of keeping pace
affectexplanation with
the propulsion and complementing
efficiency, physical
vibration, test-
and noise.
to
The provide clear picture detailed of IMP thrusters’ hydrodynamic per-
inghydrodynamic
With inthethecontinuous
research and performance
development
development of ofof
thean IMP thruster
hydrodynamic
computer technology,
is the key
performance
numerical
to ensuring
of propulsion
testing has de- its thrust and
gradu-
formance (see Table 3).
powerally
index,
vices,
becomeaswhich
wellanas directlymeans
effectively
important affect of the
promoting propulsion
the
keeping research efficiency,
andand
pace with development vibration,
complementingof propulsionandde-
physical noise. With the
test-
vices
continuous
ing in general.
the researchItand
in development is critical
of to matchofpropeller
computer
development technology,hydrodynamic
the hydrodynamicnumerical characteristics
testing
performance hasto gradually
specific
of propulsion de- become an
factors to achieve efficient IMP. The most significant metric is the propeller pitch ratio.
vices,means
important as wellof askeeping
effectivelypace
promoting
with the research
and and development
complementing physical of propulsion
testing in de-
the research and
The hydrodynamic efficiency is further affected by the propeller’s structural design, the
vices in general. It is critical to match propeller hydrodynamic characteristics to specific
development
form and ofsize
theofhydrodynamic
the duct, the air-gap performance
thickness, and ofother
propulsion
parameters.devices, as well as effectively
Computational
factors to achieve efficient IMP. The most significant metric is the propeller pitch ratio.
promotinganalysestheand experimental
research and research
developmenton some IMP parameters aredevices
of propulsion presentedinin this section It is critical to
The hydrodynamic efficiency is further affected by the propeller’s structuralgeneral.
design, the
to provide a clear picture and detailed explanation of IMP thrusters’ hydrodynamic per-
match form
propeller hydrodynamic characteristics to specific factors
and size of the duct, the air-gap thickness, and other parameters. Computational
formance (see Table 3).
to achieve efficient IMP.
analyses and experimental research on some IMP parameters are presented in this section
to provide a clear picture and detailed explanation of IMP thrusters’ hydrodynamic per-
formance (see Table 3).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 11 of 29

The most significant metric is the propeller pitch ratio. The hydrodynamic efficiency is
further affected by the propeller’s structural design, the form and size of the duct, the air-gap
thickness, and other parameters. Computational analyses and experimental research on
some IMP parameters are presented in this section to provide a clear picture and detailed
explanation of IMP thrusters’ hydrodynamic performance (see Table 3).

Table 3. Summary of numerical studies on the hydrodynamic performance of IMP thrusters.

Method/Experimental
Parameter Year Reference Model Findings
Method
1. The torque provided by the motor
The interaction reduced as the rpm rose, whereas
velocity-field approach the torque required by the propeller
Propeller 2003 [22]
RDT was used in this rose.
pitch ratio
lifting-surface panel 2. The propeller’s torque requirements
code. rose as the pitch ratio increased,
2003 [23] although this was limited.

1. A lengthy rim raised the friction

torque slightly and caused the local
flow to have a circumferential
Reynolds-averaged
velocity.
Shape and using varied-length
2. If immediately converted from the
size of 2015 [46] Ka-series thruster rims to solve the
Ka-series, the rim-driven propeller
the rim Navier–Stokes
easily generated a cavitation
equation.
problem.
3. A thin blade outperformed a thick
one in terms of efficiency.

1. The efficiency of a hubless RDT was

higher than that of a hub-type RDT.
Open-water Contrastive analysis, 2. The efficiency gap widened as the
performance of with hub diameter and advance
hub-type and Reynolds-averaged coefficient grew. The hubless RDT
Shape and
hubless RDTs Navier–Stokes (RANS) efficiency was 2.2 percent greater
size of the 2015 [47]
(rim-driven equations and a than the hub-type RDT for a hub
hub
thrusters), the multiple-frames-of- ratio of 0.25 and an advance
propeller Ka4-70 reference (MFR) coefficient of 0.7 (the design point).
and duct JD7704 method 3. The disappearance of the hub
resulted in increased thrust, torque,
and a smaller thrust ratio.
Comparison between a
The MARIN symmetrical propeller A symmetrical propeller provided less
2000 [48] Ka4-70 in 37A and a standard thrust per unit power, because it had a
duct asymmetric ducted lower KT value and a greater KQ value.
propeller
1. The S2037 produced somewhat
Shape and higher thrust than the other two
size of the profiles in a symmetrical duct
duct layout, with the F2637 being the
worst.
S2037, S2637, 2. At bollard pull in the forward
2001 [20] Contrastive analysis
F2637 direction, the asymmetrical
propeller produced slightly more
thrust than the symmetrical
propeller, but still far less than the
thrust produced by the MARIN
Ka4-70 in a 37A duct.
 method sign point).
method 3. The disappearance of the hub re-
3. The disappearance of the hub re-
sulted in increased thrust, torque,
sulted in increased thrust, torque,
and a smaller thrust ratio.
and a smaller thrust ratio.
Comparison between a
Comparison betweenAa symmetrical propeller provided less
The MARIN Ka4-70 in 37A symmetrical propeller
2000 [48] A symmetrical
thrust per unit power, propeller
because provided
it had a less
The MARIN Ka4-70 in 37Aand
duct symmetrical
a standard propeller
asym-
2000 [48] thrust
lower KT per
value unit
and power,
a greaterbecause
KQ it had a
value.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 duct and aducted
metric standard asym-
propeller 12 of 29
lower KT value and a greater KQ value.
metric ducted propeller 1. The S2037 produced somewhat
1. higherThethrust
S2037thanproduced
the other somewhat
two pro-
fileshigher thrust thanduct
in a symmetrical the layout,
other two pro-
Table 3. Cont. with files
thein a symmetrical
F2637 being the worst. duct layout,
2. At bollard
with thepull in the
F2637 forward
being direc-
the worst.
2001 [20] S2037, S2637, F2637 Contrastive analysis
2. tion, Atthe asymmetrical
bollard pull in the propeller
forward pro-
direc-
2001 [20] S2037, S2637, F2637 Method/Experimental
Contrastive analysis duced slightly more thrust than the pro-
Parameter Year Reference Model tion,
Findings the asymmetrical propeller
Method symmetrical
duced slightly propeller,
morebut still far
thrust than the
lesssymmetrical
than the thrust produced
propeller, bystill
but the far
1.
MARIN Changing
Ka4-70 the size
duct. the
of duct gap
less than theinthrust
a 37Aproduced by the
Shape and size of the duct 1. Changing had the
the opposite
size of
MARIN Ka4-70 in a 37A duct.the duct effect
gap on overall
had theand rotor
opposite efficiency.
effect on overall and
Shape and size of the duct 1. Changing the size of the duct gap
rotor efficiency.
2. hadIncreasing
the oppositethe duct
effect on camber
overall and could
2. Increasing the duct camber could im-
rotorimprove
efficiency. the pump-jet propulsor’s
prove the pump-jet propulsor’s effi-
2. ciency, efficiency,
Increasing
improve the improve
theduct
rotor camber
blades’the rotor
could
cav- im-blades’
prove
itation the pump-jet
cavitation
resistance, propulsor’s
resistance,
improve effi- the
improve
the rotor’s
Low-order
Low-order surface
surface ciency, improve
load rotor’s
distribution, andthe
load rotorthe
distribution,
lessen blades’and cav- lessen
2019 2019 [49][49] panelapproach
panel approach based
based trenditation
of resistance,
duct resistance improve
increasing the rotor’s
Low-order surface the trend of duct resistance
onon velocity potentials
velocity potentials
with load distribution,
advance speed. and lessen the
2019 [49] panel approach based increasing
trend of duct
with advance
resistance
speed.
3. In comparison to camber, theincreasing
angle of
on velocity potentials 3. In comparison
with
attack hadadvance speed.
a stronger impact on hy- the angle
to camber,
3. drodynamic of attack
In comparison had a stronger
to camber,
performance, and the
lower- impact
angle of on
thehydrodynamic
ingattack angle
hadofaattack
stronger performance,
improved
impactthe on hy- and
overall efficiencyperformance,
lowering
drodynamic of
thetheangle
pump-jet ofand attack
lower-
propulsor.
ingimproved
the angle ofthe attack improved
overall the
efficiency of
Contrastive analysis, overall efficiency ofpropulsor.
the pump-jet the pump-jet
The correct adjustment of blade loading
propulsor.
Shape and size of the pro- with Reynolds-aver-
2012 [50] distribution could restrain root- and tip-re-
peller
Shape blade
and aged Navier–Stokes
Contrastive analysis,
Contrastive analysis, gion vortices.
(RANS) solver TheThe correct
correct adjustment
adjustment ofloading
of blade blade loading
sizeand
Shape of size
the of the pro- with Reynolds-
with Reynolds-aver-
2012 2012 [50]
[50] distribution
distribution couldcould restrain
restrain root-
root- and and
tip-re-
peller blade
propeller averaged Navier–
aged Navier–Stokes
gion vortices. vortices.
(RANS) solversolver
tip-region
blade Stokes (RANS)

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1. Increasing the stator 12 of 27
prewhirl angle
could increase the circumferential
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW velocity of the rotor 12 inflow
of 27 as well

