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Intention to
The role of information quality, buy food
trust and anxiety on intention to supplements

buy food supplements at the time

of COVID-19 outbreak 429
Mukhamad Najib Received 11 January 2021
Revised 2 July 2021
Department of Management, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia Accepted 28 March 2022

Farah Fahma
Department of Agroindustrial Technology, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
Dwi Suhartanto
Department of Business Administration, Politeknik Negeri Bandung,
Bandung, Indonesia
Retno Santi Sumardi
School of Business and Economics, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
Serdang, Malaysia, and
Mohamad Fazli Sabri
Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to analyze the factors affecting consumer`s intention to buy
food supplements during COVID-19 pandemic using the expanding theory of planned behavior model.
The variables of perceived information quality, trust and anxiety are integrated in the model of this
study.
Design/methodology/approach – A total of 553 valid questionnaire responses were collected via an
online survey in the epicenter of the pandemic in Indonesia, such as Jakarta and surrounding cities. To
evaluate the causal links between latent variables, structural equation modeling was adopted using LISREL
software. Before the research hypothesis had been tested, validity and reliability analysis was carried out to
make sure the measurement can be used.
Findings – The findings indicate that perceived information quality influences trust and anxiety, and then
both of them influence attitude toward food supplements. Moreover, the intentions to buy food supplements
are determined by the consumer`s attitude.
Research limitations/implications – This study assumes all consumers have similar access to
information because they are living in the greater Jakarta. Nevertheless, in fact, the access of information is
not similar between age groups and locations. Future research may wish to differentiate evaluations of a full-
information group from those of the limited-information groups.
Originality/value – This study provides a model of consumers` buying intentions toward food
supplement products in the time of a health crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic as a novelty. The
International Journal of
implications of this study provide meaningful direction for marketing decisions and policy interventions in Pharmaceutical and Healthcare
developing food supplement industries. Marketing
Vol. 16 No. 3, 2022
pp. 429-447
Keywords Attitude, Indonesia, Pandemic, Structural equation model, Theory of planned behavior © Emerald Publishing Limited
1750-6123
Paper type Research paper DOI 10.1108/IJPHM-01-2021-0007
IJPHM 1. Introduction
16,3 The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 outbreak as a global
pandemic (World Health Organization, 2020). Within a short time, it had spread to countries
on all continents, disrupting people’s daily lives and having a severe impact on the world
economy (Foddai et al., 2020). Haines and Berney (2020) called this period of COVID-19
outbreak as an unusual time that is able to encourage stress that may lead to sadness,
430 anxiety and/or depression.
To respond to this unusual situation, consumers seem to change their consumption
behavior. Jung et al. (2016) conducted a study on the impact of an epidemic outbreak on
consumer expenditures in Korea. They found that an epidemic outbreak caused a
substantial disruption of consumer expenditures, especially in health-related products. In
Indonesia, after the government announced the first confirmed COVID-19 case, the purchase
amount of food supplements increased. As defined by the Food and Drug Supervisory
Agency of the Republic of Indonesia (2004), a food supplement is a product intended to
complete the nutritional needs of food. It contains one or more ingredients in the form of
vitamins, minerals, amino acids or other ingredients (derived from plants or non-plants) that
have nutritional value and or physiological effects in concentrated amounts. Within two
weeks since the COVID-19 outbreak was officially announced by the government, the level
of consumption of vitamin drinks increased by 37%, traditional herbals increased by 37%
and health products increased by 44% (Nielsen, 2020).
Before the pandemic, the habit of consuming food supplements was only carried out by a
part of the middle class, especially for those who are on a diet or educated middle-class
consumers who have a high awareness of healthy life. However, during a pandemic, such as
COVID-19, perceived health risk could significantly impact a person’s behavior (Jang et al.,
2020; Long and Kho, 2020). As this pandemic alters consumer behavior (Bonfanti et al.,
2021), the findings of past studies related to food consumption cannot be generalized into
current consumption behavior. Along with the incessant appeals from the government and
health experts to the public to increase their immunity by consuming more nutritious foods,
consumers who had never previously taken food supplements began to change their
behavior and start taking food supplements. The consumer’s behavioral change is
hypothesized because of the massive amount of information related to COVID-19 and
healthy life promotion by the government and other stakeholders to prevent consumers
from contracting COVID-19.
Several studies explained that during the COVID-19 outbreak pandemic, stress responses
by consumers increase help-seeking behaviors that may be disproportionate, overburdening
health-care facilities and diverting critical resources (Garfin et al., 2020; Gao et al., 2020). For
example, panic buying of essential consumer items such as masks, hand sanitizers and
vitamins in response to COVID-19 has led to global shortages. Proactive communication
encourages people to adopt protective behaviors, facilitates surveillance of the spread of
outbreaks, reduces people’s confusion and enables better use of resources, all of which are
necessary for effective response during a pandemic (World Health Organization, 2008). A
previous study reported that trust with formal information (from government and media)
about influenza was related to a greater reported understanding of A/H1N1 cause (Liao et al.,
2010).
During pandemic, the public depends on the media to convey accurate and up-to-date
information to make informed decisions regarding health protective behaviors. Some people
try to maintain their health by consuming food supplements recommended by health
experts or a professional doctor. However, previous research has demonstrated that some
other people place value on information obtained from personal connections rather than
advice obtained from health experts (Dobele and Lindgreen, 2011). Following such evidence, Intention to
it is imperative to further study the factors affecting consumer’s intentions toward food buy food
supplements and the role of information. Because of the changing market environment, it is
important to understand the behavior of consumers during a crisis as a foundation to
supplements
develop a marketing strategy in the food supplement industry.
The theory of planned behavior (TPB) proposed by Ajzen (1991) is one of the popular
theories for predicting consumer intention. However, the findings regarding the impact of
the antecedents from the TPB have been inconsistent and dependent on the specific research 431
context (Nguyen et al., 2019). Besides inconsistent results, the limited predictive validity of
the TPB became the main focus of criticism by researchers. For example, a study conducted
by McEachan et al. (2011) found that the ability of TPB to predict behavioral intention in the
context of health was only 19.3%. Meanwhile, Chen (2020) found that TPB could only
explain 47% of variation on the variable of consumer`s intention in the context of eco-
friendly food. Several studies have successfully combined new variables with the TPB to
investigate consumer intentions, such as Nystrand and Olsen (2020) who used TPB to
examine consumers` attitudes and intention in Norway. Meanwhile, Nguyen et al. (2019)
added the variable of self-perceptions to improve the TPB to predict consumer’s intentions.
However, no studies were found that examined the influences of perceived information
quality, trust and anxiety to advance the TPB model. Meanwhile, during a disaster, crisis or
unusual times, such variables seem to appear in individual buying decision-making.
In times of crisis, consumers will look for complete and accurate information that can be
used as a basis for developing attitude. In this case, the quality of information becomes
important because it is directly related to consumer trust in the information (Chesney et al.,
2017). On the other hand, information about outbreaks can also be a source of anxiety and
drive consumer panic (Haines and Berney, 2020). Unclear news often causes consumer
anxiety and this anxiety will in turn affect consumer attitudes (Kugbey et al., 2019).
Variations in information quality, trust and anxiety often appear in crisis situations. These
variables have been scantily analyzed in relation to intention. On the other hand, TPB
models that are considered well-established have limitations in predicting intention in the
times of crisis such as pandemics. Therefore, in the present study, it is important to examine
additional influential factors on consumers’ intention toward food supplements.
Accordingly, adding the variable of trust, anxiety and perceive information quality to the
TPB model should have a better prediction power in the context of a pandemic.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the factors affecting consumers’ intentions
toward food supplements during the COVID-19 pandemic using a modified TPB model by
inserting the variables of perceived information quality, trust and anxiety. Despite the
existence of massive research related to consumer’s intentions, its specific model related to
consumption at the time of a virus outbreak has not been extensively studied. Behavioral
patterns of consumer’s consumption during the outbreak are of course different from normal
conditions; thus, this study that explored the influential factors affecting consumer intention
toward food supplements during COVID-19 outbreak has novelty. Additionally, there is no
robust model to predict consumer behavior during unusual conditions such as pandemics.
Therefore, this study makes a specific contribution in modeling consumer intentions in
pandemic situations.

