Answer any 5:

1.What do you understand by falsification fabrication

and plagiarism (FFP)?

Some research behaviors are so at odds with the core principles of

science that they are treated very harshly by the scientific community
and by institutions that oversee research. Anyone who engages in
these behaviors is putting his or her scientific career at risk and is
threatening the overall reputation of science and the health and
welfare of the intended beneficiaries of research.

Collectively these actions have come to be known as scientific

misconduct. A statement developed by the U.S. Office of Science and
Technology Policy, which has been adopted by most research-funding
agencies, defines misconduct as “fabrication, falsification, or
plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in
reporting research results.” According to the statement, the three
elements of misconduct are defined as follows:
 Falsification is “manipulating research materials, equipment, or
processes, or changing or omitting data or results such that the
research is not accurately represented in the research record.”
 Fabrication is “making up data or results.”
 Plagiarism is “the appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes,
results, or words without giving appropriate credit.”
In addition, the federal statement says that to be considered research
misconduct, actions must represent a “significant departure from
accepted practices,” must have been “committed intentionally, or
knowingly, or recklessly,” and must be “proven by a preponderance of
evidence.” According to the statement, “research misconduct does
not include differences of opinion.”
 Some research institutions and research-funding agencies define
scientific research misconduct more broadly. These institutional
definitions may add, for example, abuse of confidentiality in peer
review, failure to allocate credit appropriately in scientific
publications, not observing regulations governing research, failure to
report misconduct, or retaliation against individuals who report
misconduct to the list of behaviors that are considered misconduct. In
addition, the National Science Foundation has retained a clause in its
misconduct policies that includes behaviors that seriously deviate
from commonly accepted research practices as possible misconduct.
A crucial distinction between falsification, fabrication, and plagiarism
(sometimes called FFP) and error or negligence is the intent to
deceive. When researchers intentionally deceive their colleagues by
falsifying information, fabricating research results, or using others’
words and ideas without giving credit, they are violating fundamental
research standards and basic societal values. These actions are seen
as the worst violations of scientific standards because they undermine
the trust on which science is based.

2. Explain how ethical values mould human moral

behaviour and thoughts.

Ethics is very significant in the world of business. It is the study of

morally appropriate behaviour and decisions, and examining what
should be done. Ethics helps to mould and shape human behaviour. It
aids employees to perform their roles. Values are beliefs that a person
holds about things and aspects of life. These are guiding principles
that mould a person’s behaviour all his life.
Learn about:
1. Introduction to Ethics
2. Definition and Characteristics of Ethics
3. Principles
4. Importance
5. Approaches
6. Factors
7. Code
8. Religion and Ethical Behaviour
9. Ethical Dilemma (With Examples)
10. Ethical Issues (With Classifications)
11. Thoughts
12. Development
13. Methods Used for Instilling Ethics
14. Guidelines for Ethical Behaviour.
Ethics: Introduction:
Ethics are codes of conduct that decide what is wrong and what is right in
a particular circumstance. These are also known as morals and are a
result of evolution of mankind.
However, ethics cannot be instilled unless we ‘practice what we preach’.
Otherwise, the effect of preaching will last only as long as a house of
cards.
Ethics – Definition and Characteristics:
“Ethics is the science of judging specifically human ends and the
relationship of means to those ends. In some way it is also the art of
controlling means so that they will serve human ends.” — Thomas Garret
“‘Ethics’ is the discipline that examines one’s moral standard or moral
standards of society. It asks how those standards apply to our life and
whether these standards are reasonable or unreasonable — that is,
whether these are supported by good reason or poor one.” — Manuel
G. Velasquez
“Ethics refer to a set of moral principles which should play a very
significant role in guiding the conduct of managers and employees in
the operation of any enterprise.” — Dale S. Beach

“Ethics is that discipline which deals with what is good and bad and also
deal with moral duty and obligation. Ethics are set of moral principles
or values.” — Carol Buchholtz

