Mendelian Genetics

(Complete Dominance)
 Only two possible Phenotypes: either
dominant or recessive

 Tall plant X Short plant = Tall plant

(TT) (tt) (Tt)
 Non-Mendelian Genetics
 But, not all inheritance is based on the
rules of Complete Dominance!!
 Mendelian Genetics describes
inheritance patterns based on
Complete Dominance or
Recessiveness.
 There are other types of inheritance
that Mendel never considered:
 Incomplete Inheritance
 Codominance
 Multiple Alleles
 Polygenic Traits
 Sex-linked
 Non-Mendelian Iheritance
 Itis a general term that refers to any
pattern of inheritance in which traits
do not segregate in accordance with
Mendel’s law.
 These law describe the inheritance of
traits linked to single genes on
chromosome in nucleus.
 Mendel had examined the inheritance
of seven traits and found that the
manner in which each of these
characteristics was inherited was
independent of the inheritance of the
others. This formed the basis of his
law of independent assortment
 However, in 1960, William Bateson
and R.C Punnet could not explain the
results of an experiment with sweet
peas. It differ from the expected
9:3:3:1 ratio Mendel got in his
experiments.
A few years after Bateson and
Punnet’s experiment, Thomas Hunt
Morgan, a zoologist at Columbia
University, did a similar experiment.
He found that the traits of body color
and wing shape did not assort
independently.
 Morgan proposed that such results could
not explained if the genes were carried on
the same chromosome. Gene on the same
chromosome are called linked genes.
 Morgan hypothesis of gene linkage
became part of the chromosome theory of
heredity.
 Non-Mendian inheritance also plays a
role in several disease processes.
 Some trait do not follow the simple
dominant/recessive rule that Mendel
first applied to genetics.
 Trait can be controlled by more than
one gene.
 Some alleles are neither dominant
nor recessive.
 Incomplete Inheritance
 (also called partial dominance) occurs
when the phenotype of the heterozygous
genotype is distinct form of intermediates
to phenotypes of the homozygous
genotype.
 Incomplete dominance is a form of
intermediate inheritance in which one
allele for a specific trait is not completely
dominant over the other allele.
 Incomplete Inheritance
The hybrid (heterozygous) offspring
displays a THIRD Phenotype!! Neither trait
is completely dominant, as a result, there
appears to be a blending phenotype.
Red Flower X White Flower = Pink
(RR) (WW) (RW)
Incomplete Inheritance Problem
 What is the probability of pink flowers if
pink flowers are bred with red flowers?

50%
chance
of Pink
Flowers
Incomplete Inheritance Problem
 What is the probability of white flowers if
pink flowers are bred with pink flowers?
 When plant of the plants of the F1
generation are self-pollinated, the
phenotypic and genotypic ratio of the F2
generation will be 1:2:1 (Red:Pink:White)
for both generations.
 Incomplete dominance is seen in cross-
pollination experiments between red and
white plants. The dominant allele that
produces the red color is not completely
expressed over the recessive allele that
produces the white color. The resulting
offspring are pink
 Codominance
 A condition in which the alleles of gene
pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed
thereby resulting in offspring with a
phenotype that is neither dominant nor
recessive.
 To indicate that the two alleles are
codominant, they are both written in
upper-case, with subscript to indicate the
different alleles
 CoDominance
 Both traits are dominant, and show up in
the phenotype together. Co means
―together‖
 Black Cow X White Cow = Spotted Cow
(BB) (WW) (BW)
 CoDominance Problem
 What are all the possible phenotypes
when two spotted cows are bred?