2. Literature review
2.1 Theory of planned behavior
TPB developed by Ajzen (1991) explains the determinants factors which influence an
individual’s conscious decision to perform a certain behavior. In this theory, behavioral
IJPHM intention at a particular time and place is hypothesized to be a function of attitudes,
16,3 subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. Ajzen (1991) defines intention as a
condition in which a person is consciously motivated to perform an action after
carefully considering the consequences of that action based on available information.
Meanwhile, attitude can be defined as the extent to which a person has a positive or
negative assessment of a particular behavior. Moreover, subjective norms can be
432 defined as a perceived social pressure to display certain behaviors (Ajzen, 1991;
McEachan et al., 2011). Regarding perceived behavioral control, researchers criticize the
conceptual clarity of perceived behavioral control (Raats et al., 1995; Terry and
O’Leary, 1995). Recent empirical research also noted that perceived behavioral control
has no substantial influence on intention (Liu et al., 2018; Nystrand and Olsen, 2020).
Perceived behavioral control measures how easy or difficult it is for consumers to take
specific actions. In the context of food supplements in Indonesia, this is not an issue
because consumers easily obtain food supplements in various forms. Therefore, in this
study, we do not put perceived behavioral control into the model.
TPB is one of the most prevalent behavioral theories in the study of consumer
behavior, and has been widely used in research related to consumer intentions toward
food- and health-related behavior (Nuttavuthisit and Thøgersen, 2017; Sniehotta et al.,
2014). However, past studies, such as Chen (2020), have criticized the TPB because it
fails to effectively consider other important variables. For instance, the theory has been
criticized for its limited focus on rational reasoning, excluding unconscious effects on
behavior (Sheeran et al., 2013) and the role of emotions beyond anticipated affective
outcomes (Conner et al., 2013). In a time of crisis, some scarce information on previous
epidemic outbreaks causes public anxiety. According to Hwang et al. (2020), perceived
information is linked to social anxiety. Meanwhile, anxiety will encourage people to
protect themselves. In this case, the anxiety factor, together with consumers’ trust, can
be considered as predictors of attitude to improve the predictive power of the TPB
model in a pandemic.

