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ICT Express 7 (2021) 327–334
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Blockchain side implementation of Pure Wallet (PW): An offline transaction

architecture
Ikechi Saviour Igboanusi, Kevin Putra Dirgantoro, Jae-Min Lee, Dong-Seong Kim ∗
Networked System Laboratory, Department of IT Convergence Engineering, Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gumi, South Korea
Received 19 January 2021; received in revised form 22 June 2021; accepted 2 August 2021
Available online 20 August 2021

Abstract
This article proposes an electronic payment architecture named Pure Wallet (PW), which extends the concept of Blockchain cryptocurrency
for offline transactions. The process is divided into three steps. The first step requires the use of Internet connection, to convert cryptocurrency
into a token at the token manager. The token manager initiates a transaction that requires the information in the token to complete. Then
offline transactions step is performed between electronic devices like mobile phones through a secure Near Field Communication (NFC)
using the token in senders device. The financial value in the form of a token is encrypted by the sender and sent to the receiver’s device
via NFC. In the third step, the receiver converts the received token into cryptocurrency in the presence of Internet connection by sending the
information required to complete the transaction to the token manager. The goal is to propose an electronic payment architecture utilizing
Blockchain, which will enable financial transactions without instant connection to the Internet. The Blockchain implementation in this work
utilizes smart contract in Ethereum Blockchain. The result shows a successful transfer of value without instant Internet connection. The open
issues related to Blockchain in offline transactions are listed for further research works.
⃝c 2021 The Korean Institute of Communications and Information Sciences (KICS). Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Keywords: Blockchain; Cryptocurrency; e-wallet; Near Field Communication (NFC); Offline transaction; Pure Wallet (PW); Smart contract

1. Introduction The concept of Blockchain has been invented to remove

The need for daily financial transactions has led to the
development of several electronic payment systems that have
made exchange of values relatively easier compared to the
traditional means. But, doing so requires financial institutions
and presence of heavy communication equipment to do this
efficiently. The transactions using payment cards expose a
lot of personal information to all the entities that participate
in the transaction [1]. As mobile phones are taking most
of the functions like complimentary card, identification, and
credit/debit card to name a few, it still has many limitations in
its current form for global adoption. The beauty of traditional
cash transactions is the freedom to spend money anywhere,
at any time, with whoever wants the legal tender, and this is
something the phone is yet to achieve.
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ikechisaviour@gmail.com, dskim@kumoh.ac.kr
(D.-S. Kim).
Peer review under responsibility of The Korean Institute of Communica-
tions and Information Sciences (KICS).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icte.2021.08.004
2405-9595/⃝ c 2021 The Korean Institute of Communications and Information Sciences (KICS). Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
restrictions posed on financial transactions by financial in-
stitutions. This Blockchain paradigm is especially popular
for financial transactions, but is also becoming popular for
non-financial purposes, popularly for wireless networks [2].
Cryptocurrency has emerged to create a decentralized banking
system, where no financial institution controls the money.
Cryptocurrency is a kind of virtual currency that uses cryp-
tography to protect transactions [3]. Before the introduction
of cryptocurrency, two factors determine the success of an
electronic transaction namely; financial institution and Internet
connection. With the introduction of cryptographic payment
like Bitcoin and Ethereum, the role of financial institutions
has been successfully eliminated. But the need for instanta-
neous connection to Internet to enable Blockchain transaction
is still a limitation of the current architecture. The existing
Blockchain methods require Internet connection at the moment
of transaction, limiting for global adoption.
Researchers have made efforts to create an offline
cryptocurrency. Though cryptocurrency is protected with cryp-
tographic encryption, a Blockchain device is prone to unau-
thorized hacking. In [4] authors proposed BlueWallet which
I.S. Igboanusi, K.P. Dirgantoro, J.-M. Lee et al.
uses hardware token for completing transactions. This ap-
proach succeeded in keeping the private key (in hardware)
offline, making the wallet secure, but it still requires point of
sale (POS) Internet connection to the Blockchain network to
make transactions. This approach uses Elliptic Curve Digital
Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) for verification and signing of
transactions. The transaction is introduced into the Bitcoin
network if observed as valid by the POS. Other peers in the
network in due course will verify and confirm the transaction
before it is added to the Bitcoin network. The ledger of a Bit-
coin network is the end point of every confirmed Blockchain
transaction. It takes between 10 and 40 min to complete this
process.