“Ethics is a conception of right and wrong conduct. Ethics tell us when our
behaviour is moral and when it is moral. Ethics deal with fundamental
human relationship how we think and behave towards others and
how we want them to think and behave towards us.” — Post,
Frederick, and Lawlrence
“Ethics are formalised principles derived from social value. These are
moral principle which originate from social value and represent rules
for moral behaviour and conduct of individuals or groups thereof
carrying on business.” — Webster’s Directory
These definitions reveal the following characteristics of ethics:
(i) Ethics is a set of moral standards and values acceptable in a
society. It is relevant in the context of a society only.
(ii) Ethics guides human conduct or behaviour. If any member of the
society behaves contrary to the norms and customs, society
disapproves it. Moral principles serve as a guide for personal and
professional conduct. Ethics checks people from taking decisions
and actions which are harmful to society.There are three main
theories of ethics. First, the utilitarian theory suggests that
actions become right or wrong on the basis of their
consequence. Second, the theory of rights holds that all people
have certain basic rights. Third, the theory of justice demands
that actions must be fair and equitable.
(iii) Ethical principles are universal in nature. These prescribe obligations
and virtues for everybody in a society. Ethics is important not only in
business and politics but in every human endeavour.
(iv) Ethical standards differ from society to society. What is considered
ethical behaviour in one society might be considered unethical in
another. For example, abortion and artificial birth control is a taboo in
most of the Islamic countries and catholic Christian communities. But
these practices are fully ethical in China, Russia, Japan and many other
countries. Similarly, euthanasia (mercy killing) is permitted in some
countries but is strictly unethical in most countries.
(v) Ethics is normative or prescriptive in nature. It deals not with what is
but what ought to be. It does not rest on feelings of approval or
disapproval but on principles. For example, it may be unpleasant to
fire an employee but morality may require it.
(vi) Ethical norms might not be legally binding. But these are more
powerful than law because these have the sanction of society. When a
person’s behaviour is inconsistent with the prevailing values and norms, it
is called unethical. Ethics serves as a guide to law by highlighting its short
comings.
(vii) Ethics relates to the behaviour of individuals and groups. The ethical
norms do not apply to the behaviour of animals, birds, and insects.
Only human beings have the capacity to guide and regulate their
behaviour.
(viii) Ethics are not hard and fast rules. They are an expression of a
society’s attitudes and beliefs. There is an element of discretion as a
person has the option to adopt ethical norms. Ethics may differ from
place-to-place and time-to-time.
(ix) There exist no sharp boundaries between ethical and non-ethical.
Therefore, people often face ethical dilemmas wherein a clear cut choice
is very difficult.
(x) Ethics aims at perfection in human conduct. It guides law makers in
framing proper laws to regulate the behaviour of all citizens. Existing
norms may contain valuable insights but ethics sets out to critics and test
them in terms of ultimate norms.
(xi) The concepts of equity and justice are implicit in ethics. Fair and
equitable treatment to all is its primary aim.
(xii) Ethics and morality are interrelated but not synonymous. In the
words of Rogene A. Buchollz “Ethics deals with the formalisations of
ethical principles in the abstract or the resolution of concrete ethical
problems facing individuals in their daily life. Morality on the other hand
generally refers to the tradition of belief that have involved over years.
Concerning right and wrong conduct, so that morality has its roots in
belief of a society while ethics aim at formulating the principles to justify
human behaviour.” According to Clearance C. Walton, “morality is the
standards than an individual or group has about what is right and wrong
good and evil.”

The British Philosopher W.D. Gross has listed six basic duties of a
person:
(i) Fidelity – doing no harm to others
(ii) Reparation – making amends to those we have hurt
(iii) Gratitude – repaying those who have helped us
(iv) Justice – treating people as well as they deserve
(v) Beneficence – helping others when we can
(vi) Self-improvement – bettering ourselves but not at the cost of
others Any decision or action that fulfils any of these duties may be
treated as ethical.

3. Give the meaning and consequences of the meaning

and consequences of Duplicate and overlapping
publication?

Duplicate publication is publication of a paper that overlaps

substantially with one already published, without clear, visible
reference to the previous publication. Prior publication may include
release of information in the public domain. Duplicate publication of
original research is particularly problematic because it can result
 in inadvertent double-counting of data or inappropriate weighting of
the results of a single study, which distorts the available evidence.
Duplicate publication and plagiarism are often referred to in a similar
context, but their origins, issues, and remedies are substantially different.
When an author intentionally or unintentionally republishes his or her
own work without informing the editor of the previous publication, the
result is duplicate publication. Duplicate publication is a form of
redundant publication and refers to publication of an article’s content,
which has substantial overlaps with one΄s paper already published in
print or electronically [1]. Duplicate publication often violates copyright
law and, in the case of multiply published studies, distorts results of
meta-analyses, because if the duplication is not detected the results of
the duplicate publications influence the meta-analyses results more than
would a single publication.
“Duplicate publication often violates copyright law”
To try to prevent duplicate submission and publication – and recognizing
that duplicate submission wastes peer review resources – many journal
editors ask authors at submission to declare that their work is original,
not currently under consideration elsewhere, and also to submit any
previously published, in press, or submitted articles with substantial
overlaps with that work.
However, as unethical, misleading, and wasteful as duplicate publication
is, it is generally not considered scientific misconduct because the author
is not claiming credit for someone else’s work or fabricating information.
It can, however, constitute a breach of the certification an author makes
to a journal, which may have serious consequences for future
consideration of the author’s work at that and potentially other journals.
It is important to distinguish between duplicate publication and
secondary publication. Secondary publication, in which an author obtains
permission from the original publisher to submit the work elsewhere,
informs the editor at the new journal of the previous publication and, if
accepted as a secondary publication, indicates in the article the existence
of the previous publication; this is legitimate and acknowledged by the
International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE). Such
secondary publication or simultaneous publication has been used to help
reach more readers (as in the case of the ICMJE guidelines ) and more
audiences in different languages.