2.2 Information quality, trust and anxiety

The role of information is essential, as it affects behaviors (Martin, 2017). The information
helps people comprehend the advantages and disadvantages of several options (Thompson,
2013). In collecting data to assist decision-making, people generally use various channels of
information (Dobele et al., 2017). Although consumers are currently well educated and have
better access to various online information, looking for information is still a complex process
(Martin, 2017). Digital connections and the variety of information canals available to
consumers have flourished (Jensen et al., 2017), including information related to health care
and food. The internet revolution has pushed the ease and speed of the creation, replication
and distribution of information. However, the massive amount of information can make
consumers confused about distinguishing good quality information. The variations in
quality may lead to different levels of consumer trust (Arora et al., 2008; Chesney et al., 2017).
In the context of health-related information, trust can be defined as the degree to which a
person believes that a particular health information provider has attributes that are
beneficial to consumers (Boon-itt, 2019). In addition, trust in health-related information
means the extent to which the people believes that the information provider will pay
attention to their interests (Hall et al., 2001). Past study showed that the credibility of
information that consumers receive from multi-sources will affect consumers’ trust
(Simanjuntak et al., 2020). In addition, perceived information quality can be assessed from
the amount of information, variety of information, richness of content and navigation (Joe Intention to
ilsever, 2007). buy food
According to Bawden and Robinson (2009), an abundance of information received by
people can sometimes become a hindrance rather than a help. The negative content of
supplements
information will cause consumer anxiety. Anxiety is an emotional discomfort
characterized by worry, tension and fear, which respond to threats to personal goals
(Morrison and Heimberg, 2013). Anxiety usually arises in situations where a person is
433
unsure about something that could be dangerous in the future, lacks confidence in
making changes and, as such, feels a high level of threat (Chiou and Wan, 2006). In
addition, scholars define anxiety as a feeling of worry, restlessness or discomfort,
whereas depression is defined as feeling very low and unhappy (Cheng and McCarthy,
2018; McCarthy et al., 2016).
Previous research conducted by Kugbey et al. (2019) concluded that access of
information significantly influences anxiety in the context of the patient. Meanwhile,
Gudykunst and Nishida (2001) argue that when ambiguities of situations exist, people
try to collect information to reduce uncertainty. However, some people feel anxiety after
receiving information. This is especially when the information is related to something
that will have a negative impact on their life. Moreover, Islam et al. (2020) find that
people perceive new information, such as health information, based on their existing
beliefs and trust toward sources of information. In the context of the Covid-19 outbreak,
consumer anxiety arises from a sense of threat when they receive unclear information.
Hence, it is expected that:

H1. Perceived information quality has a positive influence on consumer’s trust to

health-related information.
H2. Perceive information quality has a negative influence on consumer’s anxiety to their
health condition.

2.3 Trust, attitude and intention

The effect of information quality on attitude also depends on how people trust such
information. It means perceived information quality to attitude is moderated by trust
toward the information. Trust is especially vital given the possible for the distortion of
information – mainly happening in the internet (Metzger and Flanagin, 2013; Gray
et al., 2005). Trust is central to the communication process (Thiede, 2005). The
information transmitted must be perceived as trustworthy to some degree, and
consumers use trust as a mechanism to make calculations easier (Bloom et al., 2008).
According to Islam et al. (2020), trust reduces the perceived health risk of consumers
while increasing user confidence.
Numerous research studied the relationship between trust, attitude and consumer’s
intention. For example, Huang et al. (2020) concluded that perceived trust in mass media had
more significant effects in expecting intention to purchase functional foods. Other research
conducted by Teng and Wang (2015) mentioned that trust serves as an antecedent of
attitudes. Therefore, it significantly influences the relationships shown by revealed
information and perceived information with purchase intention. Further, Pandey et al. (2019)
said that trust was a critical factor in predicting consumers’ intentions, influenced by other
decisional factors such as customers’ perceived information. In their study, it has been found
that trust has positively affected purchase intention. Meanwhile, Bose and Ye (2020)
IJPHM confirmed that the variable of trust affects attitudes to solving problems, especially during a
16,3 time of crisis.
Therefore, based on the reviewed research, this study hypothesizes that:

H3. Consumer’s trust to health-related information has a positive influence on attitudes

toward food supplements.
434 2.4 Consumer’s anxiety, attitudes and intention
Rippé et al. (2019) have examined the relationship between consumer’s anxiety and attitude, in
which consumer’s anxiety causes emotional tendencies. Anxiety is individual’s fear or feeling of
being uneasy, tense, worried and hesitant about what might happen (Gudykunst and Nishida,
2001; Oglesby et al., 2019). In a time of pandemic, anxiety increases among consumers and this will
impact their attitude. Attitudes itself, as defined by Tudoran et al. (2009) is a feeling of
favorableness or dis-favorableness that an individual has toward an object. Consequently,
consumer’s attitude can be explained as the attitude that the person holds toward engaging in the
behavior (Chen, 2020). During the COVID-19 outbreak, it is predicted that consumer will
experience anxiety regarding their health condition that leads to attitude toward food supplements.
Previous research explored the relationship between attitude and intention to buy and these
have different results. For example, recent research conducted by Li et al. (2020) found that
attitude has no significant effect on purchase intention in the context of environmentally
friendly food. Meanwhile, several previous studies indicate that attitudes influence consumers’
intentions to buy certain health-related products (Hewitt and Stephens, 2007; Ren et al., 2011).
Past studies (Küster-Boluda and Vidal-Capilla, 2017; Urala and Lähteenmäki, 2007) also
showed that respondents who had positive attitudes toward functional foods were more willing
to use the functional foods. Furthermore, Jahn et al. (2019) confirmed that there are significantly
positive effects of consumers’ attitudes toward food fortification on the intention to buy vitamin
D in Denmark. Therefore, the hypotheses proposed in this study are as follows:

H4. Consumer’s anxiety to their health condition has a positive influence on attitudes
toward food supplement.
H5. Consumer’s attitude toward food supplement has a positive influence on intention
to buy food supplements.

2.5 Subjective norm and intention to buy

The relationship between subjective norm and buying intention is still inconsistent. Conner
and Sparks (2005), for instance, demonstrated that subjective norms were the weakest
predictor of intention. Furthermore, current research conducted by Zhang et al. (2018) claim
that the relationship between subjective norm and intention is weak. However, several studies
(Hewitt and Stephens, 2007; Ren et al., 2011) confirmed that a subjective norm is a positive
predictor of consumers’ intentions to buy certain health-related products. Another research
conducted by McEachan et al. (2011) found subjective norms to be more strongly associated
with intention in studies using TPB to investigate dietary behaviors. Furthermore, Teng and
Wang (2015) showed that subjective norm is a strong predictor of purchase intention in case of
organic food. Thus, this study proposes a further hypothesis as follows:

H6. Subjective norm influences intention to buy food supplements.

Based on the previous literature review, a research model proposed in this study can be seen
in Figure 1.
 Intention to
buy food
supplements

435

Figure 1.
Extended TPB model
in the time of
pandemic

3. Research methods
3.1 Data collection
The empirical study was carried out on the basis of a questionnaire during March to April
2020. The questionnaire was distributed online to respondents who stay in Greater Jakarta.
The location was chosen because Jakarta is the epicenter of the COVID-19 outbreak in
Indonesia. The sample in this research has been chosen based on purposive sampling
techniques because of the impossibility of implementing random sampling during lockdown
in the locus of study. The random sampling technique could not be applied in this study
because we do not have a sampling frame accurately. We also have a technical problem
using random sampling because of lockdown in Jakarta as an epicenter of the COVID-19
pandemic in Indonesia. In addition, purposive sampling was chosen because this study
requires specific criteria so that the samples taken follow the research objectives, namely,
being able to solve research problems and provide a representative sample. Many studies
(Suhartanto et al., 2021; Nguyen et al., 2019; Pandey et al., 2019) also use purposive sampling
to analyze consumer’s purchasing intentions. Therefore, in this context, the use of purposive
sampling is the most appropriate. The respondent criteria in this study were those who had
bought food supplements in the past two weeks. The reason is that in the past two weeks, it
was still possible for respondents to remember their experience in buying food supplements.
We collected 590 questionnaires from Greater Jakarta consumers. After eliminating the
invalid questionnaires because of incomplete responses, 553 valid data were finally used to
test the hypothesis.

3.2 Measurement
To measure latent variables, this study used a number of observed variables. Questionnaire
items proposed in previous research and theories have been adopted and adapted to the
research context of the present study. Five domain experts from the university are involved
in determining the content validity. Consultation to develop the measurement of each
construct involved five participants, namely, two experts from the field of consumer
behavior, one expert from the field of human ecology, one public health expert and an expert
from communication and society development studies. Regarding construct validity, we did
convergent validity analysis. To test the reliability of the instrument, we calculated
IJPHM Cronbach’s alpha. The questionnaire includes two parts. The first part contains indicator
16,3 items from each construct, and the second part contains several questions related to
respondents’ demographic information. Respondents scored items using a five-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Table 1 explains each
construct and measurement item used in this study compared to previous literature.