In [5], the authors proposed the use of Blockchain in
the card payment system. This is to reduce charges from
financial institutions incurred by merchants for using payment
cards and to protect sensitive information especially personal
identification details of the participants during transaction. The
Blockchain has a centralized virtual ledger which controls
access of participants, saves and encrypts transaction details,
removes the need for a trusted middleman, and limits exposure
of information. A merchant local payment machine is able to
determine at once if a card from a customer can complete
a transaction within limits of the payment card terms. The
available amount is saved to the Blockchain ledger and the last
information time update is obtainable, otherwise the system
will refresh if the available information is outdated. Despite
the contributions of this work, the authors did not consider
their Blockchain solution for offline transactions.
Authors in [6] explored the use of hardware to create a
wireless mesh connection, with other device users to overcome
the problem of poor or no Internet connection, for Bitcoin
transactions. In this case, several equipments are needed to
complete the setup. A block stream satellite receiver is in-
stalled to download block chain data from the satellite. This
device is bulky and mostly stationary. To extend the connection
from the receiver, a GoTenna mesh is used to create a mobile
connection within a limited range. A device with a wallet is
also required to read the downloaded information. To create a
means for up-link, other sets of equipment are required. This
approach succeeded in extending connection to fixed areas
without internet access. However it has the limitation of cost
and mobility, because the hardware is costly, must be at a
certain range from other users to function, and is considerably
bulky for mobile use.
The works in [7] explore the use of NFC enabled android
mobile for Bitcoin transactions. In their work, the receiver
sends its account address to the sender using an NFC connec-
tion. The transfer of Bitcoin follows the conventional process
requiring an Internet connection, and takes the same length of
time as regular transaction.
Authors in [8] explore the opportunities of blockchain for
banking and other financial institutions. The authors of [9]
compared cryptocurrency and fiat currency, and their role
in the economy. Their attempt is to figure out how cryp-
tocurrency improves fiat currency in terms of its performance
of peer-to-peer network transactions. It pointed out the pros
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ICT Express 7 (2021) 327–334
and cons of cryptocurrency. Authors of [10] proposed the
combination of Ethereum and IoTeX miner to shorten the
transaction time in IIoT. The same authors proposed the use
of non difficulty proof in [11] to reduce the transaction time.
Works in IIoT as presented in [12] focused on privacy and
security of cryptocurrency mobile applications. It examines
Android cryptocurrency and financial services applications and
the underlying security profile. After examining the common
vulnerability, they reported that in terms of privacy, the finan-
cial service applications are better and are still better (though
marginally) than cryptocurrency in terms of security provi-
sions. Authors of [13] proposed Multi-Factor Authentication
(MFA) which tries to improve cryptocurrency security. MFA
approach is hinged on time-based one-time based password
(TOTP), which is found to provide a more secure transac-
tion. The authors in [14] demonstrated security-enabled near
field communication tags using flexible architecture supporting
cryptography. This is to solve the security problem of NFC by
using symmetric and asymmetric cryptocurrency architecture.
The motivation of this work is to propose an architecture
that will function without instant connection to the internet.
As all transactions must be made with Internet connection,
it renders cryptocurrency unfit for transactions in places like
rural areas, in aeroplanes (on flight) and even in case of sudden
disconnection by Internet providers. The concept of offline
crypto transaction was introduced in [15] as Pure Wallet (PW).