In original research, duplicate text may occur in specific sections of the

manuscript, most often the Methods section, as required when multiple
reports from a study overlap. On the other hand, duplicate Results text
may signal salami publication, while overlapping Introduction and
Discussion sections may suggest unoriginality of thought. This form of
duplicate publication or“self-plagiarism” is defined by the World
Association of Medical Editors (WAME) as“the practice of an author using
portions of their previous writings on the same topic in another of their
publications, without specifically citing it formally in quotes” [7]. The
types of overlapping text have been described [8], but the limits of
acceptable overlapping text have not been defined.

Why does unacknowledged, unauthorized duplicate publication persist?

Some authors may do it simply because they are not aware that it is
wrong. They like to present their work in as many fora as possible to
increase its visibility and to inflate their curriculum vitae for career
promotion. Some authors who have already published their work in a
local journal (mostly non-English) believe that re-publication of their work
in an internationally recognized journal would cause no problem since the
first journal is not indexed at all and thus the likelihood of double
counting of their work is almost nil. However, considering the ubiquity of
the Internet and taking into account that now even most local journals
have their own Web sites, retrieving such gray materials during a good
search is not unlikely.

Authors should clearly disclose that the article was first published in
another journal and language and if it is copy written, obtain permission
from the copyright holder.
On the other hand, plagiarism, “the use of others΄ published and
unpublished ideas or words (or other intellectual property) without
attribution or permission, and presenting them as new and original rather
than derived from an existing source,” is a form of scientific misconduct.
The word originates from the Latin word plagiaries meaning “kidnapper,
seducer, and plunderer” and was first used in the sense of “literary theft”
by the Roman poet, Martial, when complaining about a rival poet who
read Martial’s verses and passed them off as his own. Although plagiarism
is strongly condemned by the scientific community, it is unfortunately
widespread throughout academia and is being increasingly detected;
whether it is being increasingly committed cannot be determined for
certain.
There are two important distinct types of plagiarism –“plagiarism of
ideas” and “plagiarism of words.” Both constitute scientific misconduct,
but plagiarism of words is easier to detect and prove than plagiarism of
ideas. The causes of plagiarism are many and varied, from frank stealing,
to sloppy note-taking, to admiration for another’s ability with a language.
Many mainstream prestigious medical journals are published in English,
which is universally accepted as the science lingua franca. Particularly for
a non-English speaking author who has to publish or perish, preferably in
a higher impact journal, it may be tempting to insert his/her research
results into an easily-accessible well-written English text. These
challenges are understandable, particularly if a native English speaker
imagines writing his or her own text in a second language – thinking in
one language while conveying the message in another. Therefore, non-
English speakers may commit plagiarism for lack of awareness and/or for
want of linguistic expertise and editorial assistance. Authors with English
as a second language need more editing resources available to help them
– authors΄ editors or even a colleague with more facility with the
language – to help them find their own voice in their non-native tongue.
Journals should be willing to help provide at least some help with crafting
a manuscript, although language issues so dense as to obscure meaning
must be addressed by the author. However, the lack of such resources for
an author does not justify misconduct. If authors find particular passages
they believe are appropriate for their work, they should place them in
quotes, getting permission from the copyright holder if the passage is
sufficiently long.
“There are two important distinct types of plagiarism –“plagiarism of
ideas” and “plagiarism of words””
Although the seriousness of plagiarism and duplicate publication differ,
they are similar in terms of having at their core identical text, and
therefore, the tools used for their detection are very similar. Freely
available tools, accessible to authors, editors, reviewers, and readers,
include Déjà vu and eTBLAST. Crosscheck, a commercial product available
through the digital object identifier (DOI) depositor CrossRef, has
associated fees, but is more comprehensive in that it searches the full
text of holdings of participating publishers as well as the free content
available via the Internet.
Regardless of the type of detection, the reader, and certainly the editor,
must determine what degree of overlap is serious enough to bring to the
attention to the author and the author’s institution. No computer
program can make those determinations and difficult decisions.
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides flowcharts for
dealing with both duplicate publication and plagiarism. The US Office of
Research Integrity (ORI) investigates potential plagiarism if the work in
question was funded by the United States government.
If duplicate publication is suspected by an editor, a range of actions may
be taken depending on the seriousness of the situation and its
circumstances, such as seniority of the author. Generally speaking, the
initial step is for the author to provide an explanation. Certainly, editors
are more generous with junior authors whose improper behaviour is
more likely due to their lack of awareness than senior researchers who
are expected to be aware of journal policies and abide by them. Journals
that have authors warrant that the paper is not under review elsewhere
and has not been previously published are better positioned to confront
authors in cases of suspected duplicate publications. In the case of a few
inadvertent overlapping sentences identified before publication, an editor
may feel that author explanation, apology, and in most cases, rejection of
the manuscript is sufficient. More substantial overlap, or a pattern of
overlapping content, may warrant more serious interventions. If an article
is determined by the editor to be a duplicate publication in whole (or
substantially in part) after publication, the editor should notify the
publisher of the original article of this determination and consider
publishing a notice of duplicate publication along with an explanation
from the author. If the duplicate publication concerns primary data, it is
important that a notice of duplicate publication be made. The notice
should become part of online databases as well as the article itself, so
that it would be clear to a reader searching PubMed or another source
that the article had already been published.