436 3.3 Data analysis

In this study, the LISREL software and structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis are
used to examine the cause and effect among the latent variables, the reliability and validity
of the model and the goodness-of-fit (GoF) of the proposed model. SEM is used to reveal the
suitability of the developed model framework with existing phenomena in the population.
Therefore, as long as the sample used can be considered representative of the population,

Construct Measurement items Sources

Perceived Always receive information related to COVID-19 Boon-itt (2019), Joe ilsever (2007);
information outbreak from mainstream media Sukrat et al. (2015)
Well informed how government handles this
health crisis from government media releases
Following health information related to COVID-19
outbreak prevention from doctors and health
experts
Trust to health Trust to healthy tips advised by doctors and Boon-itt (2019), Hall et al. (2001);
information health experts in the media Sukrat et al. (2015)
Believe that COVID-19 can be prevented by a
healthy body as informed by government, doctors
and health experts
Believe the benefits of healthy food advised by
doctors and health experts
Consumer anxiety Worry about my health as the COVID-19 issue Chiou and Wan (2006); Özhan
develops et al. (2019)
News of the spread of COVID-19 made me feel
uneasy
The number of sick and dying because of COVID-
19 makes me worry
Subjective norm My family and friends think I should take food Ashraf et al. (2019); Nguyen et al.
supplements (2019), Pandey et al. (2019); Rezai
Doctors and health experts think I should et al. (2017)
consume food supplement
The media that I follow makes me conclude
consuming food supplements is important
Attitude to food Believe that taking food supplements will Rezai et al. (2017); Tudoran et al.
supplement maintain stamina (2009); Nystrand and Olsen (2020)
Believe that consuming food supplements is a
good preventive action
Believe that taking food supplements will reduce
the risk of contracting the disease
Intention to buy I want to buy food supplements to increase Jahn et al. (2019); Nystrand and
food supplement stamina Olsen (2020)
I will make an effort to buy food supplement in
Table 1. the near future
Construct and I intend to buy food supplements because of
measurement believing with its benefits
SEM analysis is appropriate. Hair et al. (2017) calculated the average variance extracted Intention to
(AVE) and composite reliability (CR) of latent variables to test the links between observable buy food
and latent variables. The good values of AVE and CR are 0.5 and 0.7 above, individually. R2
is called the coefficient of determination which describes the proportion of total variation
supplements
revealed by the research model. The R2 values for each endogenous construct in the models
show that the antecedent constructs explain the percent variance in that endogenous
construct (Kartika et al., 2020; Nurlaela et al., 2019). This research implemented the
assessment measures in terms of R2 to discover whether the extended TPB model 437
demonstrates better predictive power to explain the variation in the consumer’s intention to
buy food supplements than the original TPB models.

4. Results
4.1 Respondent profile
The characteristics of the sample are as follows from the 553 respondents. The number of
female consumers is 336 (60.8%), and male consumers are 217(39.2%). The respondents’ age
and education demographics are as follows: 112 (20.3%) participants are less than 30 years
old, 187 (33.8%) participants are between 30s and 40s; a total of 174 (31.5%) participants are
between 41s and 50s. A total of 84 (14.4%) participants are over 50s. In terms of education
level, 41 (7.6%) respondents have senior high school certificates, and 263 (47.6%)
respondents hold bachelor degrees and 248 (44.8%) respondents have postgraduate degrees.
Regarding the monthly income, 133 (24.1%) respondents earn less than IDR 5m monthly,
138 (24.9%) respondents receive between IDR 5m and IDR 10m monthly and 92 (16.6%)
respondents have over IDR 20m rupiah monthly. Regarding the consumption pattern of
food supplements, a majority of respondents (41.4%) consume food supplements every day
during the COVID-19 pandemic. Meanwhile, as many as 32.2% of respondents consume
food supplements when they feel unhealthy. To keep their body healthy, 75.8% of
respondents consumed multivitamins, and 20.2% of respondents prefer to consume herbals.
Based on interviews conducted with consumer representatives, food supplement
marketing practitioners and marketing experts, information was obtained that before the
COVID-19 pandemic, consumers considered food supplements to provide hope for a healthy
lifestyle. However, consumers also do not fully believe in the benefits of food supplements.
Further, most people do not really care about food supplements because they think of food
supplements only as other food that is not necessarily needed by the body. Thus, before the
pandemic, the marketing of food supplement products was still constrained by the
controversial perception of the benefits of these food supplements. While the price of food
supplements is considered quite expensive by some consumers, it is not a priority to be
consumed.
During the COVID-19 outbreak, health experts and the government appealed to the
public to increase their immunity by consuming nutritious food. Health experts and the
government provide information regularly regarding the spread of COVID-19 and provide
direction to the public on what should people do during the pandemic. One effort to prevent
the infection of COVID-19 suggested by health experts is to increase and maintain body
immunity. There have been various efforts to ward off this virus, one of which was taking
food supplements to enhance immunity (Rahayu et al., 2020).
According to Kim et al. (2016), in the context of a pandemic, the information provided by
health experts could create people trust. Meanwhile, lessons from the SARS epidemic
showed that knowledge toward infectious diseases was significantly related to a level of
anxiety (Chan et al., 2007). Information, trust and anxiety toward COVID-19 play major roles
in assessing the willingness of a public to adopt behavioral change during the pandemic.
IJPHM This is why COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increased demand for food supplements
16,3 because people trust the information that suggests consuming more vitamins than ever to
improve their body immunity.