Possible
phenotypes
are a black
cow, 2
spotted
cows, and a
white cow
 Codominace, is different from incomplete
or semi-dominance, where the quantitative
interaction of allele products produces an
intermediate phenotype.
 For example, in codominance, a red
homozygous flower and white homzygous
flower will produce offspring that has red
and white spots.
 When plants of F1 generation are self-
pollinated, the phenotypic and genotypic
ratio of the F2 generation will be 1:2:1
(Red:Spotted:White).
A typical example showing
codominance is the ABO blood group.
 The ABO blood group is a major
system classifying blood types in
humans.
 Blood type AB is inherited
codominant pattern.
 For instance, a father with blood type
A and a mother with blood with blood
type B have four children. Each with
different blood type: A, AB, A, and O.
 The blood type AB are codominant
with each other.
 Multiple Alleles
 When more than 2 varieties exist in a trait.
Many animals have a variety of coat
colors.
 Sex-linked Inheritance
 Genes for some traits are found on the sex
chromosomes (X or y)
 Most of these traits are recessive the normal
gene is dominant
 Heterozygous Females (XXc) are carriers. They
do not show the trait, but carry a gene for the
trait.
 Homozygous Females (XcXc) have the trait
 Males with the gene (XcY) have the trait.—They
do not have another X to counterbalance the
affected gene
 Genes that are found on the sex
chromosomes are called sex-linked
genes.
 These genes can be on the X
chromosome or on the Y
chromosome.
 If a gene is located on the Y
chromosome, it is a Y-linked gene.
These genes are only inherited by
males because they have a genotype
of XY.
 In X-linked recessive traits, the
phenotype is expressed in males
because they only contain one X
chromosome.
 The phenotype may be masked in
females if the second X chromosome
contain one normal gene for that same
trait.
 An example of this can be seen in
hemophilia.
 Hemophilia – is a blood disorder
in which certain blood clotting
factors are not produced. This
results in excessive bleeding that
can damage organs and tissues.
 Hemophilia is an X-linked recessive
trait caused by gene mutation.
 It is more often seen in men than
women.
 Hemophilia is a sex-linked recessive
trait. When the mother is a carrier and
the father does not have the trait.

The son have a 50/50 chance

Of inheriting the trait while the
Daughters have a 50/50 chance
Of being carriers of the trait. X Y
If the son inherits an X
Chromosome with hemophilia c c c
Gene, the trait will be expressed X XX XY
and he will have disorder. If a
daughter inherits the mutated X
chromosome, her normal X
chromosome will compensate for
X XX XY
the abnormal chromosome and the
disease will not be expressed
 Color blindness is a sex-linked
recessive trait. The gene for this trait is
inherited through the X chromosome.