1. as the
Increasing overall
the stator thrust
prewhirl and propulsion
angle
efficiency
could increase of the pump-jet
the circumferential ve- propulsor.
Shape and 1. 2.
locity ofThe fluctuation
the rotor inflow asamplitudes
Increasing the stator prewhirl angle
well as of the
size of the Pump-jet Contrastive analysis, the overall thrust and
unsteady propulsion
forces would ef-decrease
could increase the circumferential ve-
2020 [51] ficiency of the pump-jet propulsor.
propeller propulsor CFD analysis 2. significantly
locity of the rotor inflow
The fluctuation if as
amplitudes theof spacing
the un- was
well as
2.
the overall thrust and propulsion ef-
statorand size of the pro-
Shape Contrastive analysis, steady increased
forces wouldproperly.
decrease signifi-
2020 [51] Pump-jet propulsor ficiency of the pump-jet propulsor.
peller stator CFD analysis 3.
cantly ifThe stator chord
the spacing length was found
was increased
2. The fluctuation amplitudes of the un-
properly.to have little effect on the
Shape and size of the pro- Contrastive analysis, steady forces would decrease signifi-
2020 [51] Pump-jet propulsor 3. The stator chord length was found to and the
peller stator CFD analysis cantly propulsion
if the spacing was performance
increased
have little effect on the propulsion
maximum fluctuation amplitudes of
properly.
performance and the maximum fluc-
3. The stator
the chord lengthforces.
unsteady was found to
tuation amplitudes of the unsteady
have little effect on the propulsion
forces.
performance
1. andrig
The test the for
maximum fluc- forces
measuring
tuation amplitudes of the unsteady
1. The testand
forces.
moments
rig for measuringon rim-driven
forces and
moments on rim-driven
propellers metpropellers
the defined
met therequirements
defined requirements
and and
demonstrated
Deep-water towing 1.
Deep-water towing
The test rig for measuring
demonstrated that it was
forces
suitable
and
moments that
onitrim-driven
was suitable forforthe
propellers
Experimental
Experimental study
tank
tankofofthe Krylov
the Krylov the experimental examination of hub
2011 2011 [52]
[52] met theexperimental
and hubless propellers. examination of hub
defined requirements and
study Shipbuilding
Shipbuilding Research
Research
Deep-water towing demonstrated that it was suitable for
Institute 2. and hubless propellers.
Analytical and experimental research
Institute
tank of the Krylov the experimental examination of hub
Experimental study 2011 [52] 2.
was Analytical
carried and experimental
out to identify ap-
Shipbuilding Research and hubless propellers.
proaches to improve
research was design methods
carried out to identify
Institute 2. Analytical and experimental research
for rim-driven thrusters.
approaches to improve design
was carried out to identify ap-
proachesmethods
to improvefordesign
rim-driven
methodsthrusters.
1. The measurement
for rim-driven was compared to
thrusters.
the calculated findings using empiri-
the calculated findings using empiri-
1. The measurement
cal rim surface corrections.
was compared to
Integral hydrodynamic 1. the calculated thatfindings
the devisedusing
The measurement was compared to
2012 [50] 2. It was demonstrated
measuring method the calculated
empirical findings
rimusing empiri-
surface corrections.
numerical method could accurately
cal rim surface corrections.
Integral
Integralhydrodynamic
hydrodynamic 2.
forecastItthe
was demonstrated
rim-driven thruster’s that
hy- the
2012 2012 [50][50] measuring method
method
2. It was demonstrated that the devised
drodynamic performance.
measuring devised
numerical method numerical method could
could accurately
1. In comparison
accuratelyto conventional
forecast pro- rim-driven
the
forecast the rim-driven thruster’s hy-
pellers, the changes of the hydrody-
thruster’s hydrodynamic
drodynamic performance.
namic coefficients, particularly the
1. In comparison to conventional pro-
torque performance.
coefficient, versus the advance
pellers, the changes of the hydrody-
coefficients were substantially re-
Bollard pull, self-pro- namic coefficients, particularly the
duced.
pulsion point (SPP), torque coefficient, versus the advance
2019 [53] 2. In all settings, the net imbalance roll
and bare-hull resistance coefficients were substantially re-
Bollard pull, self-pro- moment was very minimal, indicat-
tests duced.
pulsion point (SPP), ing that the stator was designed cor-
2019 [53] 2. In all settings, the net imbalance roll
and bare-hull resistance rectly. In the behind-hull state, the
moment was very minimal, indicat-
tests stator also generated additional
ing that the stator was designed cor-
thrust, boosting the overall perfor-
 tuation amplitudes of the unsteady
forces. 1. The test rig for measuring forces and
moments on rim-driven propellers
1. The test rig formet the defined
measuring requirements and
forces and
Deep-water towingmoments on rim-driven propellers
demonstrated that it was suitable for
tank of the Krylov met the definedthe
Deep-water towing
requirements and
experimental examination of hub
Experimental study 2011 [52] demonstrated that it was suitable for
tank ofShipbuilding
the Krylov Research
the experimentaland hubless propellers.
examination of hub
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12,study
Experimental 3824 2011 [52] 13 of 29
Institute
Shipbuilding Research 2. propellers.
and hubless Analytical and experimental research
Institute 2. Analytical and experimental research
was carried out to identify ap-
was carried out to identify ap-
proaches to improve design methods
proaches to improve design methods
for rim-driven for rim-driven thrusters.
thrusters.
Table 3. Cont.
1. The measurement
1. Thewas compared to
measurement was compared to
Method/Experimental the calculated findings using empiri-
the calculated findings using empiri-
Parameter Year Reference Model cal rim Findings
surface corrections.
Method
Integral hydrodynamic cal rim surface corrections.
2012 [50] Integral 2.
hydrodynamic It was demonstrated that the devised
measuring method
2012 [50] 2. method
numerical It wascoulddemonstrated
accurately that the devised
measuring methodforecast1.the rim-driven In comparison
thruster’s
to conventional
hy- could accurately
numerical method
propellers, the changes of the
drodynamic performance.
forecast the rim-driven thruster’s hy-
1. In comparison hydrodynamic
to conventional pro- coefficients,
drodynamic
pellers, the changes performance.
of the hydrody-
1. particularly
In
namic coefficients, comparison
particularly the
the torque coefficient,
to conventional pro-
versus
torque coefficient, the
versusthe
pellers, advanceofcoefficients
the changes
advance the hydrody-were
Bollard
Bollard pull,pull,
self-pro-
coefficients were substantially
substantially re- reduced.
namic coefficients, particularly the
duced.
self-propulsion
pulsion point (SPP), point 2. In all settings,
torque coefficient, the net imbalance roll
roll versus the advance
2019 [53][53]
2019
and bare-hull
2. In all settings, the net imbalance
(SPP), andresistance
bare-hull moment was very moment
minimal,was
coefficients were
indicat-very minimal,re-
substantially
tests Bollard pull, self-pro-
resistance tests indicating
ing that the stator was designed
duced. that
cor-the stator was
pulsion point (SPP), rectly. In the behind-hull state, the
2019 [53] 2. designed
In all settings,
stator also generated additional
correctly. In the
the net imbalance roll
and bare-hull resistance
thrust, boosting moment
behind-hull
the overall was very
state,
perfor- minimal,
the statorindicat-
also
tests
mance by up toing that the stator
82 percent.
generated was designed
additional thrust, cor-
Computational fluid rectly. In the
boosting thebehind-hull state, the by
overall performance
dynamics (CFD) used 1. The SPT’s open-water
stator efficiency
also was
generated additional
to analyze and compare up to 82 percent.
0.662, which was lower than the tra-
the hydrodynamic per-
thrust, boosting the overall perfor-
ditional propeller’s.
Computational fluid
formances of a shaftless 2. mance byoperating
The SPT’s high-efficiency up to 82 percent.
2021 [54]
dynamics
pump-jet (CFD) used
Computational
thruster fluid
range was somewhat broader than
(SPT), adynamics
traditional me- that of 1. The SPT’s
the propeller, implyingopen-water
that efficiency
to analyze and (CFD) used 1. The SPT’s open-water efficiency was
chanical pump-jet the SPT could perform
was well inwhich
0.662, a
compare the and compare
to analyze
thruster (MPT), and an wider range of0.662,
working which was lower than thethan
situations.
was lower tra-
E779A the hydrodynamic per-
hydrodynamic
propeller
the traditional propeller’s.
ditional propeller’s.
formances of aa
performances 1. shaftless 2.
2.
The frozen-rotor The
The SPT’s
SPT’s
approach high-efficiency
high-efficiency
was insuf- operating
operating
20212021 [54]
[54] ficient to range was somewhat broader thanthan
range
capture the was
entire somewhat
unpre- broader
pump-jet
shaftless thruster
pump-jet dictability of the rotor–stator interac-
(SPT), a traditional me- thatofofthe
that thepropeller,
propeller, implying
implying thatthat
The capture of the unsteady thruster (SPT), a tion.
Performance predictions 2015 [55] Frozen-rotor method the
the SPTcould
SPT could perform
perform wellwell
in a in a
rotor–stator interaction chanicalmechanical
traditional pump-jet
2. If time accuracy is required, the au-
thruster
pump-jet (MPT), and
thruster thors wider
an advocatewider rangeof
using a range
sliding of
mesh working
working situations.
situations.
technique, which was used in this
E779A propeller
(MPT), and an E779Astudy’s unstable simulations.
Mechanical pumping and propeller 1. 1. water
The spray The frozen-rotor
efficiency approach was insuf-
of the IMP
2016 [56] Contrastive analysis
IMP pump was about ficient to capture
5% lower than thatthe entire unpre-
1. The frozen-rotor
dictability approachinterac-
of the rotor–stator was
The capture of the unsteady insufficient to capture the entire
tion.
Performance predictions 2015 [55] Frozen-rotor method
The captureinteraction
rotor–stator of 2. unpredictability
If of the rotor–stator
time accuracy is required, the au-
Performance the unsteady thors advocate using a sliding mesh
interaction.
2015 [55] Frozen-rotor method technique, which was used in this
predictions rotor–stator 2. If time accuracy is required, the
interaction study’s
authorsunstable
advocatesimulations.
using a sliding
Mechanical pumping and 1. The
mesh spray water efficiency
technique, of theused
which was IMP in
2016 [56] Contrastive analysis
IMP pump was about
this study’s 5% lower
unstable than that
simulations.