4.2 Hypotheses testing

To evaluate the reliability and validity, GoF of the proposed model and hypotheses, we used
438 LISREL 8.70 statistical software and applied SEM. The results of the SEM analysis
indicated that the model achieved a good level of fit (see Table 2).
Table 3 shows the present study results in which the CR values were 0.72–0.89, and AVE
values were 0.65–0.77. Both are greater than the prerequisite values. It means the indicator
items evaluated in this study reach satisfactory reliability and convergent validity.
Moreover, all the variables of squared roots of AVE were higher than the correlation
weights of each variable (see Table 4). Thus, all the variables of discriminant validity can be
considered as acceptable. Therefore, these findings proved that the measurement items
could be used to measure the constructs in this study.
The results of the present study (see Table 5) indicate perceived information has
significant influence on customer’s trust ( b = 0.822, t = 5.13, p < 0.01) and anxiety ( b =
0.485, t = 8.79, p < 0.01); thus, H1 and H2 are accepted. Moreover, both factors trust and
anxiety have significant effects on attitude toward food supplements in which trust has a
significant influence on attitude ( b = 0.721, t = 5.16, p < 0.01) and anxiety factor has a
significant influence on attitude ( b = 0.461, t = 4.33, p < 0.01); thus, H3 and H4 are
accepted. Intention to buy food supplements during the COVID-19 outbreak is affected
significantly by attitude toward food supplements ( b = 0.564, t = 4.31, p < 0.01), so that H5
is accepted. Meanwhile variable subjective norm ( b = 0.111, t = 1.14, p > 0.05) has no direct
effect on intention to buy food supplements. It means H6 is rejected.
Regarding R2 value, the data analysis shows that the original TPB model has an R2 value
0.41. It means that the ability of the original TPB model to predict consumer’s intention by
as much as 41%. On the other hand, when perceived information quality, trust to health
related information and consumer anxiety are included in the TPB model, the predictive
accuracy value increases to 53% (R2 = 0.53). This finding confirms that the extended TPB
has better prediction and explanatory power to explain the variation in the consumer’s
intention to buy food supplements than the original TPB model.

5. Discussion and implication

This present study has conducted the modified TPB to examine determinant factors of
consumers’ intentions to buy food supplements in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic. The
TPB theoretical model in this study has been extended by adding the variables of perceived
information, anxiety and trust. This study has examined how inserting variables
information quality, trust and anxiety can successfully explain and predict the consumer’s

Indicator Cut-off value Results Conclusions

Chi-square Expected to be small 292.19 –

RMSEA #0.08 0.055 Goodness-of-fit
GFI Approaching 1 0.94 Goodness-of-fit
NFI Approaching 1 0.97 Goodness-of-fit
Table 2. CFI Approaching 1 0.98 Goodness-of-fit
Goodness-of-fit RMSR RMSR #0.10 0.046 Goodness-of-fit
 Loading Cronbach’s
Intention to
Latent and observed variables factor CR AVE alpha buy food
supplements
Perceived information 0.717 0.651 0.865

Always receive information related to COVID-19 outbreak
from mainstream media 0.874

Well informed how government handles this health crisis 439
from government media release 0.875

Following health information related to COVID-19
outbreak prevention from doctors and health experts 0.877

Trust to health information 0.728 0.683 0.863

Trust to health tips advised by doctors and health experts
in media 0.872

Believe that COVID-19 can be prevented by a healthy body
as informed by government, doctor and health experts 0.873

Belief in the benefit of healthy food advised by doctors and
health experts 0.859

Anxiety 0.860 0.777 0.867

I worry about my health as the COVID-19 issue develops 0.754

News of the spread of COVID-19 made me feel uneasy 0.972

The number of sick and dying because of Covid-19 makes
me worry 0.875

Attitude toward food supplement 0.893 0.742 0.854

Believe that taking food supplements will maintain
stamina 0.856

Believe that consuming food supplements is a good
preventive action 0.842

Believe that taking food supplements will reduce the risk of
contracting the disease 0.788

Subjective norm 0.822 0.715 0.860

My family and my friends think I should take food
supplements 0.861

Doctors and health experts think I should consume food
supplement 0.833

The media that I follow makes me conclude consuming
food supplements is important 0.801

Intention to buy food supplement 0.830 0.668 0.856

I want to buy food supplements to increase stamina 0.840

I will make an effort to buy food supplement in the near
future 0.814 Table 3.