In the case of suspected plagiarism, the author should be asked for an

explanation. If the editor is not satisfied with the explanation, he or she
should generally formally notify the author’s supervisor or author’s
institution sharing his/her concern and the author’s explanation. Cases of
alleged plagiarism are often complex and require established processes to
determine all the facts, and if it has occurred, to ascertain by whom. If a
plagiarized article has been published as determined by an appropriate
body with jurisdiction, a notice of retraction should be published along
with a notice on the article itself on the journal’s Web site, as well as
online databases such as PubMed. The article should not be removed
from its published location, since that would only confuse, not clarify, the
status of the article. Unfortunately, the number of retracted publications
recorded in PubMed has had an increasing trend in recent years.
Whether this increasing trend is due to an increased rate of the
misconduct or use of more sensitive diagnostic tools mostly presented
during recent years is a matter of debate.

“The number of retracted publications recorded in PubMed has had an

increasing trend”

What should editors, authors, and the research community do to prevent

duplicate publication and plagiarism? Most important is educating
investigators from students through senior faculty about how to
 prevent the practice and fostering a culture that does not accept such
practices. Journals should have clear and accessible policies available
to authors about duplicate publication and plagiarism and require
authors to warrant that the author meets criteria for authorship and
assumes responsibility for the work, and that the work has not been
submitted or published elsewhere. Editors should carefully seek out
instances of duplicate publication and plagiarism and take appropriate
careful but efficient action in reaching resolution and correcting the
publishing record. Reviewers should consider the possibility of
duplicate publication or plagiarism when they review and notify
editors if they suspect either. Providing courses, preferably online and
accessible for teaching authors, editors and reviewers; offering a place
for whistleblowers to report suspected cases; and conducting
research to identify different aspects of the issues are all important
steps in defining and addressing the problems.

The current digitally interconnected world aids authors and researchers

but facilitates duplicate publication and plagiarism. The same tools aid
in their detection. Editors, authors, and reviewers must be vigilant in
identifying and preventing duplicate publication and plagiarism. Only
through vigilance on all fronts can we protect the scientific literature
we all are striving to improve to better scientific knowledge and
ultimately patient care.

4. How do the mis-representation of data affect the

results and conclusion of research?

One can define ‘misrepresentation of data’ as ‘communicating

honestly reported data in a deceptive manner. Other ways of
misrepresenting data include drawing unwarranted inference from
data, creating deceptive graphs of figures, and using suggestive
language for rhetorical effect.
The concept of ‘misrepresentation,’ unlike ‘fabrication’ and ‘falsification,’
is neither clear nor uncontroversial. Most scientists will agree that
fabrication is making up data and falsification is changing data. But
what does it mean to misrepresent data? As a minimal answer to this
question, one can define ‘misrepresentation of data’ as
‘communicating honestly reported data in a deceptive manner.’ But
what is deceptive communication? The use of statistics presents
researchers with numerous opportunities to misrepresent data. For
example, one might use a statistical technique, such as multiple
regression or the analysis of variance, to make one’s results appear
more significant or convincing than they really are. Or one might
eliminate (or trim) outliers when ‘cleaning up’ raw data. Other ways of
misrepresenting data include drawing unwarranted inference from
data, creating deceptive graphs of figures, and using suggestive
language for rhetorical effect.

However, since researchers often disagree about the proper use of

statistical techniques and other means of representing data, the line
between misrepresentation of data and ‘disagreement about research
methods’ is often blurry. Since ‘misrepresentation’ is difficult to
define, many organizations have refused to characterize
misrepresenting data as a form of scientific misconduct. On the other
hand, it is important to call attention to the problem of
misrepresenting data, if one is concerned about promoting objectivity
in research, since many of science’s errors and biases result from the
misrepresentation of data.
How can data misrepresentation be avoided?

Basic Guidelines Keep Your Data Honest

Always look at your data. Summary statistics are never enough if you
want to avoid lying with your data. ...Figure out what type of data you
have. Then use tools that are appropriate for your data. ...Put your
 data in context. ...Avoid patterns of association between only two
data points.
How can we prevent misinterpretation of data in research?

Data should be presented in a way that user can understand it easily.

Hence, to avoid any misinterpretation, all the data fields should be
appropriately labeled. Moreover, if there is any special message
associated with the data, it should be put in the description of tables
for better understanding.
What is misrepresentation in research?