1. The spray water efficiency of the

IMP pump was about 5% lower
than that of the conventional
mechanical pump at the same
speed.
2. When the torque increased, the
friction loss increased and the
Mechanical power consumption increased at the
2016 [56] pumping and Contrastive analysis same advance speed, compared
IMP with the conventional mechanical
pumps.
3. Under the same speed and different
feed speeds, with the increase in the
feed speed, the difference between
the flow, thrust, and power of the
IMP pump and the conventional
pump gradually decreased.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 14 of 29

Table 3. Cont.

Method/Experimental
Parameter Year Reference Model Findings
Method
1. An adequate forecast of the
propeller and duct loads
required an alignment
model of the wake shape
with the local flow.
Ducted propellers
2018 [57] Panel method 2. Because the technique was
(DPs)
insufficient to accurately
anticipate propeller forces
near bollard pull, an extra
gap strip adjustment was
recommended.
In certain ranges of advance ratios,
hexa and hybrid grids produced
Potsdam similar results; however, for low
Hexahedral
2019 [58] Propeller Test and high ratios, structured grids
block-structured grids
Case (PPTC) in combination with the realizable
model could produce more
accurate results.
1. The SST k-omega turbulence
model outperformed the
realizable k-epsilon
two-layer turbulence model
Contrastive analysis by a small margin.
The open-water
between different mesh 2. The capacity of hexahedral
2019 [59] characteristics of
types and turbulence meshes to deliver
the propeller
models good-quality results in the
SST k-omega turbulence
model was greater
compared to other case
studies in this research.
A detailed
comparative
study of 1. The gap flow in the RDT had
hydrodynamic a significant impact on the
performance Contrastive analysis, performance.
2021 [2] 2. The RDT’s total efficiency
between a CFD analysis
rim-driven was much lower than the
thruster (RDT) ducted propellers.
and a ducted
propeller (DP)
Parameter Year Reference Model Method Findings
Hub-type and The efficiency curves were similar,
hubless but the hubless propeller had a
2011 [52] Contrastive analysis
Hub-type propellers of higher thrust and torque as
RDTs compared to the hub propeller.
Structural and
design hubless A rim-driven The results showed that the
propellers water-jet pump of A simple steady-state impeller efficiency of the pump
2014 [60] hub-type and CFD model, with hubless guide vanes was
hubless guide contrastive analysis reduced by about 10%, due to
vanes energy losses in the center line.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 15 of 29

Table 3. Cont.

Parameter Year Reference Model Method Findings

1. The hub-type RDT had less
hydrodynamic efficiency
Hub-type and than the hub with less RDT.
hubless 2. The efficiency difference
propellers of Contrastive analysis, increased with hub diameter
2015 [47] as well as an advance
RDTs in CFD analysis
open-water coefficient.
performance 3. Eliminating the hub also led
to a larger thrust, larger
torque, and smaller thrust
ratio.
The design method presented here
for the rim-driven thruster,
Rim-driven
Direct blade pitch including the propeller blading
2011 [52] thruster blading
optimization method system design, made it possible to
system
achieve the required thruster
performance.
1. A simulation-
based design
optimization
(SBDO) tool
The result of the optimizations
2. The open-source
proved the flexibility and the
Rim-driven CFD cord
2020 [61] reliability of the SBDO framework
thrusters OpenFOAM and
in dealing with unconventional
cfMesh libraries,
configurations.
and a
genetic-type
optimization
algorithm
Design op-
timization 1. The direct design 1. The lifting method was more
of methods, the suitable for low and
IMP/RDTs lifting and medium speeds, while the
lifting-line design lifting-line method was
methods, more suitable for medium
followed by and high speeds.
further geometric 2. After optimization, the KT
optimization and η curve shifted towards
Pump-jet (Isight) of the the direction of high speed
2021 [62] better model; the as a whole, and the optimal
propeller
stator was operating point was also
designed by the slightly shifted.
modified 3. The KT of the model
coefficient designed by the inverse
method. design method was greater
2. The inverse than the direct design
design methods, method under different
the mutual working conditions.
iteration method
Calculations for a pump-jet
thruster designed for a virtual
Design of Pump-jet Lifting-line method,
submarine showed that the
pump-jet propulsion aimed surface element
2007 [63] pump-jet thruster designed using
propul- at a submarine method, axial-flow
this method met the design
sion model pump lifting method
requirements and had high
efficiency.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 16 of 29

Table 3. Cont.

Parameter Year Reference Model Method Findings

The rotor and
The designed pump-jet propeller
stator of a The three-dimensional
2017 [64] had a higher efficiency and better
pump-jet inverse design method
high-speed adaptability.
propeller
The theory of the overall selection
of pump-jet propulsion and the
Theoretical analysis
design method of a
with numerical
2018 [65] MK48 torpedo three-dimensional shape was
simulation and
explored, and the accuracy of the
experiment
pump-jet selection and design
method was verified.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 27

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
3.2.2. Cavitation 15 of 27

Cavitation is a very important hydrodynamic phenomenon that occurs in IMPs and

causes severe vibration,
flows through the gap, it noise,
can notmaterial
only cooldamage, and other problems.
the heat-generating Consequently,
parts, such as the stator of cavita-
flowsinthrough
tion IMPs thepiqued
has gap, it can
our not only throughout
interest cool the heat-generating
the years. parts,
Few such as
scholars the summarized
have stator of
the motor, but to a certain extent, due to the viscosity and density of the water and air, it
the motor,
the but to a certain extent, due on
to the viscosityinand density of the water and air, in
it
willrelated
producepapers
a largeto boost
friction research
torque cavitation
at the connection IMPs.
point Turbulence
(motor is involved
rim) between the motor the
will produce
majority a large friction torque at the connection point (motor rim) between the motor
rotor andofthecavitation
impeller occurrences.
blade, which Both the cavitation
will cause model
the propeller to and the turbulence-modeling
experience a large power
rotor and the
approach impeller blade, which will causeofthe propellerturbulent
to experience asimulations.
large power The
loss when influence
rotating atthe numerical
a high speed. accuracy
Therefore, tocavitating
design IMP flow
thrusters with low power
loss
latestwhen rotating
advances at
in the a high speed. Therefore,
study ofperformance,
cavitation initIMPsto design IMP
are reviewed thrusters
in the with
thisgap-flow
sectionlowtopower
provide
loss and good heat dissipation is necessary to study law. To a
loss and
clear good heatdetailed
picture dissipation performance, it ismethods
necessary tocavitation
study the gap-flow law. To as
acquire a clearand explanation
picture and detailed of the
explanation for
of the effect of the gap-flowmodeling
model on as the
well
acquire
the a clear picture and
accomplishments baseddetailed
onIMP
IMPexplanation
thrusterthe of the effect
numerical of the gap-flow
simulations (see model4).
Table on the
hydrodynamic performance of thrusters, numerical studies and experimental re-
hydrodynamic performance of IMP thrusters, the numerical studies and experimental re-
search on the IMP gap are discussed in this section (see Table 5).
search on the IMP gap are discussed in this section (see Table 5).
Table 4. Summary of methods for cavitation simulation and the achievements based on numerical
Table 4. Summary
calculations for IMPof thrusters.
methods for cavitation simulation and the achievements based on numerical
Table 4. Summary
calculations for IMPofthrusters.
methods for cavitation simulation and the achievements based on numerical
calculations for IMP thrusters.
Year
Year Reference
Geometry
Reference Geometry of the Type of
of the Model Type of Cavitation/Vortex Cavitation Model
Cavitation Model Findings
Findings
Year Reference Model Cavitation/Vortex
Geometry of the Model Type of Cavitation/Vortex Cavitation Model Findings 1. A vortex lattice approach
1.
1. A
A vortex vortex
lattice
(MPUF-3A) lattice approach
approach
and a boundary el-
(MPUF-3A)
(MPUF-3A)
ement method and
and a were a boundary
used to el-
boundary
ement
element method
method
forecast werethruster’s
were
the tunnel used toto
used
VortexVortex
lattice
lattice (MPUF-3A) forecastforecast the tunnel
the tunnel
performance thruster’s
thruster’s
(PROPCAV).
2009 [66] The extent of cavitation and thrust Vortex
(MPUF-3A)
and lattice
and (MPUF-3A)
boundary element performance
performance
2. When (PROPCAV).
(PROPCAV).
compared to experi-
2009 [66] The extent of boundary element 2.
2009 [66] The extent of cavitation and thrust
cavitation and thrust
and boundary
(PROPCAV) element
methods2. WhenWhen compared
compared
mental to to
measurements, experi-
experimental
the nu-
(PROPCAV)
(PROPCAV) methods mental
mericalmeasurements,
measurements, resultsthefrom numericalthe nu-
PROPCAV
methods merical
results
and from results
MPUF-3A PROPCAV from PROPCAV
appeared and to
and
fairlyMPUF-3A
MPUF-3A appeared
accurately appeared
to fairly
anticipate to the
fairly
accurately
level of accurately
anticipate
cavitation anticipate
thethrust.
and level theof
level
cavitation
1. ofandcavitation
thrust.
When cavitation occurs in the and thrust.
1. When cavitation occurspropel-
in the
1. Whenblades of the pump-jet
cavitation occurs in the
blades
ler,ofthe of the
thrust pump-jet
and torque propel-
of the
bladesler,
the
the
pump-jet
thrust and
propeller,
torque ofre-the
propeller
the thrust and are significantly
torque of the
propeller
duced, are significantly
which in turn causes re-a
The homogeneous propeller
duced, are significantly
which inopen-water
turn causes reduced,
a
which decrease in
in turnincauses the a decrease effi-
multiphase model decrease
ciency, and the
the open-water
reduction effi- in
rate
of theThe homogeneous multi- the open-water
ciency,
is more and
than
efficiency,
the
15%.reduction rate
and the
The influence of Rayleigh–Plesset
The homogeneous multi- reduction rate is15%.
more than 15%.
phase model of the 2. Ray- 2. is more
Under than
the same cavitationnumber
rotation
The speed,
influence of rotation speed, Under the same cavitation
equation
phaseand theof
model
leigh–Plesset the Ray- 2.
equation Under
number the same
with an cavitation
increase in
cavitation
The influence number,
of rotation speed,
cavitation number, and inlet veloc- with an increase in speed, the
2014
2014 [67]
[67] and inlet velocity on slip grid
leigh–Plesset equation number with
speed,phenomenon
the an increase
cavitation in
phenome-
cavitation number,
ity on the cavitation and inlet veloc- and the slip grid technol- cavitation
characteristics of
2014 [67] the technology,
and the and
slip grid technol- speed, the cavitation phenome-
ity on cavitation
of the the cavitation
pump-jet characteristics ogy, and the three-dimen-pump-jet
thruster
non ofpropeller
pump-jet propeller
blades tends to
characteristics of the the ogy, and
sional the three-dimen-
full-channel steady
non
blades of pump-jet
tends to propeller
be obvious.
of the pump-jet thruster three-dimensional
sional full-channel
be obvious.
steady 3. blades tends speed,
to be obvious.
pump-jet thruster turbulence calculation
3. At theAtsame
the same speed, the the smaller the
smaller
full-channel steady
turbulence calculation 3. At the same speed, the smaller
the
cavitation cavitation
number, number,
the more the
turbulence the
more cavitation
obvious number,
the cavitationthe
calculation obvious
more
the cavitation
obvious the cavitation
phenomenon.
phenomenon. When When thethecavitation
cavita-
phenomenon.
tion isnumber isWhen
greater the cavita-
number greater than athan certaina
tion number value,isthe greater than a
value,certain
the cavitation cavitation
phenomenon
certain
phenomenon value, of thethe cavitation
blade dis-
of thephenomenon
blade disappears. of the blade dis-
appears.
1. appears.
The numerical simulation can
1. The
better numerical
forecast the simulation
onset and can
better forecast
progression of the
the onset
pump-jet and
progression
cavitation event, of theaspump-jet
well as its
cavitation
shape and event, position. as well as its
2. shape
When and position. phenom-
the cavitation