I intend to buy food supplements because of believing with Validity and
its benefits 0.822 reliability construct
IJPHM intention to buy food supplements in a pandemic. The results of SEM analysis discovered
16,3 that the predictive power of the extended TPB in this study explained about 53% of the
variation in consumer’s intention to buy food supplements. Meanwhile, the SEM analysis for
the original TPB model resulted in an R2 value as much as 0.41, or the explanatory power of
the original TPB model in this study explained approximately 41% of the variation in the
consumer’s intention to buy food supplements. This means the explanatory power of the
440 extended TPB model in the context of the pandemic is better than the original TPB model in
explaining the consumer’s intention to buy food supplements.
Several studies using TPB (Nystrand and Olsen, 2020; Najib et al., 2021a) noted that
attitude had become an important variable that affects purchase intention. Numerous
studies (Nguyen et al., 2019; Nystrand and Olsen, 2020) have shown that the variable of
attitude is the antecedent that has the most significant influence on purchase intention
compared to other variables in the TPB model. This study also shows that the variable of
attitude makes a vital contribution in influencing the intention to buy food supplements.
However, in the context of TPB, still not many researchers have studied the factors that
influence attitudes, especially during times of crisis, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. In a
crisis, consumers’ attitudes are greatly influenced by their trust and anxiety (Chan et al.,
2007; Kim et al., 2016), where the two variables are strongly affected by information quality.
So in this study, the quality of information, trust and anxiety are essential variables to
improve the TPB model in the context of a crisis.
This research finding is important to strengthen the explanation of the consumer’s
intention to buy food supplements in the context of a pandemic. This finding also gives the
fact that the TPB model needs to be extended based on the context of time and place (Chen,
2020). Therefore, variables of perceived information quality, trust and anxiety should be

Latent variable Mean SD PI T A ATT IB SN

Perceived information (PI) 11.241 2.14 0.752

Trust (T) 11.634 1.68 0.258 0.781
Anxiety (A) 11.203 2.89 0.189 0.237 0.873
Attitude (ATT) 11.745 2.56 0.227 0.517 0.286 0.842
Intention to buy (IB) 10.734 2.73 0.208 0.474 0.368 0.612 0.814
Subjective norm (SN) 7.95 1.75 0.219 0.423 0.325 0.727 0.564 0.763
Table 4.
Correlation between Note: N = 553, squared roots of AVE extracted are shown in italics on the diagonal and variable
research construct correlations are below the diagonal