If a woman with normal vision

has children with a man
who is colorblind,
Xc Y
what are the chances
that their children will be X XX c XY
colorblind?
Will any children be carriers
of the trait? X XXc XY
Biodiversity and Evolution
 Evolution – It is gradual process in
which something changes to a
different and usually more complex or
better form.
 It is responsible for both the
remarkable similarities we see across
all life and the amazing diversity of
that life.
 Paleontology- is the study of fossils.
 Fossils – are remnants, impressions,
or traces of an animal or plant of a
past geologic age that has been
preserved in the Earth’s crust.
 Fossil records are the primary
sources of information about the
history of life on Earth.
 Biogeography
 It is the study of distribution of life
forms over geographical areas.
 It provides significant inferential
evidence for evolution.
 The biogeographic distribution of
species supports evolution.
 Species are distributed around the
globe largely in relation to their
genetic relationships to one another.
 Example, marsupials are found
almost exclusively in Australia,
Whereas placental mammals are very
rare in Australia.
 Comparative Anatomy
 Itis the study of structures from
organisms of many different species.
 Early evolutionary scientists used
comparative anatomy to determine
relationship between species.
 Organisms with similar structures
must have acquired these traits from
a common ancestor.
 Homologous structures – are
structures with the same origin
appearing in organisms of different
species but different functions.
 Analogous structures – have similar
functions but different underlying
structure. Bat’s wing perform the
same function as a bird wings but
have vastly different functions.
 Comparative Embryology
 Embryology – provides strong evidences
of evolution.
 Embryos of animals belonging to various
classes of vertebrates show similarities in
the early stage of embryo development.
 But as the developmental of embryo
progresses, clear differences among them
become visible. These indicate that
vertebrate show common ancestors and
origin.
 Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) –
proposed the Recapitulation theory.
 Recapitulation Theory (biogenetic law)
states that an animal during
development (ontogeny) repeats
certain ancestral stages of its
evolution (phylogeny)
 Vestigial Organs
 Vestigial organs – are organs that
have no purpose and therefore
represent vestiges of some earlier
stage of development.
 Human appendix is a vestigial organs
while in rabbit, appendix is a
functional and well-developed organ.
 Theories of Evolution
 Georges – Louis Leclerc de Buffon
– who first studied and developed a
concept that all living things are
continuously changing.
 Erasmus Darwin – Charles Darwin’s
grandfather, also believed that
species change through modification
in form which is passed on to their
offspring.
 Carolus Linnaeus - provided an idea
that no species has developed
abruptly-new species arise from pre-
existing species.
 This information provided knowledge
about the evolutionary relationship
among the organisms.
 Lamarckism
 Lamarckism was proposed by Jean-
Baptiste Lamarck. According to this
theory, use and disuse of an organ
leads to acquiring a change in the
feature of that organ.
 Jean Baptist Lamarck proposed that
organisms change based on the
conditions present in their
environment.
 He believed that organisms change
from one form to another in order to
adapt to their environment and these
characteristics resulting from these
changes are passed on from one
generation to the next.
 Lamarck further explained that the
organism in its lifetime develops
characteristics caused by disuse of
organs.
 Those parts of the body that are
frequently used tend to develop or
enlarge, while parts which are not
used shrink and finally disappear.
 Lamarckism was strongly criticized by
August Weismann. He proved that
even after cutting the tail of mice
continuously for twenty-one
generations, a tailless mouse was
never born. And so, Lamarck’s theory
of inheritance of acquired characters
is discarded.
 Darwinism
A theory of biological evolution
developed by Charles Darwin and
others, states that ―all species
organisms arise and develop through
the natural selection of small,
inherited variations that increase the
individual’s ability to compete,
survive, and reproduce. This is also
called Darwinian Theory.
 Darwinism was proposed by Charles
Darwin. According to him, the
reproductive rate of any organism is very
high. In spite of this, the number of
organisms remains within the limit. The
number of organism is maintained
because the organisms struggle far from
their existence – struggle for their basic
needs for food, shelter and protection.
Organisms that are capable of competing
successfully develop some variation
 Charles Darwin made an extensive
study on evolution considering that he
gathered a vast evidences supporting
organic evolution while exploring the
fauna of South America and Africa.
 From these, he developed a theory
on the process of evolution which is
known as natural selection.
 Darwin was the first to formulate a
scientific argument for the theory of
evolution by means of natural
selection.
 Evolution by natural selection is a
process inferred from three facts
about populations:
 More offspring are produced in each
generation even if the survival rate suffers
due to scarcity of food,
 Traits vary among individuals, leading to
different rates of survival and reproduction
and,
 Trait differences are heritable. Thus when
members of a population die, they
replaced by the progeny of parents better
adapted to survive and reproduce in the
environment in which natural selection
takes place.
 The natural selection is the only
known cause of adaptation, but not
only known cause of evolution.
 Other nonadaptive cause of evolution
include mutation and genetic drift.
 Darwin’s discoveries also lead to the
breakthrough, that changes in genes in the
form of mutation could occur disregarding
the effects of the environment.
 According to some scientists, favorable
mutation is slow within a population.
Instead, a recombination process where
genes are rearranged through sexual
reproduction occurs. Both mutations and
sexual recombination genetic variation for
evolution.
 In
due coarse, Darwin’s theory was
modified into the most widely
accepted theory of evolution, the
―synthetic theory of evolution.‖ This
modern theory is based on genetic
variation and natural selections.
 Mechanisms of Evolution
 Population – It is an interbreeding group
of individuals of one species in a given
geographic area.
 Evolution does not occur in individuals but
in populations.
 As a population evolves because it
contains the collection of genes called the
gene pool. As a changes in the gene pool
occur, a population evolves.
 Mutation
 It is a random change in a
population’s gene pool.
 It is a change in the nature of the
DNA in one or more chromosomes.
 Mutations give rise to new alleles;
therefore, they are the source of
variation in a population.
 It may be harmful harmful, but they may
also be beneficial.
 For example, mutation may permit
organism in a population to produce
enzymes that will allow them to use certain
food materials.
 Over time, these type of individuals
survive, while those not having mutations
perish. Therefore the natural selection
tends to remove the less-fit individuals,
allowing more-fit individuals to survive and
form a population of fit individuals.
 Gene Flow
 When organisms migrate, they interbreed
with the new population and contribute
their genes to gene pool of the local
population.
 This establishes gene flow in the
population.
 Gene flow tends to increase the similarity
between remaining populations of the
same species because it make gene pool
more similar one.
 Genetic Drift
 Itoccurs when a small group of
individuals leaves a population and
establishes a new one in a
geographically isolated region.
 For example, when a small population
of fish is placed in a lake, the fish
population will evolve into one that is
different from the original.
 Natural Selection
 Itoccurs when an organism is subject
to its environment. The fittest survive
and contribute their genes to their
offspring, producing a population that
is better adapted to the environment.
 The genes of less-fit individuals are
eventually lost.
 Species Development
A species is a population whose
members share a common gene pool.
 The evolution of a species is
speciation, which can occur when a
population is isolated by geographic
barriers.
 Speciation can also occur when
reproductive barriers develop.
 Example: when members of a
population develop anatomical
barriers that make mating with other
members of the population difficult, a
new species can develop.
 Human Evolution
 The term human refers to genus
Homo.
 Human evolution or anthropogenesis
is the part of biological evolution
relating to the emergence of Homo
sapiens as a discrete species. This
genus diverged from the
Australopithecines about 2 million
years ago in Africa.
 Scientist have estimated that humans
deviated from their common ancestor
chimpanzees about 5 to 7 million
years ago.
 Due to the morphological and
anatomical similarities between the
apes and humans, scientist believed
that the great apes were the closest
biological relatives of human beings.
 Sahelanthropus tchadensis
 The oldest known ancestor of humans that
lived nearly 7 million years ago.
 Its fossils were discovered in the Djurab
desert of Chad.
 Being a species of
the Miocene epoch,
its canine was similar
to Miocene apes.
 The teeth, brow
ridges, facial
structure of this ape
differed distinctly
from those found
Homo sapiens
 Since there were no
postcranial remains
discovered, it is
uncertain whether
Sahelanthropus
tchadensis was
bipedal or not.
 Orrorintugenensis
 The second oldest
known hominin
ancestor who was
related to humans
and was the size
similar to the
modern
chimpanzee.
 Orrorintugenensis
 Its fossils was
found in the Tugen
Hills in Kenya.
 This ape lived
nearly 5.8 to 6.1
million years ago,
during the Miocene
era.
 Orrorintugenensis
 It was the first
bipedal homonin.
 It had a proximal
femur, a right
humerus shaft and
teeth that
suggested it lived
on a diet similar to
Paranthropoids
 Orrorintugenensis