Misinterpretation. Misinterpretation refers to an interpretation of the

results that is not consistent with the actual results of the study. In
the Discussion section of a paper, authors may take a strong position
that relies more on their opinion than on the study results.

What would happen if the data is misinterpreted?

Important Variables Are Omitted

A single missing variable can cause data to be misinterpreted. And when

data is misinterpreted, it leads to faulty conclusions and sometimes
unwise investments.
How can data be misrepresented?

As a minimal answer to this question, one can define ‘misrepresentation

of data’ as ‘communicating honestly reported data in a deceptive
manner. ... Other ways of misrepresenting data include drawing
unwarranted inference from data, creating deceptive graphs of
figures, and using suggestive language for rhetorical effect.
What does misinterpretation mean?

: failure to understand or interpret something correctly an error caused

by misinterpretation of the rules : a mistaken interpretation …

What is an example of misrepresentation?

In a fraudulent misrepresentation, a party makes a false claim regarding a

contract or transaction but knows it isn’t true. For example, if
a person is selling a car and knows there is a problem with the
transmission, yet advertises it in perfect mechanical condition, they
have committed fraudulent misrepresentation.

When can a person claim misrepresentation?

A claim for misrepresentation arises where one party to a contract (the

representor) made an untrue statement of fact that induced the other
(the representee) to enter into the contract.

Which of the following is an example of basic research?

Examples of basic research

A study looking at how alcohol consumption impacts the brain. A study to

discover the components making up human DNA. A study accessing
whether stress levels make people more aggressive. A study looking
to see if gender stereotypes lead to depression.
What is misinterpretation of data in research?
Data is misinterpreted more often than you might expect. ... It is entirely
possible for business leaders to obsess about something that is
statistically insignificant, or for data scientists to omit important
variables, simply because they do not understand the entire context
of the problem they are trying to solve.

How graphs can be misleading?

The “classic” types of misleading graphs include cases where: The Vertical
scale is too big or too small, or skips numbers, or doesn’t start at zero.
The graph isn’t labeled properly. Data is left out.

What do you mean about scientific conduct in research and misconduct in

research and publication?

Scientific misconduct is a deliberate or grossly negligent breach of the

standards for scientific conduct in scientific research. ... Falsification:
Manipulation of research material, equipment or processes, as well as
changing or leaving out data or results, whereby the research appears
misleading.

How can you be fooled by data?

One of the easiest ways to be fooled by data is to assume that correlation

implies causation. Just because two variables have a high correlational
coefficient does not mean they’re related in a meaningful way, let
alone causal. Correlational data can be valuable, especially in
experiment ideation.

What is direct misrepresentation?

Direct misrepresentation is when you willingly and knowingly lied about
your information. Indirect misrepresentation means that you did not
know it was misrepresentation or you were not aware.
How do you avoid misusing averages?

Do A Little Bit of Math and apply Common Sense. Always Look for the
Source and check the authority of the source. Question if the statistics
are biased or statistically insignificant. Question if the statistics are
skewed purposely or Misinterpreted.

What are the 3 types of misrepresentation?

There are three types of misrepresentations—innocent

misrepresentation, negligent misrepresentation, and fraudulent
misrepresentation—all of which have varying remedies.

What are the remedies for misrepresentation?

If a misrepresentation is relied upon in entering a contract, a person can:

seek to rescind (cancel) the contract; or. Sue for damages to
compensate for any loss.
What is the punishment for misrepresentation?
Any claimant or representative of a claimant who knowingly and willfully
makes a false statement or representation for the purpose of
obtaining a benefit or payment under this chapter shall be guilty of a
felony, and on conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine not to
exceed $10,000, by imprisonment not to exceed ...
What are the types of misrepresentation
There are three main types of misrepresentation:
Fraudulent misrepresentation.Negligent misrepresentation.Innocent
misrepresentation.
What are the two types of misrepresentation?
The two types of misrepresentation are fraudulent and nonfraudulent.
Within the former are fraud in the execution and fraud in the
inducement. Within the latter are negligent misrepresentation and
innocent misrepresentation.
What are the different types of misrepresentation?
There are three types of misrepresentation.
Each type gives to different legal options.
Fraudulent misrepresentation. ...Negligent misrepresentation. ...Innocent
misrepresentation.
What causes misinterpretation?
Misinterpretation often caused by a lack of contextual understanding:
Communication is complicated because there are differences in goals
and contexts. ... Misinterpretation is perhaps caused by pre-
conceptual judgment, random assumptions, prejudices, or simply lack
of deeper understanding.
How do you stop misinterpretation?
Here are 10 tips to avoid misinterpreting an email, or on the contrary,
getting an email misinterpreted.
CAPS LOCK CAN COME ACROSS AS AGGRESSIVE. ..
.Avoid negative words in the subject line. ..
.Avoid negative words at all. ..
.Cater to the recipient. ...
.Avoid emoticons. ..
.Don’t play the blame game. ..
.Give a greeting and a farewell.
What is the meaning of misconstruction?
a wrong interpretation (as of words, intentions, or actions) : an act or
instance of misconstruing something a complete misconstruction of my
words.
5. Comment upon the methods of complaints and
Appeals against publication misconduct.