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824
The influence of rotation speed,
cavitation number, and inlet veloc-
2014 [67]
ity on the cavitation characteristics
Table 4. Cont.
of the pump-jet thruster
1.
The homogeneous multi-
phase model of the Ray- 2.
leigh–Plesset equation
and the slip grid technol-
ogy, and the three-dimen-
sional full-channel steady
turbulence calculation 3.
When cavitation occurs in the
blades of the pump-jet propel-
ler, the thrust and torque of the
propeller are significantly re-
duced, which in turn causes a
decrease in the open-water effi-
ciency, and the reduction rate
is more than 15%. 17 of 29
Under the same cavitation
number with an increase in
speed, the cavitation phenome-
non of pump-jet propeller
blades tends to be obvious.
At the same speed, the smaller

Year Reference Geometry of the Type of Cavitation Model

the cavitation number, the
Findings
Model Cavitation/Vortex more obvious the cavitation
phenomenon. When the cavita-
1. tion number
The numerical simulation
is greater than a can
certainbetter
value, forecast the onset and
the cavitation
progression
phenomenon of the
of the blade dis-pump-jet
appears.
cavitation event, as well as its
1. The numerical
shape and simulation can
position.
2.betterWhenforecast the onset and
the cavitation phenomena
progression of the pump-jet
occur, the pump-jet propeller’s
cavitation event, as well as its
shapeefficiency
and position.drops dramatically,
Research on 2. Whenreaching more
the cavitation than 20%.
phenom-
unsteady-flow 3.ena occur,
The thepressure
pump-jetdistribution
propel-
Research on unsteady-flow cavita- ler’s efficiency
betweendrops the dramati-
surface of the
cavitation The
The Zwart–Gerber–
Zwart–Gerber–
tion performance, blade pressure cally,unmanned
reaching moreunderwater
than 20%. vehicle
20152015 [68]
[68] performance, blade Belamri (ZGB)
Belamri (ZGB) cavitation
distribution, tip vortex, and cavita- 3. The pressure
(UUV)distribution be-
and the stator’s rotor
pressure distribution, cavitation
tion
model model tweenblades
the surface of the un-
tip vortex, and is more reasonable and
manned underwater vehicle
commensurate with the
cavitation (UUV) and the stator’s rotor
cavitation phenomenon.
blades is more reasonable and
4. The tip vortex and cavitation of
commensurate with the cavita-
the top clearance are caused by
tion phenomenon.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4. The tipthe pressure
vortex 16
of of between
difference
and cavitation 27
the topthe pressure
clearance and the
are caused by suction
surface of the rotor blade’s tip
area, resulting in the pump-jet
the pressure difference be-
propulsion’s efficiency being
tween the pressure and the
depleted.
suction surface of the rotor
1. Homogeneous blade’s tip area, resulting in the
mixture flow pump-jet propulsion’s effi-
Leading-edge model Future ciency being depleted.
research will focus on advanced
Turbopumps, cavitation, 2. 1. Three-
Homogeneous mix-themes such as a density-based solver
2016 [69] hydro turbines, inter-blade vortex Future
ture flow model for
component research
highly will focus on cavitating
compressible ad-
and various
Turbopumps, other
hydro cavitation,cavitation,
tur- Leading-edge and inter- 2. two-phase
Three-component vanced themes suchand
as a adensity-
traveling-bubble flow turbulent flows virtual
2016 [69] types of machinery
bines, and various other blade vortex cavitation, and travel- two-phase flow based solvertunnel.
cavitation for highly compressible
cavitation model
types of machinery ing-bubble cavitation 3. model
Turbulent flow cavitating turbulent flows and a vir-
3. Turbulent flow tual cavitation tunnel.
modeling
modeling
The comparison
The comparison of traditional
of traditional bound-
boundary
ary element element
methods with methods
available with
Experimental available
experimental experimental
measurementsmeasurements
and cal-
observations of and calculations
culations performedperformed
with StarCCM+ with
Schiffbau-observations of TheThe
Experimental OpenFOAM StarCCM+ and boundary
and a proprietary a proprietaryelementboundary
OpenFOAM native
Versuchsanstalt
Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt (SVA)native Schnerr–Sauer element
method code method
in a verycode in a very
demanding
2016
2016 [70]
[70] Schnerr–Sauer interphase
(SVA) OpenFOAM,
Potsdam, Potsdam, StarCCM+, interphase mass demanding
test case furthertest case
validated further
the relia-validated
mass transfer model
OpenFOAM,
and BEM computations transfer model the reliability
bility of boundary
of traditional traditional ele- boundary
StarCCM+, and ment methods
element that are
methods still are
that widely
still widely
BEM computations used for
used fordesign
design andandoptimization
optimization
(thanks tototheir
(thanks theirmuch
much higher compu-
higher
tational efficiency).efficiency).
computational
1. The main differences lie in the
1. The main
width of the differences
plateau and inlie
thein the
width
value of of−the plateau
C p,min , whichand
in in the
value of −C , which in our
our simulation p,min
was coherently
simulation was coherently equal
A symmetric
A symmetric NACA0015
TheThe
Zwart–Gerber–
Zwart–Gerber– equal to σ .
2017 [71] Sheet
Sheet andand
cloudcloud
cavitation Belamri (ZGB)
Belamri (ZGB) cavitation 2. to σ.
2017 [71] NACA0015
hydrofoil 2. The
Thecavitation
cavitationmodel used by
model used by
hydrofoil cavitation cavitation
model inmodel in
OPENFOAM Zwart et al. (2004) in combina-
OPENFOAM Zwart et al. (2004) in
tion with the turbulence model
combina-tion with the turbulence
k − kl −k ω
model − klcan
−give the give
ω can best the
results in comparison
best results with the with
in comparison
experimental data. data.
the experimental