 Itmainly ate fruits,

vegetables, and
sometimes meat.
 Ardipithecus

 Was the first ape

that belonged to
genus homonin
and shared several
traits with the
African great ape.
 Ardipithecus
 It lived about 4.4
million years ago
during the early
Pliocene epoch
 Due to its likeness
in teeth with
Australopithecus,
it was considered
as protohuman
 Ardipithecus
 On the basis of its
bone size and toe
structure, Ardipithecus
ape was believed to
be the size of a
modern chimpanzee
and used to walk
upright.
 Ardipithecus
 It lived in shady forests
rather than on the
savannah.
 Ardipithecus ramidus
and Ardipithecus
kadabba were the
species of Ardipithecus
and their remains had
been found in the
Middle Awash
 Australopithecus
 Was a genus of extinct
hominids and closely
related to human genus
Homo.
 The Australopiths
shared several
characteristics with
modern apes and
humans.
 Australopithecus
 There were distributed
throughout eastern and
northern Africa and lived
about 3 to 3.9 million
years ago.
 Their brain size was
nearly 35% of human
brain size and had a
height of approximately
4 to 5 feet.
 Australopithecus
 There was a
considerable degree of
sexual dimorphism in
Australopithecus, as the
males were larger than
the females.
 According to the fossils
studies, Autralopithecus
were omnivorous but
mainly ate fruit ,
vegetables, tubers.
 Kenyanthropus platyops
 Was a 3.2 to 3.5
million-years-old
extinct hominine
species from the
Pliocene era.
 It was discovered in
1999 by Justus Erus
near Lake Turkana,
Kenya.
 Kenyanthropus platyops
 According to the
archeologist, it had a
broad flat face with a toe
bone which indicated
that it probably walked
upright.
 Its teeth were of an
intermediate form
between that of humans
and ape
 Paranthropus
 Was bipedal hominine
that descend from the
gracile australopithecine
hominins.
 Paranthropus was
related with stone tools
both in southern and
eastern Africa and lived
nearly 2.7 million years
ago.
 Paranthropus
 It had a brain about 40%
of the size of human
brain and stood nearly
4.26 to 4.59 feet tall.
 Paranthropus was well
muscled and lived in
wooded areas.