The scope of this work is to implement the Blockchain aspect
of PW. This article will use the concept of cryptocurrency
payment systems to explain the proposed algorithm. This
algorithm can also be applied in other Blockchain applications
such as in IoT and conducting electronic elections. It is a
combination of three steps; first is an online step, then an
offline, and finally another online step. Internet connection is
required during the two online steps and NFC is required for
the offline step of the transaction. Pure wallet (PW) proposes a
solution not as a replacement to the existing Internet based ar-
chitecture, but as an extension to enable offline cryptocurrency
transaction, for a more rapid adoption and users convenience.
As a brief summary, the innovation and contributions of this
work include the following:
1 PW introduces Blockchain for offline use cases.
2 A new token capable of offline transfer is introduced.
3 Token is time sensitive for security and avoidance of
double spending.
4 Introduces the concept of token manager.
5 We implemented the blockchain aspect of PW to validate
the proposed idea.
The rest of this article is arranged as follows: Section 2
presents the proposed Pure Wallet system model. Section 3
shows the Blockchain side implementation of the Pure Wallet
and the results are shown in Section 4. The expected benefit of
the proposed approach is presented in Section 5. And finally
the conclusion and future work are in Section 6.
I.S. Igboanusi, K.P. Dirgantoro, J.-M. Lee et al.
Fig. 1. Conventional Blockchain architecture showing what happens when
a sender sends money to a receiver, and what happens at the back-end from
the sender through the miner to the receiver. It also shows activities requiring
Internet access.
Fig. 2. Shows the block diagram of the proposed PW Blockchain architec-
ture. The sender sends a token through NFC connection to the receiver. The
verification process happens over the Internet connection through the token
manager and the miner.
2. System model
Using the insight of the above discussed works, this article
proposes Pure Wallet, an architecture to perform offline and
real-time cryptocurrency transaction. The coin in the presence
of Internet connection is converted into a token transferable
over an NFC mobile connection. The receiver device retrieves
the token value in the presence of an Internet connection.
We assumed that the mobile application has the capacity to
identify if a co-transacting device is legitimate or not. Consider
a need to make payment on-board an aeroplane, the only
possible payment is using cash, which has no equivalent in
cryptocurrency following its current form. To make this kind
of transaction possible there has to be a sort of value that is
transferable during an offline situation. To achieve a secure
transaction, digital cash in the form of a trusted secret token
is needed.
2.1. PW Digital Cash architecture
To achieve offline electronic transactions, it is necessary to
create a form of value transfer system which works efficiently
without instant connection to the Internet. Fig. 1 illustrates
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ICT Express 7 (2021) 327–334
Fig. 3. The process of making a cash transaction involving withdrawal
of money from the payer’s bank account. The physical cash is used for
transactions and the payee deposits the money in a bank account.
a conventional Blockchain architecture. Fig. 2 shows the
configuration of PW Blockchain architecture including the
conversion process from crypto coins to electronic token at the
sender (payer) account and vice versa at the receivers (payee)
end. This conversion process at token manager can only take
place when there is Internet connection. The token manager
resides in the network. Any transactions through the token
manager is seen in the network as a transaction that has been
initiated but is yet to be completed. The token is transferred
from a sender to a receiver over an Near Field Communication
(NFC). The receiver uses that token to retrieve the coin value
from the token manager. The PW algorithm is represented in
Algorithm 1. A token is valid for transfer at the senders device
within a certain time Ts , and for only one transaction. Received
token can only be sent to the Token Manager, which implies
that a receiver cannot send it into a new account. A time Tr is
given for the receiver to claim the value of the received token.
If the sender device does not make any transaction before Ts ,
it will have to wait for Tt before the token can be reconverted
to crypto coins. After Tt the unclaimed coins will return to the
sender’s account.
Ts + Tr ≤ Tt (1)
The token manager holds all the token submitted by all
payees until time Tt . The token manager completes all transac-
tions associated with a token generated during one coin-token
conversion, before returning the balance of unused token to
the sender’s coin account. This is meant to prevent the chance
of double redemption by the payee.