Journals should have a clearly described process for handling

complaints against the journal, its staff, editorial board or publisher.
The Procedure for Student Complaints and Academic Appeals gives more
detail on how the University considers complaints and academic appeals,
from early consideration through to formal resolution and review, and
information on how to make a submission under each The policy of the
journal is primarily aimed at protecting the authors, reviewers, editors,
and the publisher of the journal.
“Journals should have a clearly described process for handling complaints
against the journal, its staff, editorial board or publisher”. This refers to
COPE’s Core Practice #3 and it is good advice and might be the only
advice you need if all human beings operated solely with agreed upon
objective and rational principles and facts. But, as most editors will have
experienced when violations of publication ethics arise, some cases
involve passions, disagreements about the facts, allegations and counter
allegations and, sometimes, too much bias and gossip. So, in such cases,
how do editors separate the wheat from the chaff? What do you do when
you are presented with a complex and awkward situation, query or
complaint?

We hope that COPE stands as a resource for rational and principled

decision-making through the various resources we provide to help
members make decisions in a stepwise manner, based on the facts of the
case.

Just the facts!

Perhaps we need to focus on what we ask of those submitting a

complaint to COPE. In general, we urge anyone involved in authoring,
editing or publishing scholarly manuscripts to carefully follow the journal
directions about authorship, data management or other potentially
problematic issues. In turn, we need to expect publishers and journals to
give clear directions and boundaries to the authors who want to submit
manuscripts.

It is essential that all involved in the publication process, and particularly

in complaints, carefully stick to the facts of the situation, refer to
standards and policies (eg, your own, community standards, COPE
guidance), and follow established processes (eg, COPE flowcharts). This
needs to be carefully documented and articulated to COPE at the time of
the complaint. Know what you can decide upon and when to decide; and
know what you can’t decide upon that requires decisions from other
parties that you might then react or respond to (eg, institutions or
publishers).

COPE recognises that complaints are often awkward, involving situations

that are best handled by all parties sticking to the facts (as much as
possible), avoiding being drawn into politics, and applying recognized
standards and using established processes. All are encouraged to use
peers and colleagues whenever possible (rather than dealing with the
dilemma alone). COPE members can always use COPE for advice and
support.

COPE will approach your complaint with systematic questions, clarifying

the situation, and will attempt to help you understand and resolve your
publication ethics problem. COPE is like Switzerland in its neutral,
educational stance around complaints. 

COPE co-chairs Geri Pearson and Chris Graf 

Vice Chair and Chair Elect Deborah Poff
6. Write a note on predatory publishers and journals.