Table 5. Summary of the effect of the gap-flow model on the hydrodynamic performance of IMP
3.2.3. Gap Flow
thrusters.
Geometry of the The main structural difference between an IMP and a traditional pump-jet propulsor
Year Reference Parameter Method/Experimental Method Findings
Model isthat the motor is located in the duct, and the motor rotor is seamlessly coupled to the
1. The gap size is an important parameter for
impeller blade surface. The stator is also installed
Brushless permanent- in the duct. This structure gives it the
the entire thruster.
2000 [72] magnet motor of a rim- The gap size CFD analysis
2. The design of the propeller considered in
driven thruster
the study was very limited.
1. A circular flow exists in the axial gap, con-
sisting of a radial outflow emanating from
the rim’s end faces, arriving at the duct’s
inner surface, and a radial inflow develop-
 1.
Homogeneous mix-
ture flow model Future research will focus on ad-
Turbopumps, hydro tur- Leading-edge cavitation, inter- 2. Three-component vanced themes such as a density-
2016 [69] bines, and various other blade vortex cavitation, and travel- two-phase flow based solver for highly compressible
types of machinery ing-bubble cavitation model cavitating turbulent flows and a vir-
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 3. Turbulent flow tual cavitation tunnel.18 of 29
modeling
The comparison of traditional bound-
ary element methods with available
advantages of flexibility, high reliability, a compact structure, low experimental
vibration, and low noise.and cal-
measurements
The structure of an IMP includes a gap between the inner surface of the stator
culations of the with
performed motor StarCCM+
and the outer surface ofobservations
Experimental the rotor. When
of the propeller is working andand awater flowsboundary
proprietary through element
The OpenFOAM native
the gap, it can not only cool the heat-generating
Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt (SVA) parts, such as themethod
statorcodeof thein amotor, but
very demanding
2016 [70] Schnerr–Sauer interphase
to a certainPotsdam,
extent, due to the viscosity
OpenFOAM, StarCCM+,and density of the watertest and air,further
case it will produce
validated the relia-
mass transfer model
and BEM
a large friction computations
torque at the connection point (motor rim) between bilitythe
of traditional
motor rotor boundary
and ele-
the impeller blade, which will cause the propeller to experience ament largemethods
powerthat lossarewhen
still widely
used for design
rotating at a high speed. Therefore, to design IMP thrusters with low power loss and good and optimization
(thanks to their much higher compu-
heat dissipation performance, it is necessary to study the gap-flow law. To acquire a clear
tational efficiency).
picture and detailed explanation of the effect of the gap-flow model on the hydrodynamic
1. The main differences lie in the
performance of IMP thrusters, the numerical studies and experimental research on the IMP
width of the plateau and in the
gap are discussed in this section (see Table 5).
value of −C p,min , which in
Table 5. Summary of the effect of the gap-flow model on the hydrodynamicour simulation of
performance was coherently
IMP
A symmetricthrusters.
NACA0015
The Zwart–Gerber– equal to σ .
2017 [71] Sheet and cloud cavitation Belamri (ZGB) cavitation 2. The cavitation model used by
hydrofoil
model in OPENFOAM Zwart et al. (2004) in combina-
Geometry of Method/Experimental
Year Reference Parameter Findings tion with the turbulence model
the Model Method
k − kl − ω can give the best
1. The gap sizeresults
is an important
in comparison with the
Brushless parameter for the entire data.
experimental
permanent-magnet thruster.
2000 [72] The gap size CFD analysis
motor of a 2. The design of the propeller
Table 5. Summary of the effect of the gap-flow model on the
rim-driven thruster hydrodynamic
considered performance
in the study was of IMP
thrusters. very limited.
Geometry of the 1. A circular flow exists in the
Year Reference Parameter Method/Experimental Method Findings
Model axial gap, consisting of a radial
1. The gap emanating
outflow size is an important
from theparameter for
Brushless permanent-
the entire
rim’s end thruster.
faces, arriving at the
2000 [72] magnet motor of a rim- The gap size CFD analysis
2. The design
duct’s innerofsurface,
the propeller
and a considered in
driven thruster
the study
radial wasdeveloping
inflow very limited.along
1. A circular
the duct’s flow exists in the
side surfaces for axial gap, con-
sisting of a radial
momentum outflow emanating
commutation. The from
the rim’s
axial gap end faces, arriving
clearance changesatthe the duct’s
inner surface,
position of theand a radial
circular inflow develop-
flow.
2. ing along
When thethe duct’s
axial and side
radialsurfaces for mo-
mentum commutation.
clearances are all minute, TheTaylor
axial gap clear-
ance changes
vortices develop the position
solely atof the circular
the
A new predicted
flow. outer edge. The radial
rim’s
A new formula to calculate
predicted formula to the
cal- 2. When the ratio
clearance axial increases
and radial[74] clearances
the are all
The
Theaxial and
axial ra- culateouter
and surface’s torque:
the outer surface’s torque:
2015
2015 [73]
[73] minute, Taylor
number vorticesofdevelop
and location Taylor solely at
dial gap flow
radial gap flow G =
0.01668η −1.818(
0.01668η −1.818 1−η )
−1.757
Grimout =rimout Re1.8
i
the rim’sin
vortices outer edge. The
the radial gap.radial clearance
−1.757 1.8 3. ratio
As increases
the [74] the number
axial clearance ratio and location
(1 − η ) Rei of Taylor vortices
increases, in the radial gap.
the dimensionless
3. As the axial
torque of theclearance
end faces ratio increases, the
dimensionless torque of the end faces in-
increases.
4. creases.the radius ratio is less
When
4. Whenη the
than radius
> 0.97, theratio is less than η > 0.97,
dimensionless
the dimensionless
torque torque remains
remains constant, but constant,
but when
when the radius
the radius ratioratio is greater than η
is greater
than η < 0.97, the gap between
empirical and numerical values
expands as the radial gap ratio
increases. As the radial gap
clearance is increased, the
torque coefficient rises.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 19 of 29

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 27

Table 5. Cont.

Geometry of Method/Experimental
Year Reference Parameter Findings
the Model Method < 0.97, the gap between empirical and nu-
merical values expands as the radial gap
1. ratioThe pressure
increases. As the difference
radial gaphas a
clearance
significant
is increased, effect coefficient
the torque on the flow rises.
1. The pattern
pressure of the gap,
difference hasand it also has
a significant ef- a
significant
fect on the flow pattern effect of onthethe torque
gap, and itof
also the
has arim. significant effect on the torque of
The boundary layer
2. the rim.
In the gap flow with pressure
theory and 2. In the gap flow with pressure difference,
The pressureThe boundary layer theory and difference, the hollow part of the
The pressure dif- semiempirical the hollow part of the duct midsection and
difference insemiempirical formulas: the duct midsection and the sum of the
2015 [74]
2015 [74] ference in the ax- formulas: the RANS the sum of the thrust of the outer surface of
the axial andRANS solver and the turbulent thrust offront
the outer surface of the
k- ωand the
ial and radial gap solver the rim at the and rear ends cancel
radial gap model SST
turbulent model eachrimother atout.
the front and rear ends
3. The cancel
calculated eachrimother
torqueout. coefficient of the
SST k-ω
3. gap The
flow calculated
with differential rimpressure
torque is larger
thancoefficient
that under the of condition
the gap flow of no with
differ-
ential pressure. pressure is larger than
differential
1. A combination of the Daily and Nece, as
that under the condition of no
well as the Bilgen and Boulos models for
differential pressure.
torque contributions, was shown to under-
The axial and ra- The Daily and Nece, and Bilgen 1. predict torque, which could
A combination of thebeDailydue toandthe
2015 [55] Rim-driven thrusters
dial rim gaps and Boulos models former’s
Nece, low asaspect
well ratio
as the and the latter’s
Bilgen and
axial pressure gradient effects.
Boulos models for torque
2. The interplay between the two gaps’ proba-
contributions,
ble flows caused torque was shown to
effects.
The Daily and Nece, 1. The under-predict
larger the axial and torque,
radial which
gap size,could
the
The axial and
2015 [55] Rim-driven thrusters and Bilgen and Boulos be due to the former’s
higher the rotation speed, and therefore, low aspect
Theradial rim gaps
different
models ratio and
the greater the latter’s
the water flow speed.axialAspressure
a re-
structural param-
Contrastive analysis, CFD analy- sult,gradient
the greatereffects.the power consumption
2017 [75] Motor cooling eters and differ-
ent working con-
sis 2. and The
the greater
interplay the frictional
between power con-
the two
sumption
gaps’ofprobablethe gap fluid.flows caused torque
ditions 2. Increasing the gap size is beneficial to the
effects.
heat dissipation of the motor.
1. 1. For L-shaped
The larger bearings,
the axial as theandnumber
radialofgap
grooves
size,increases,
the higher the thrust of the propel-
the rotation speed,
The different ler and
andpropulsion
therefore, increases,
the greater and thethethrust
water
structural of the rotor ring decreases with the increase
flow speed. As a result, the greater
parameters and Contrastive analysis, in the number of grooves.
2017 [75] Motor cooling The change in the 2. The the
taperedpower bearingconsumption
has relativelyand smallthe
different CFD analysis
L-shaped bearing and lawworking
of clearance Contrastive analysis, CFD analy- greater
clearance the frictional
friction power consumptionpower due
2018 [76]
tapered bearing friction power to itsconsumption
structural advantages. of the gap fluid.
conditions sis
consumption 3. 2. As theIncreasing
number ofthe gap grooves
bearing size is beneficial
in-
creases,
to thethe heat
thrustdissipation
and torque generated
of the motor. by
the propeller gradually decrease; however,
1. the thrust
For L-shaped
and torquebearings,
generated as by the
the ro-
number
tor ring increase of as
grooves
the number increases,
of bearing the
grooves
thrust increases.
of the propeller and
1. There is an intensive
propulsion leaking vortex
increases, and the at the
thrust
rotor tip for low advance speed coefficients,
of the rotor ring decreases with the
The rotor and sta- Mesh approach for flat-topped and the addition of a tip vortex model im-
increase in the number of grooves.
tor thrust as well blades based on a circular trun- proves the calculation results noticeably.
2019 [49] Pump-jet propulsor The change in 2. However,
The tapered
as the torque per- cated cone and a tip leakage vor- 2. it ignoresbearing
the effecthas relatively
of gap flow
the law of tex model
formance on thesmall clearance
surrounding flow friction power in
field, resulting
L-shaped bearing Contrastive analysis,
2018 [76] clearance consumption
rotor-tip load forecast due to itsthat
findings structural
are in-
and tapered bearing CFD analysis
friction power advantages.
accurate.
Theconsumption
different 3. As the number of bearing grooves
Reynolds-averaged equation The axial gap flow increases with the increase in
speeds of the ro- increases, the thrust and torque
(RANS), and the rotation of the the rotation speed. Changes in the fluid pattern
2019 [77] Rim-driven propulsor tor and the ad-
rotor was simulated by moving within thegenerated
gap result inby the propeller
changes in the differen-
vanced coeffi- gradually decrease; however, the
reference frame (MRF) tial pressure within the gap.
cient thrust and torque generated by the
The different gap 1. As the gapring
rotor widened, the friction
increase as thetorque
number of
2017 [78,79]
ratios in a radial rose.bearing grooves increases.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 20 of 29