2.2. Real cash versus PW Digital cash
The process of using cash for transactions is a traditional
means as illustrated in Fig. 3. Before a transaction is made,
the payer withdraws cash from a bank account. During the
transaction, the cash is handed over in exchange for a good or
service. The cash is taken to the bank and deposited into an
account by the payee. A similar process is mimicked in PW
for offline transactions, but instead of physical cash a token
is used. PW processes are illustrated in Fig. 4, to show its
similarity with cash transaction as shown in Fig. 3.
I.S. Igboanusi, K.P. Dirgantoro, J.-M. Lee et al. ICT Express 7 (2021) 327–334

Algorithm 1: Pure Wallet (PW) processes

1 Sender sends coin to Token Manager (TM) via
Internet access
2 sender receives token via Internet access
3 while Transaction is in offline do
4 Sender initiates a hands shake
5 receiver sends acknowledgment
6 receiver pulls token from sender
7 sender confirms amount
8 sender transfers the token
9 receiver checks value and authorization on token
10 receiver removes any duplicate of sent token from
the sender’s account
11 receiver confirms receipt and terminate transaction
12 end
13 Receiver sends token to TM
14 TM forwards the transaction to miners for mining
15 Receiver receives the coin

Fig. 5. Interaction between sender and receiver in PW transaction during

NFC exchange of token. The process is initiated by the sender and is
terminated by the receiver. The acknowledgment and encryption is for
security between sender and receiver.

stored in a tamper resistant SE and Trusted Platform Module

Fig. 4. Proposed PW Blockchain architecture showing the process of
payment from the payer to the payee using a token over an NFC connection.
The token mimics the role of cash in cash transactions.
2.3. Near Field Communication (NFC)
To transfer the token without Internet connection, there
must be a close range communication between the receiver and
sender. It is important for this transfer of token to happen under
a secure condition capable of preventing cyber attacks, which
makes NFC a viable candidate. Legacy NFC devices often
are weakly encrypted or even lack encryption due to power
and computational requirement, making them vulnerable to
attacks [16], all that has recently changed. NFC is a wireless
technology with short range (about 4 cm) usually consisting of
two portable devices, connected in a peer-to-peer configuration
as illustrated in Fig. 5. Using higher layer cryptographic
protocols such as secure socket layer (SSL), NFC connections
are secure from eavesdropping. An NFC Secure Element (SE)
complimentary attestation and validation for mobile devices is
capable of providing a secure on demand access, by utilizing
NFC-based Host Card Emulation (HCE) [17]. A token is
created by a cloud base Trusted Certified Authority (TCA) and
330
(TPM)-based attestation modules on the devices.
The token is used for transactions as shown in Fig. 5
between NFC devices even without connection to Internet. The
NFC process is initiated by the sender with a handshake. An
acknowledgment shows the profile of the receiver and is used
to confirm if the token is sent to the right device. The receiver
device pulls the value of token to be transferred. The sender
device transfers token after confirming the value of transfer.
The receiver device removes the used tokens from senders
device and terminate transaction. The removal of used token
is the first precautionary measure to prevent double spending.
3. Implementation
The pure wallet transaction is divided into three main steps.
1 In the first step the sender converts some coins to token
from the token manager (TM). This process is repre-
sented in Fig. 6 as A and B Internet connection
is required to complete this step. The pseudo code for
this process is shown in Algorithm 2.
2 In the second step, the token information is transferred
from the sender to the receiver. This step does not require
the connection to the internet to be successful. It can
be transferred through Bluetooth, WiFi, NFC etc. In
this paper, this step was done manually by typing the
information into the receiver device and is represented
as C in Fig. 6.
I.S. Igboanusi, K.P. Dirgantoro, J.-M. Lee et al.
Fig. 6. Pure Wallet implementation architecture.
3 The last step as shown in Fig. 6 as D and E . In
this step, the token in the receiver’s device is transmitted
over the Internet to the TM, which in response transfers
the appropriate coin value to the receiver’s account. The
pseudo code for this process is shown in Algorithm 3.