“Predatory journals and publishers are entities that prioritize self-interest

at the expense of scholarship and are characterized by false or
misleading information, deviation from best editorial and publication
practices, a lack of transparency, and/or the use of aggressive and
indiscriminate solicitation practices.”
Predatory journals are driven by self-interest, usually financial, at the
expense of scholarship. They are characterized by the following:
False or misleading information. 
Deviation from best editorial and publication practices. 
Warning signs should be assessed with care.
Lack of transparency. 
Aggressive, indiscriminate solicitation. 
Criteria we left out. Some obvious candidates for this list — journal
quality and intent to deceive — were deliberately left out. It can be tough
to distinguish a predatory journal from a journal that is under-resourced.
Both can be low quality, but the latter does not have an intention to
deceive.
 Predatory journals are a global threat. They accept articles for
publication — along with authors’ fees — without performing
promised quality checks for issues such as plagiarism or ethical
approval. Naive readers are not the only victims. Many researchers
have been duped into submitting to predatory journals, in which their
work can be overlooked. One study that focused on 46,000
researchers based in Italy found that about 5% of them published in
such outlets1. A separate analysis suggests predatory publishers
collect millions of dollars in publication fees that are ultimately paid
out by funders such as the US National Institutes of Health (NIH).
 One barrier to combating predatory publishing is, in our view, the lack
of an agreed definition. By analogy, consider the historical criteria for
deciding whether an abnormal bulge in the aorta, the largest artery in
 the body, could be deemed an aneurysm — a dangerous condition.
One accepted definition was based on population norms, another on
the size of the bulge relative to the aorta and a third on an absolute
measure of aorta width. Prevalence varied fourfold depending on the
definition used. This complicated efforts to assess risk and
interventions, and created uncertainty about who should be offered a
high-risk operation.
 Everyone agrees that predatory publishers sow confusion, promote
shoddy scholarship and waste resources. What is needed is consensus
on a definition of predatory journals. This would provide a reference
point for research into their prevalence and influence, and would help
in crafting coherent interventions.
 To hammer out such a consensus and to map solutions, we and others
met in Ottawa, Canada, over two days in April this year. The 43
participants hailed from 10 countries and represented publishing
societies, research funders, researchers, policymakers, academic
institutions, libraries and patient partners (that is, patients and
caregivers who proactively engage in research). Our focus was the
biomedical sciences, but our recommendations should apply broadly.
Here we put forward our definition. We describe what it took to achieve
consensus and how we’ll move forward.
The definition
The consensus definition reached was: “Predatory journals and publishers
are entities that prioritize self-interest at the expense of scholarship and
are characterized by false or misleading information, deviation from best
editorial and publication practices, a lack of transparency, and/or the use
of aggressive and indiscriminate solicitation practices.”
 False or misleading information. This applies to how the publisher
presents itself. A predatory journal’s website or e-mails often present
contradictory statements, fake impact factors, incorrect addresses,
misrepresentations of the editorial board, false claims of indexing or
membership of associations and misleading claims about the rigour of
peer review.
 Deviation from best editorial and publication practices. Standards
here have been set out in the joint statement on Principles of
Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing (see
go.nature.com/35mq7mj), issued by the DOAJ, the Open Access
Scholarly Publishers Association, COPE and the World Association of
Medical Editors. Examples of substandard practice include not having
a retraction policy, requesting a transfer of copyright when publishing
an open-access article and not specifying a Creative Commons licence
in an open-access journal. These characteristics can be difficult to
know before submitting, although such information is easily obtained
from legitimate journals. An unprofessional-looking web page — with
spelling or grammar mistakes or irrelevant text — should also raise
red flags.
 Warning signs should be assessed with care. For instance, journals are
not eligible for listing on the DOAJ or joining COPE until after one year
of operation. A well-meaning but poorly resourced journal might not
be able to maintain a professional website. Also, some journals claim
to follow best practice but do not. Summit participants agreed that
the burden of proof rests on the journal.
 Lack of transparency. There are two reasons we list this separately
from deviation from best practice. First, transparency in operational
procedures (such as how editorial decisions are made, fees applied
and peer review organized) is presently somewhat aspirational in
academic publishing and thus cannot be considered a current best
practice. Second, the absence of transparency in predatory journals
makes it important enough to highlight separately. Predatory
publishers often fail to provide their contact information or details
about article processing charges. Editors and members of their
editorial boards are often unverifiable.
Aggressive, indiscriminate solicitation. Although legitimate journals might
solicit submissions, predatory journals often use aggressive solicitation
such as repeated e-mails. These might be excessively flattering in tone, or
might mention researchers’ past publications while noting that related
submissions are urgently needed for a forthcoming issue. A clear warning
sign is that the invitee’s expertise is outside the journal’s scope
7. Throw light upon the problems that make the
researcher lean towards unethical behaviour.

☆How to Avoid Cheating:

Cheating is often one of the easier types of misconduct to avoid because
you can often consciously choose not to cheat. Some ways you can avoid
cheating are by:
●Giving yourself enough time to prepare for a test or quiz
●Keeping your eyes on your own work while in-class and not helping
others to cheat
●Not using the work of one class (like a research paper) in another
●Taking the time needed to create an accurate bibliography for your
paper.
☆How to Avoid Plagiarism:
The key to avoiding plagiarism is to give credit where credit is due. Some
ways to not plagiarize include:
 Take good notes as you read. Note the author and page number of
where you read ideas and/or facts
 Include quotation marks in your notes if you copy exact original
wording.
 Create a good system of organizing your research notes. Make time to
provide citations in your paper.
 Make sure to use in-text citations to give authors credit for their
ideas. Even if you change the wording or paraphrase text in your
paper, if it's not something that's common knowledge it should be
cited.
Types of Misconduct:
There are many different ways someone might act in a way that is
unethical in the research process. Academic integrity isn’t about just
avoiding cheating or choosing not to plagiarize, it’s about understanding
how to give credit where it’s deserved and ethically building on ideas of
previous researchers.  Nevertheless, the research authors must conform
to the scientific ethics at each stage of performing a research and
documenting its results.

‘Ethics’, derived from the Greek word ‘ethikos’ are a set of principles for
right conduct in a particular field. They carry a greater significance in the
field of medical research and publication as these are directly related to
the suffering humanity.

In recent times, there has been a gradual neglect towards the ethical
principles guiding a scientific research paper writing, and its publication.
The misconduct in behavior may be intentional or may arise due to
ignorance. Whatever be the cause of misconduct, the consequence is the
same. And it not only affects other authors, reviewers, and editors, but
also the common man. As a research author, it’s absolutely essential to
abreast yourself with these ethical principles and avoid any scientific
misconduct.