Table 5. Cont.

Geometry of Method/Experimental
Year Reference Parameter Findings
the Model Method
1. There is an intensive leaking vortex
at the rotor tip for low advance
Mesh approach for
The rotor and speed coefficients, and the addition
flat-topped blades
stator thrust as of a tip vortex model improves the
based on a circular
2019 [49] Pump-jet propulsor well as the calculation results noticeably.
truncated cone and a
torque 2. However, it ignores the effect of gap
tip leakage vortex
performance flow on the surrounding flow field,
model
resulting in rotor-tip load forecast
findings that are inaccurate.
Reynolds-averaged
The different The axial gap flow increases with the
equation (RANS), and
speeds of the increase in the rotation speed. Changes
Rim-driven the rotation of the
2019 [77]
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW rotor and the in the fluid pattern within the gap
18 result
of 27
propulsor rotor was simulated by
advanced in changes in the differential pressure
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
moving reference 18 of 27
coefficient within the gap.
frame (MRF)
and axial direc- 2. Friction torque had mutual effects in both
tion,The
speed, and 1. the axial
As the
andgap widened,
radial directions,the
andfriction
the heat
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW different 18both
of 27
and axial direc-
pressure torque
2. created in the
Friction rose.
motorhad
torque dissipated
mutualfast in the
effects in
gap ratios in a
radial and axial CM =( s a ) −1/6
−1 6
2017 [78,79] tion, speed, and CM = 0.080 Re −0.25 2. gapthe
flow.
Friction torque
axial and radialhad mutualand
directions, effects
the heat
2022 [75] pressure 0.080(s/a) Re−0.25 in bothinthe
created theaxial
motorand radial fast in the
dissipated
direction, CM = 2 M ρω a −1 6 2 5−0.25
2 5

M = 2( sM/ρω
a ) Re gap flow.
directions, and the heat created in
andspeed, and
axial direc- CM =C0.080 a 2. Friction torque had mutual effects in both
2022 [75] the motor dissipated fast in the
pressure
tion, speed, and CM = 2 M ρω 2 a 5 the axial and radial directions, and the heat
gap flow.
2022 [75] pressure created in the motor dissipated fast in the
CM = 0.080 ( s a ) Re
−1 6 −0.25 1.Thegap flow. of the gap-flow model has
inclusion
2022 [75]
1. the greatest
The inclusion
impact on ofthe
theduct
gap-flow
of the
CM = 2 M ρω a 2 5 model has the greatest
pump-jet propulsor, bringing the impact
duct’s onhy-
1. drodynamic
The
the inclusion of the
ductperformance
of the gap-flow
pump-jet modeldis-has
propulsor,
and pressure
The effect of fluid Combining the existing tip leak- the
tribution greatest
bringing inimpact
more the duct’s
line on the
with the trend
duct of
hydrodynamicof the
the
2021 [80] viscosity in the age vortex model and a suitable pump-jet
viscous propulsor,findings.
flow calculation bringing the duct’s hy-
performance and pressure
Combining the 2. Thedrodynamic
gap-flow model performance
has ainminor and pressure dis-
gap zone gap-flow model distribution more line effect
withon thehas
TheThe effect
effect of Combining
of fluid existing
thetip tip leak- 1. the tribution
leakage
existing The inclusion
moreofinthe
overall hydrodynamic linegap-flow
with themodel
performance trendof of the
trend
the of the
greatest viscous
impact flow
on the duct of the
2021
2021 [80]
[80] viscosity in the age vortex
fluid viscosity vortexmodel
modelandand
a suitable
a the viscous
pump-jetflow calculation
propulsor’s findings.
calculation find-
2. ings,calculation
pump-jet
The findings.
propulsor, bringing the duct’s hy-
gapinzone
the gap zone gap-flow modelgap-flow
suitable andgap-flow modelvalue
its determined has aisminor
only effect on
2. slightly
Theoverall
the gap-flow
drodynamic
raised. model has
performance
hydrodynamic anda minor
pressure dis-
performance of
model
The effect of fluid Combining the existing tip leak-
The effect of fluid A low-order panel method based tribution
effect on more
the in line
overall with the trend of
hydrodynamic
the pump-jet propulsor’s calculation the
find-
2021 [80] viscosityininthe
viscosity the onage vortexpotential
velocity model and a suitable1.
combining
Theviscous
gap height
andflow
performance
ings,
should be 0.98–1.0
calculation
of the
its determined pump-jet times the
findings.
value is only
gap zone gap-flow model 2. totalThe
gap height.
gap-flow
propulsor’s model has a minor effect on
2021 [81] gap zone, as well the existing tip leakage vortex slightly raised.calculation findings,
2. Thethefluxoverall
coefficient (CQ) range of
hydrodynamic 0.8–0.84
performance of
as theeffect
The heightofof
fluidmodel and a suitable
A low-order panel gap-flow
method based and its determined value is only
the gap in the model 1. wasThefound
the gaptoheight
pump-jet
slightly
be suitable.
should be calculation
propulsor’s
raised. 0.98–1.0 times the
find-
viscosity on velocity potential combining
total
ings, gap
and height.
its determined value is only
2021 [81] gap zone, as well the existing tip leakage vortex
A low-order panel 2. The fluxraised.
slightly coefficient (CQ) range of 0.8–0.84
4. Dynamic The
as the effectofof Technology
height
Coupling model and a suitable gap-flow
was found to be suitable.
The effect method
of fluid A low-order based
panel on based 1.
method Thegapgapheight
height should be 0.98–1.0
thefluid
gap viscositymodel 1. The should be 0.98–1.0 times the
4.1. Dynamic Coupling
viscosity in the between IMPs
on velocity and Ship
potential
velocity Hulls
combining
potential times the total gap height.
in the gap zone, total gap height.
2021 [81]
2021 [81] Thegap
4. Dynamic
zone, as well the existing
interaction
as well of aTechnology
as the yacht’s tip leakage
combining
duct and vortex
the existing
hull 2. The
Theflux
was investigated
2. fluxcoefficient
bycoefficient
Voith (CQ)(CQ)
(2017) range
[39].
range of
of Fig-
0.8–0.84
as the Coupling
height of model and
tip a suitable
leakage gap-flow
vortex 0.8–0.84 was found to be suitable.
ure 8a depicts
heighttheof RDT was found to be suitable.
the installation, while Figure 8b depicts the water flow pattern (b).
the gapCoupling model
4.1. Dynamic model
between IMPs andand
a suitable
Ship Hulls
gappropeller and the hull, this configuration created a flow vortex and negative
Between the
gap-flow model
The interaction of a yacht’s duct and hull was investigated by Voith (2017) [39]. Fig-
pressure.
4. Dynamic Coupling Technology
ure 8a depicts the RDT installation, while Figure 8b depicts the water flow pattern (b).
4.1. Dynamic
4.Between
Dynamic CouplingTechnology
Coupling
the propeller between
and theIMPs
hull, and
this Ship Hulls
configuration created a flow vortex and negative
4.1. Dynamic Coupling between
The interaction
pressure. IMPsduct
of a yacht’s and and
Shiphull
Hulls
was investigated by Voith (2017) [39]. Fig-
ureThe
8a depicts the RDT
interaction of a installation,
yacht’s ductwhile Figure
and hull 8binvestigated
was depicts the water flow(2017)
by Voith pattern (b).
[39].
Between
Figure the propeller
8a depicts the RDTandinstallation,
the hull, thiswhile
configuration
Figure 8bcreated
depictsa flow vortexflow
the water and pattern
negative
pressure.
(b). Between the propeller and the hull, this configuration created a flow vortex and
negative pressure.

Figure 8. Interaction between duct and hull of a yacht: (a) yacht equipped with two RDTs; (b) water
flow pattern behind the RDT [39].