While Smart Contract (SC) is not listed as one of the steps,
it plays an important role in the transaction process. The SC is
a piece of transaction code that executes a set of instructions
according to the terms of agreement of a contract. The SC
resides in the ledger on the Blockchain network. Whenever a
transaction is made between any sender and the TM, a process
for another transfer is initiated at the TM. The new transfer
process can only be completed with information contained
in the token associated with the transaction. This process is
represented in Algorithm 4.
Algorithm 2: Sender to the token manager
1 Sender sends coin to TM
2 mining process
3 TM sends token to sender
4 TM initiates a new transaction
Algorithm 3: Receiver from the token manager
1 Send token to TM
2 TM completes pending transaction
3 mining process
4 TM sends coin value to receiver
There are five implementation codes for this work. They
are used to facilitate the desired behavior of the units of the
architecture. They are listed below.
• The code executed by the sender’s device.
• The code executed by the token manager.
• The code executed by the receiver’s device.
• The code executed on the SC.
• The code executed by the miner to ensure automatic
transaction mining.
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ICT Express 7 (2021) 327–334
Algorithm 4: SC process at token manager
1 receive coin from sender.
2 combine senders address and transaction hash
information create token (T1 ).
3 send a token to sender’s device.
4 initiate a transact that requires T1 to send coin.
5 send coin to any address that provides T1 information
within time (Tr )
6 else return the coin value to the sender after time Tt
7 end transaction
Fig. 7. A request to retrieve 10 tokens from TM by receiver device. The
SC token reserve change from 10 (before the transaction) to 0 (after token
all token has been claimed).
Table 1
Specification of used device.
Item Specification
Computer Mac air 2015
Memory 4Gb ram
Storage 256 Gb
Processor 1.6 GHz dual core Intel core i5
Operating system Mac OS Sierra
In this implementation, the sender, the receiver, and the
token manager are all different accounts on the same device.
There is only a single miner in the network. Table 1 shows the
specification of the used device. All the implementation codes
for this paper have been uploaded in the Networked Systems
Lab website; its URL is in Ref. [18].
4. Experimental evaluation
We conducted experimental evaluation to demonstrate the
result of PW implementation. Specifically our demonstrations
were conducted to show the Blockchain implementation of
PW architecture, using the smart contract feature of Ethereum
Blockchain. We discuss these experiments and results below.
The architecture utilizes token as the unit for offline transac-
tion. The token resides in the sender’s or the receiver’s device,
which is transferable over any short range connection (example
NFC, Bluetooth, WiFi etc.). A token with a value of 10 is
transacted in this evaluation. Fig. 7 shows a request message
to claim a 10 token value from the token manager.
The process uses Internet connection to connect to the
Blockchain network. The token manager utilizes the informa-
tion contained in the token to complete the pending transac-
tion initiated in Algorithm 2, which requires the information
I.S. Igboanusi, K.P. Dirgantoro, J.-M. Lee et al.
Fig. 8. Block mining process in a PW architecture using an auto mining
activation protocol for energy efficiency.
from the token. The TM commits the transaction into the
Blockchain as the miner mines the transaction as shown in
Fig. 8. It is the same as the mining operation that processes
an online Blockchain transaction.
The account balance in the various accounts verifies the
success of the transaction. Fig. 9 shows the balance in the four
accounts, namely; the miner’s account (accounts[0]), the token
manager or bank (accounts[1]), the senders (accounts[2]), and
the receiver (account[3]). The first set of account balance
displays at the upper half of Fig. 9 is before the request and
the balance displayed at the lower half of the figure shows the
balance after withdrawal. It is seen that 10 token withdrawal is
executed successfully, as the balance in accounts[1] changed
from 29.999 to 19.999 indicating withdrawal from the TM and
accounts[3] changed from 9.999 to 19.999 indicating a deposit
into the receiver’s account.
5. Strengths/benefits of PW
This proposed pure wallet system is necessary to improve
the experience of using cryptocurrency in four major ar-
eas namely Real time transaction, rural adoption, reduced
transaction fees, and Internet blind spot.