Path
Hypotheses coefficient t-values p-value Decision

H1: perceived information ! consumer’s trust 0.822 5.13 0.00** Support

H2: perceive information ! consumer’s anxiety 0.485 8.79 0.00** Support
H3: consumer’s trust ! attitude toward food supplement 0.721 5.16 0.00** Support
H4: consumer’s anxiety ! attitudes toward food supplement 0.461 4.33 0.00** Support
H5: consumer’s attitude ! intention to buy food supplement 0.564 4.31 0.00** Support
H6: subjective norm ! intention to buy food supplement 0.111 1.14 0.07 Not support
Table 5.
Hypotheses testing Notes: **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05
included in the model of TPB to predict the consumer’s intention to buy food in the context Intention to
of pandemic such as COVID-19 outbreak. buy food
The findings of this study show that perceived information influences consumer’s trust
significantly. This finding supports previous studies that conclude information is important
supplements
in developing trust (Chesney et al., 2017; Martin, 2017; Kugbey et al., 2019; Najib et al.,
2021b). In addition, the effect of information in the time of crisis, such as a pandemic, on
anxiety is also significant. This finding is in line with previous research conducted in other
countries even though in different settings and situations (Kugbey et al., 2019; Islam et al., 441
2020). The effects of trust toward attitude are similar to the effect of anxiety toward attitude.
Several researches mentioned that trust is often related to attitude in the context of food
decision (Huang et al., 2020; Teng and Wang, 2015), then trust has a significant effect on
buying intention (Pandey et al., 2019). The present study supports previous studies that
conclude that trust influences attitude. In the present study, attitude is affected dominantly
by trust. It can be seen from the path coefficient of trust to attitude is higher than anxiety to
attitude. This finding is important to explain consumer attitude during the pandemic in
which the relation between information quality–trust–anxiety–attitude becomes a good
predictor of intention to buy food supplements. Because previous studies do not report such
relationships, this study has theoretical contributions to improve previous models of
intention to buy.
The relationship between attitude and intention to buy food supplements in this study
have different results to research conducted by Li et al. (2020). In their research, attitude did
not have a significant influence on intention in the context of green agricultural food.
However, the findings of the present study support previous studies (Jahn et al., 2019; Urala
and Lähteenmäki, 2007) related to intention to purchase health-related food. We can surmise
that there is a theoretical confirmation between the relationships and these variables can be
applied for health-related food such as food supplements in various contexts, including
pandemic.
Some previous research concluded that subjective norm was the weakest predictor of
consumer’s buying intention (Conner and Sparks, 2005; Zhang et al., 2018); however, this
conclusion is still controversial because other research related to health food confirms that
subjective norm significantly affects intention to buy (Li et al., 2020; Nystrand and Olsen,
2020). The findings of this study proved that subjective norm in the time of crisis has no
effect on the consumer’s buying intention. This finding is in line with research conducted by
Ren et al. (2011) in the case of consumers’ intentions to use imported soy-based dietary
supplements. In the COVID-19 crisis, people tend to actively seek credible sources of
information (health experts) quickly via the internet or social media, so that the approval of
others (subjective norms) is no longer needed. Undoubtedly, in this study, consumers are
more self-conscious about healthy behavior. Without considering subjective norms, they
have already been exhibiting healthy behavior traits such as consuming food supplements
to protect their body from the outbreak’s impact. Willis and Stafford (2016) argue that
health-conscious consumers may be more aware of their health behaviors. They are more
likely to consume food supplements because they may associate healthy attitudes and
behaviors with prevention-oriented actions such as taking supplements. This argument is
also supported by previous research (Pham et al., 2019), which proved a positive relationship
between health consciousness and attitudes.
The main theoretical contribution of this present study is to verify that the TPB model
has limitation in explaining the complexities of consumer’s intention. The extended TPB can
offer more insightful explanations and has a better predictive power to explore variables
affecting consumer’s intention to buy food supplement in the context of the pandemic.
IJPHM The TPB model can simply predict the consumer’s intention to buy food supplements but
16,3 with a low explanatory power. Moreover, variables such as perceived information
quality is important because it affects consumer’s trust and anxiety during a pandemic.
Inserting perceived information quality and trust to predict attitude makes the TPB
model more useful, meaningful and powerful. Another important novelty of this study
is the introduction of perceived information quality, trust to health-related information
442 and anxiety, which have been developed specifically to research in the context of the
unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic.
The results of this study suggest several managerial implications particularly for food
supplement producers and marketers involved in the marketing and promotion strategy for
food supplement products in the time of a health crisis. The attitude of consumers is mainly
affected by trust rather than anxiety factors. Consequently, to increase consumers’ attitude,
producers should demonstrate their commitment in both ideas and actions to meet
consumers’ expectations. Moreover, it is very important for producers and marketers of food
supplements to build and maintain consumer’s trust by providing reliable information. In
this study, perceived information quality significantly influences consumer’s trust,
indicating the importance of reliable information to build and maintain the trust of
consumers. In addition, food topics and issues (e.g. healthy food, glow foods, organic food
and food supplement) should be promoted via mass media (e.g. TV, advertisement, radio)
and social media (e.g. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and others) by involving a credible
doctor and health experts so that consumers will easily access reliable and trustworthy
information related to healthy products such as food supplements. This study also mentions
the positive effect between the attitude toward food supplements and intention to purchase
food supplements. Food supplement-related producers and marketers may use campaign
marketing or marketing communication strategies to strengthen consumer’s attitude to food
supplements. This research can also provide input for policy interventions and marketing
decisions aimed at sustaining economic growth in the food supplement industries
specifically during a pandemic crisis.

6. Conclusion, limitations and research directions

The study discovered the extended model of the TPB to examine Indonesian consumer’s
intentions toward food supplements during unusual times such as a pandemic. The present
study has several academic contributions as follows. First, an extended TPB in the time of
crisis such as pandemic is established by linking the TPB model with perceived information
quality, anxiety and trust, in which perceived information quality, anxiety and trust become
important to predict attitudes in the time of a pandemic. This study proves that the extended
TPB model by including information quality, anxiety and trust variables has a greater
power to explain consumer’s intention in the time of a pandemic. Next, the variable of trust
influences intention via attitudes. Furthermore, we analyzed the effect of subjective norms
on the consumer’s intention to buy food supplements during the COVID-19 pandemic. The
findings of this study are expected to lead to a better understanding of the impact of
subjective norms on buying intention toward food supplements in the time of health crisis.
However, there are several limitations inherent in the present study. First, this study
assumes all consumers have similar access to information because they are living in the
greater Jakarta. Nevertheless, in fact, the access of information is not similar between age
groups and locations. Some respondents living in the rural areas may have limited access to
information. Future research may wish to differentiate evaluations of a full-information
group from those of the limited-information groups. Furthermore, this study did not analyze
the role of gender, age and social economic status to predict consumer’s intention.
A pandemic is an unusual situation and responses of each group may be different based on Intention to
these demographical differences. Thus, future studies may assess gender, age and social buy food
economic status as moderating variables. The present study also has not considered
different types of information and information framing. It will be useful if future research
supplements
examines the effect of different types of information and information framing in relation to
consumer’s trust and anxiety.
443
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Corresponding author
Mukhamad Najib can be contacted at: najib@apps.ipb.ac.id

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