To optimize the structure and installation site of RDTs, it is critical to comprehend

Figure 8. Interaction
the interaction between duct
and nonlinear and hull
coupling of a yacht:
between the (a) yacht equipped
wakefield, with
the RDT, andtwo
theRDTs;
hull. (b)
Thewater
flow pattern behind the RDT [39].

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824
4. Dynamic Coupling Technology
4.1. Dynamic Coupling between IMPs and Ship Hulls
The interaction of a yacht’s duct and hull was investigated by Voith (2017) [39]. Fig-
ure 8a depicts the RDT installation, while Figure 8b depicts the water flow pattern (b).
Between the propeller and the hull, this configuration created a flow vortex 21
and negative
of 29

pressure.

8. Interaction
Figure 8.
Figure Interactionbetween
betweenduct andand
duct hullhull
of a of
yacht: (a) yacht
a yacht: equipped
(a) yacht with two
equipped RDTs;
with two(b) water(b) water
RDTs;
flow pattern
flow patternbehind
behindthe RDT
the [39].
RDT [39].

To optimize the structure and installation site of RDTs, it is critical to comprehend

To optimize the structure and installation site of RDTs, it is critical to comprehend
the interaction and nonlinear coupling between the wakefield, the RDT, and the hull. The
the interaction and nonlinear coupling between the wakefield, the RDT, and the hull. The
efficiency of the system can be improved while minimizing sailing resistance by optimizing
efficiency
the RDT design,of the hull
system
lines,canand beinstallation
improved sites. whileTominimizing sailing resistance
study the interactions betweenby theoptimiz-
ing
hulltheandRDTRDTs,design,
Lu ethull lines, and
al. (2014) [82] installation
investigated sites. To studyofthe
the influence theinteractions
number of RDTs between the
hull
(either andtwoRDTs, Lusets)
or four et al.and
(2014) [82] investigated
the location of the RDTthe influenceon
installation ofthe
thehydrodynamic
number of RDTs (ei-
performances
ther two or four of ansets)
underwater
and thevehicle
location (Figure
of the9).RDT
Due installation
to the influence on of
thethe stern wake,
hydrodynamic per-
reducing the distance between the RDT and the hull improved
formances of an underwater vehicle (Figure 9). Due to the influence of the the RDT’s efficiency andstern
the wake,
thrust deduction
reducing factor. between
the distance To increase thetheRDTvehicle’s
and thehydrodynamic
hull improved performance,
the RDT’s theefficiency
RDTs and
could be placed at the parallel middle body towards the aft body. This would result in a
the
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW thrust deduction factor. To increase the vehicle’s hydrodynamic performance,
19 of 27 the
negative thrust deduction factor. When RDTs were installed on the stern planes, increasing
RDTs could be placed at the parallel middle body towards the aft body. This would result
the number of RDTs resulted in a significant reduction in the total propulsive efficiency;
in a negative
however, when thrust deduction
the RDTs factor. When
were mounted on the RDTs
parallelwere installed
middle on thewas
body, there stern
onlyplanes,
a in-
creasing
small thereduction
only areduction
small number ofthe
in
in the total RDTstotalresulted
propulsive propulsive in efficiency.
a significant
efficiency. reduction
The design,
The design, inand
thetesting
integration,
integration, total propulsive
and test-
of a
efficiency; however,
ing of a steerable
steerable rim-driven when the
rim-driven
thruster thruster
for RDTs
the were
for
short the mounted
short
takeoff on
takeoff
aviation the parallel
aviation
support middle
support
ship (STASS) ship body,
(STASS)
model there was
was
the subject
model wasofthe
Newacheck
subject ofetNewacheck
al. (2019) [83]. To (2019)
et al. analyze[83].
the To
influence
analyze of the
the newly
influencedesigned
of the
and
newlyintegrated
designed system on the drag
and integrated force,on
system the testing
the matrixthe
drag force, used fourmatrix
testing configurations
used four ofcon-
the
bare hull, supplemented
figurations of the bare hull,withsupplemented
SHIPS, bollard pull,
with and self-propelled
SHIPS, bollard pull, and phases. The drag
self-propelled
force
phases.for The
SHIPS was
drag found
force fortoSHIPS
be enhanced
was foundby 20% due
to be to a variety
enhanced of factors,
by 20% due to including
a varietythe of
increased wetted surface
factors, including area and
the increased the blocking
wetted surface effect caused
area and by the presence
the blocking of the motor
effect caused by the
cage and steering
presence column
of the motor in the
cage andflow direction.
steering column After
in the
the thruster was integrated,
flow direction. After thethere was
thruster
awas
further increase in the drag force.
integrated, there was a further increase in the drag force.

Figure 9. Different
Figure 9. Different numbers
numbers and
andinstallation
installationlocations
locationsof
ofRDTs
RDTs[82].
[82].

4.2. The Coupling Design Technology of Hydrodynamics, Electromagnetics, and Bearings

Numerical simulation methods also play an irreplaceable role in analyzing the cou-
pling effects of the electromagnetic–hydrodynamic–thermal structure of the integrated
motor propulsion devices, according to Hu et al. (2016) [84,85] and Shen et al. (2016) [29].
 Figure 9. Different numbers and installation locations of RDTs [82].

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 4.2. The Coupling Design Technology of Hydrodynamics, Electromagnetics,
22 of 29 and B

Numerical simulation methods also play an irreplaceable role in analy

pling
4.2. Theeffects
Coupling of theTechnology
Design electromagnetic–hydrodynamic–thermal
of Hydrodynamics, Electromagnetics, and Bearings structure of t
motor propulsion
Numerical devices,
simulation methods according
also play antoirreplaceable
Hu et al. (2016) [84,85] the
role in analyzing andcou-
Shen et
pling
To effectsthe
tackle of the electromagnetic–hydrodynamic–thermal
heat dissipation problem of permanent-magnet structure of the integrated
motors, slots a
motor propulsion devices, according to Hu et al. (2016) [84,85] and Shen et al. (2016) [29].
at
To the front
tackle and
the heat rear ends
dissipation of the
problem motor rotor to motors,
of permanent-magnet facilitateslotscommunication
are positioned wi
between
at the front the stator
and rear endsand
of therotor. Figure
motor rotor 10 depicts
to facilitate the design
communication and
with the airsimulation
gap
between the stator and rotor. Figure
circulation seawater cooling method. 10 depicts the design and simulation of a natural
circulation seawater cooling method.

Figure 10. Multifield simulation of IMP [85].

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 27
Figure 10. Multifield simulation of IMP [85].
Liang et al. (2012) used a combination of the finite element method and the finite
volume method to carry out the study of electromagnetic–thermal coupling [86,87]. The
back Liang et al.
back electromotive
electromotive force(2012)
force and used a combination
andtemperature
temperature were
were measured
measured inofin the
thisthis finite
study
study element
through
through method
experi-
experiments
volume
ments method
to demonstrate
to demonstrate tothat
that the carry out the permanent
the integrated
integrated permanentstudy
magnetof can
electromagnetic–thermal
magnet can improve
improve couplin
the effective-
the effectiveness of the
ness of the motor-cooling system, as illustrated in Figures
motor-cooling system, as illustrated in Figures 11 and 12. 11 and 12.

Figure 11.
Figure Simplified PM
11. Simplified PMmodel
modelfor
formultifield
multifieldcoupled analysis
coupled [86].
analysis [86].
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 23 of 29

Figure 11. Simplified PM model for multifield coupled analysis [86].

Figure12.
Figure 12.Temperature
Temperaturedistribution
distributionof of stator
stator andand windings
windings [86].[86].

5. Discussion
5. Discussion
5.1. The Design of the IMP
5.1. The Design of the IMP
The lifting-line theory has significantly promoted the development of IMP propeller
The lifting-line theory has significantly promoted the development of IMP propeller
design technology. Many researchers have proposed a corresponding design theory, mainly
design technology. Many researchers have proposed a corresponding design theory,
focused on the design method and design object. In terms of design methods, the IMP
mainly focused on the design method and design object. In terms of design methods, the
propeller lifting-line theory was improved because of the defects of the heavy-duty pro-
IMP propeller lifting-line theory was improved because of the defects of the heavy-duty
peller and the basic design theory under nondesign conditions. For IMP propellers with a
propeller and the basic design theory under nondesign conditions. For IMP propellers
side slope and pitch, the corresponding lifting-line design method is perfected. In recent
with a side slope and pitch, the corresponding lifting-line design method is perfected. In
years, scholars have combined the IMP propeller lifting-line theory with the panel method
recent years, scholars have combined the IMP propeller lifting-line theory with the panel
and the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) method to improve the accuracy and
method and the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) method to improve the accu-
efficiency of IMP propeller performance prediction. In addition, it is combined with mod-
racy and efficiency of IMP propeller performance prediction. In addition, it is combined
ern optimization design theory, and the performance optimization of an IMP propeller
is considered in the design stage, which improves the design efficiency. In terms of the
design objects, as the calculation speed increases, the lifting-line theory can be applied to
the performance prediction and design of complex thrusters.
The lifting-surface method is used by many studies to deal with the forward prediction
of IMP propellers. The current research focuses include the shrinkage and curling of the
wake vortex in the transition zone of the IMP propeller and the tip vortex separation
model, which considers the trim and side slope, etc., establishing a model of the IMP
propeller trailing vortex and tip vortex, and the separation vortex of the leading edge
and corresponding improvement methods are also proposed. In addition, when the IMP
propeller interacts with other components, the influence of the hub and the coupling
panel method are introduced to consider the influence of other components to improve
the accuracy of the performance prediction. Regarding the inverse problem of the lifting-
surface design method, since the shape of the blade profile is closely related to its load
form, efficiency, cavitation, and other hydrodynamic properties, the main research focus is
the precise and rapid design of the vortex grid method to meet the given lift distribution,
the design of the arcuate surface of the blade arch under the circulation distribution, and
the three-dimensional refinement of the theoretical boundary value problem of the IMP
propeller lifting surface. In addition, when considering the interaction between the hull and
its appendages, ducts, and propellers, the lifting surface is coupled with other theories such
as RANS for design, and the influence of other components is more accurately considered
in the design stage to further improve the design accuracy and efficiency.
At present, the lifting-line model is relatively mature and can solve the problems
related to the calculation of the propeller thrust, torque, efficiency, and induced speed field
behind the propeller; the calculation time required is relatively short, but it has certain
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 24 of 29