• Real time transaction
A regular block-transaction takes about 10 min to be
added into a block. The amount of time spent to complete
a transaction can even take days based on certain rea-
sons. For examples: Block Propagation Time, Number of
Miners in the Network, Transaction Fee Set by the User,
Speed of the Web, Spam on the Network and so on [15].
With PW, real-time transactions can be successfully done
at any time. An NFC phone operating at 13.56 MHz
frequency delivers a data rate of 424 kbit/s. A token of
64 characters encoded with UTF-8, UTF-16, or UTF-
32 is delivered in 0.0012 s, 0.0023 s, and 0.0047 s
respectively. The token manager completes the transfer to
the receiver’s crypto coin account at time Tt after receipt
of the token from the payee.
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ICT Express 7 (2021) 327–334
Fig. 9. The record of transaction history for account[1–4] showing balance
values before and after transaction. It also shows the activation and
deactivation of the mining process.
• Reduced transaction fee
With the growing popularity of cryptocurrency, users
are exploited by miners who take advantage of excess
waiting time by concentrating on transactions with high
fees [11]. With PW, transactions can go on at any time
independent of the immediate average transaction fee,
and the token manager will complete the transfer at a
time with a low average transaction fee.
• Rural area adoption
The concept of cryptocurrency is to provide financial
services to all including those in the rural area, where
there is no banking infrastructure. However in such rural
areas, the possibility of making cryptocurrency transac-
tions is slim because of poor or no Internet connection.
According to the data from International Telecommuni-
cation Union, [19] in 2017 some countries have less than
15% Internet usage, thus making it unlikely to adopt
cryptocurrency in such areas.
In Fig. 10 the actual value from year 2000 to 2017
shows continuous growth in Internet penetration trend.
Prediction made using the actual value shows it will
take about 15 years to achieve near 100% adoption
worldwide. With PW, the goal of banking the unbanked
will be achieved faster.
• Internet blind spot
Passengers during flight can buy products sold by air
hostesses through PW without having physical cash.
Also, urban areas with poor or no Internet connectivity
are considered as part of potential beneficiaries of our
proposed Blockchain algorithm.
6. Conclusion
While the awareness and adoption of Blockchain growing
globally, it is still limited to people who have internet connec-
tion. This article has presented a Blockchain architecture that
I.S. Igboanusi, K.P. Dirgantoro, J.-M. Lee et al.
Fig. 10. (A) Represents the number and % of individuals using the Internet, 2005–2019. (B) Represents the Internet usage penetration index in % from
2000–2017, according to the International Telecommunication Union [17], and the predicted penetration index from 2018–2034.
enables offline transactions by introducing a token manager
into the blockchain network, and applying the token and
smart contract features. It elaborated and implemented the
Blockchain aspect of a new payment technique for cryptocur-
rency termed Pure Wallet (PW). This involves conversion of
cryptocurrency into digital token which is used for transaction
during an offline state. The blockchain side implementation
of the PW architecture was successfully implemented using
Ethereum enabled smart contract. An offline transaction of 10
token was done, hence proving that the PW architecture has
successfully enabled Blockchain for offline transactions. This
work will positively impact the adoption of Blockchain, also
it provides a pointer to other researchers on the possibility of
offline Blockchain transaction.
Our work has limitations which include token divisibility
i.e. our token must be sent as a whole. In addition, the
proposed technique has no mechanism of detecting falsified
tokens. Finally the behavior of the PW in a large adoption
environment is also areas for further research. In the future,
we hope work on the these limitations and apply this proposed
algorithm to voting systems to improve the works in [20], by
adding offline features to their proposed Blockchain voting
technique.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by the MSIT (Ministry of
Science and ICT), Korea, under the Grand Information Tech-
nology Research Center support program (IITP-2021-2020-0-
01612) supervised by the IITP (Institute for Information &
communications Technology Planning & Evaluation).
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ICT Express 7 (2021) 327–334
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