limitations. Compared with the lifting-line method, whether it is a forward prediction

problem or a reverse design problem, the lifting-surface method can fully consider the
blade chord length, camber, and pitch distribution, which has great advantages. Regarding
IMP propeller design issues, most of the past studies have focused on the deformation of
the tail vortex, the effect of the hub, and the related lifting-surface design of the profile load
distribution. It is particularly important to refine the design of some special propellers,
such as ducted propellers and pump-jet propellers, to couple the lifting-line and lifting
surface design methods with methods such as the surface element method or RANS, and
to consider the interaction of the components. This aspect is worthy of further study.

5.2. Hydrodynamic Performance of IMP Thrusters

When predicting the propulsion performance of an IMP thruster, the CFD method con-
sidering the viscous effect can accurately simulate the complex flow of the IMP thruster’s
wakefield and the slight vortex structure of the blade. At the same time, it can accurately
simulate the flow near the wall through the boundary layer grid, and the effect of turbulent
flow is fully considered on the propulsion performance of IMP thrusters. With the develop-
ment of high-performance computers, the viscous-flow CFD method strongly supports the
prediction of the hydrodynamic performance of IMP thrusters. At present, it seems to be
the most mainstream method for the numerical simulation of IMP thrusters’ flow fields.
In terms of CFD preprocessing for IMP thrusters, the CFD grid discrete method is
relatively mature. The main research work is focused on comparing different grid types and
corresponding grid layout methods to automatically generate grids for specific calculation
conditions and to investigate the combined use of different grid discretization methods.
In terms of the IMP thruster CFD calculation method, the aim is to evaluate the applica-
bility of different turbulence models in the calculation of an IMP thruster’s hydrodynamic
performance. At present, it seems that different turbulence models have certain differ-
ences when measuring the hydrodynamic performance of IMP thrusters. These works
also provide a reliable reference for the reasonable selection of turbulence models that
are suitable for specific research topics. For the flow field of rotating machinery such as
IMP thrusters, numerical methods such as multireference system models, sliding grids,
overlapping grids, moving grids, and periodic boundaries also have corresponding suitable
application scenarios.
In terms of CFD calculations for IMP thrusters, the current research work is mainly
focused on the open-water performance of IMP thrusters, the numerical prediction of
unsteady forces, the fluid–structure interaction, the performance in a nonuniform flow field,
and the cavitation of IMP thrusters. Regarding the open-water performance, the research
content includes the impact analysis of IMP thruster parameters, such as side slope and
pitch, and the geometric parameters of duct IMP thrusters, such as blade tip clearance. For
the application of different turbulence models in the calculation of the unsteady force of
IMP thrusters, more extensive research has been carried out at home and abroad, mainly
comparing the calculation accuracy of different turbulence models. According to the
research results, the DES method and the LES method deal with nonstationary forces
and are most widely used for steady problems. There are also related studies on the
influence of calculation settings on unsteady calculations and the calculation of the unsteady
performance of new types of thrusters.

5.3. Optimization Technology of IMP Thrusters

Previous studies pay more attention to the design goals of IMP propulsion efficiency,
cavitation performance, blade strength, and noise performance. The introduction of mul-
tiobjective optimization design methods is aimed at the occasions that require multiple
performance indicators. Generally, more multiobjective methods are being used, such as
the dualobjective optimization design of propulsion efficiency and cavitation performance,
and performance optimization under multiple operating conditions.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 25 of 29

During the optimization design process of IMP propellers, many scholars have ana-
lyzed the sensitivity of IMP propeller design parameters to design goals through design
of experiment (DOE), Sobol sensitivity analysis, and regression analysis. Studies have
shown that the maximum chord length of the blade is the main factor affecting the cavi-
tation performance, and the dimensionless radius of 0.7–0.9 has a greater impact on the
low-frequency broadband noise of the IMP propeller. In addition, the thinner the blade,
the more obvious the effect of improving the efficiency of the propeller, but thinner blades
have an adverse effect on the strength and other mechanical properties of the blade. The
influence of the parameters of IMP propellers on the performance and the restrictive re-
lationships between the parameters are more easily reflected in the optimization design
process. It is very important to apply modern optimization design theory to IMP propeller
design optimization.

6. Conclusions
This paper analyzes the IMP thruster’s working structure, major structural application
technology, current hydrodynamic performance research, and important technologies that
require further resolution. The IMP thruster completely embraces the principle of extensive
electric modularization and integration, better reflecting the high power density, high
efficiency, low radiation noise, and maneuverability of electric propulsion systems. As a
result, integrated motor propulsion technology has gradually expanded its application
areas to other rotating machinery such as pumps, turbines, and fans. However, there are
still some uncertain issues with IMP thrusters, for example, that the output power is still in
the megawatt range due to power loss at the intake. Furthermore, using IMPs in shallow
water, especially around gravel, is exceedingly risky. To design an IMP, numerous critical
technologies must be resolved. Because the stator of the motor in the IMP propeller is
embedded in the duct, the rotor and the impeller blade are seamlessly connected. This
structure thickens the duct and affects the entire flow field. In addition, it is necessary
to ensure that the propeller motor has a large enough flow area by limiting the thickness
of the stator yoke, rotor yoke, and the magnet of the motor. If the size is too thin, the
electromagnetic field will saturate prematurely, further reducing the magnetic flux density
of the motor, causing the motor to fail to work normally. In addition, as the IMP thruster
eliminates the use of the drive shaft, bearings, and vibration isolation devices that support
the traditional motor and reduce the internal noise of the hull, the thrust and torque
generated by the thruster are directly coupled with the electromagnetic excitation force
generated by the motor, which then increases the electromagnetic noise, hydrodynamic
noise, etc. Therefore, the complexity and necessity of designing a high-power, low-vibration,
low-noise, and high-performance motor are increased.
If a nonaqueous lubricant is used for bearing lubrication, then the sealing devices
must be considered. This will increase the complexity and design cost of the entire IMP
propeller structure and, at the same time, may cause some other marine pollution problems.
Therefore, the use of water-lubricated bearings can reduce the weight and complexity of
the IMP thruster system to better reflect the advantages of the IMP thruster. However, due
to the low viscosity of the water medium, the bearing capacity of the water film is not large
enough, which means that the water-lubricated bearings experience a mixed-lubrication
state. As a result, this will affect the bearing capacity and working performance of the
bearing. In addition, the adaptability of the bearing material to water and the influence of
different flow conditions on the dynamic pressure lubrication characteristics of the bearing
will affect the load transfer in the bearing. Therefore, the load-bearing reliability char-
acteristics and design optimization of the bearing should consider the above-mentioned
series of issues. To obtain an IMP thruster with a high propulsion efficiency and high
output power, the design method for these components must be very strict, because the
degree of coupling between high-power thruster components must be higher. Therefore,
hydrodynamic–electromagnetic–thermal–fluid–solid coupling research can effectively help
us to understand the complex working conditions of the coupling between the internal
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3824 26 of 29

components and the whole of the IMP thruster. Additionally, it can obtain the key influenc-
ing factors that affect the propulsion performance, which will provide technical support for
the design of high-power IMP thrusters in the future.
When the IMP propeller is working, as it is completely immersed in seawater, all
impurities in the seawater will be sucked into the air gap of the propeller, which will then
reduce the amount of flowing fluid in the air gap, affecting the cooling of the motor and
ultimately reducing the efficiency of the motor. When the IMP is operating in shallow
waters, especially in sandy waters, the motor may be directly damaged. The failure of the
motor will cause the ship to lose power. Therefore, improving the antipollution and anti-
damage abilities of IMP thrusters is of great significance for improving the hydrodynamic
performance and efficiency of the thrusters.

Author Contributions: Q.L. and S.A. drafted the manuscript; Q.L., S.A. and M.R.M.R. provided
advice regarding revision of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
the Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)There is
no funding source, and in paert the Project of Young Innovative Talents in General Universities of
Guangdong Province (Natural Science Category) (2020KQNCX112); and Guangdong Technology
College, the department of Intelligent Manufacturing for their support this research.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants
included in the study.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the Project of Young Innovative Talents in
General Universities of Guangdong Province (Natural Science Category) (2020KQNCX112); and
Guangdong Technology College, the department of Intelligent Manufacturing for their support
this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
KT Thrust coefficient Ω Vorticity
KQ Torque coefficient
σ Cavitation number
η Propulsion efficiency, η = KT /KQ · ( J/2π ) Cp Pressure coefficient
J Advance coefficient, J = U/nD CM Gap moment coefficient
U Inflow velocity
n Rotational speed
D Diameter of propeller

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