Here is a list of 5 common unethical practices you must avoid while

publishing your research paper:
1.Duplicate Submission
Submission of your research paper or its publication in two or more
identical journals with or without acknowledgement to another is called
duplicate submission/publication.
Such a practice is done by authors to increase their number of
publications. But, bear in mind! It’s unethical as it wastes the time of
journal reviewers, publication resources, and renders no benefit to
humanity or scientific community.
You can query multiple journals for submitting your research paper, but
finally submit to one only!
2.Falsification/fabrication of research data
Falsification is the manipulation of the methods used in research or its
key findings to produce a desired outcome. Fabrication is the false
recording or recording of a fictitious data when none exists.
Such practices are more common in pharmaceutical industry where
results are fabricated to promote a particular drug in the market, ignoring
its side-effects. Not only unethical and wastage of limited research
resources, such fabrications have negative effects on the physician’s
clinical practice and creates mistrust amongst the consumers or general
population.
3.Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the practice of using other’s work or ideas in your scientific
writing without giving them due credit and passing them off as one’s own
in publication journals to gain recognition. Even using your own text from
other publications in the current writing without due reference is
considered plagiarism, more specifically called self-plagiarism.
If you think you are smart and your plagiarised content will escape the
eyes of the journal editors, you are highly mistaken. Detection of
plagiarism has become easier with the advent of numerous plagiarism
checking tools.
Sometimes plagiarism is not intentional, but happens accidentally.
However, you can avoid it by providing references of all the sources you
have used for writing your scientific content.
Always cite the author appropriately whose work you use in your
research paper, even if they are from your past publications.
4.Authorship Conflict
As per the International Committee of Medical Journal Editor (ICMJE)
guidelines, any person who contributes to the conception, designing or
acquisition of research data, analysis of data, drafting or revision of the
article, and its final approval before publication is entitled for the
authorship of that paper.
Following unethical practices surmount to an authorship conflict:
Not including the name of the person who contributes to the research in
any manner.Failure to obtain consent from a person whose name is cited
in the manuscript.Adding an extra author or removing the name of an
existing author before or after publication.Citing a person as an author
just on the basis of seniority, family or professional relationship when
none of them contributed to the research or its writing.
The conflict can be prevented by deciding the authorship in the beginning
of the research. That’s the reason why journals ask the authors to submit
their checklist for the criteria of authorship.
5.Conflict of interest:
Conflict of interest is a situation in which the author of the research study
may be influenced by personal and/or financial considerations to affect
the quality or the end result of the research.
If any such conflicts of interest arise, be they personal, financial or any
other, they must be disclosed with complete honesty to the editorial
team.
Though our publication support services experts guidelines and principles
exist to prevent any misconduct in research and publication, ideally you
shouldn’t require them. Self-restraint and welfare of the fellow members
of the community must be the sole driving force for conducting an honest
research and publication.

Answer all:

1. What do you understand by conflicts of interest.

A conflict of interest occurs when an individual’s personal interests –

family, friendships, financial, or social factors – could compromise his or
her judgment, decisions, or actions in the workplace. Government
agencies take conflicts of interest so seriously that they are regulated.
Industry organizations, corporations, and universities, including our
university, follow that lead by including conflicts of interest in our
policies, regulations, and standards of operating procedures. For our
university, we must follow Florida’s Code of Ethics for Public Officers and
Employees that includes standards of conduct and reporting
requirements.

Conflicts of interest are a clash that most often occurs between

requirements and interests. Various types of conflicts of interest can
occur because of the nature of relationships versus rules of organizations
or federal and state laws. People can easily become biased (have an
unfair preference) because of small things like friendship, food, or
flattery, or they may be influenced to make a decision because of the
potential to gain power, prestige, or money. Conflicts can occur when an
individual makes or influences a decision and does so for some personal
gain that may be unfair, unethical, or even illegal. The important part is
what you do in each of those situations. Do you allow your family,
friendship, financial, or inside knowledge affect your actions? If you do,
you could be violating state statute and university policy.
In our work lives, we also have interests that could influence the way we
do our jobs and the decisions we make. Even if we never act on them,
there may be an appearance that a conflict of interest has influenced our
decisions. Consider this example. Your supervisor is promoted to
department director. His daughter-in-law is hired as a new supervisor
within the college but is not reporting to him. Maybe the new supervisor
is the best candidate for that position, and maybe the new department
director had nothing to do with her hire. Even if this hire met all of the
requirements under our Employment of Relatives policy, the situation
appears suspicious and employees may think that something was unfair
or unethical about her hire.
Transparency (being completely open and frank) becomes important
when dealing with both actual and potentially perceived conflicts of
interest. Perception happens when an individual observes something
(behavior or activity) and comes to a conclusion. Perceiving a conflict of
interest does not make it a conflict of interest. The true test of verifying
whether a matter is just a potentially perceived conflict of interest, or an
actual conflict of interest, is disclosure.
When it comes to conflicts of interest, appearance is as important as
reality. This is why disclosing conflicts of interest is important. Disclosure
is typically a more formal and documented process that most
organizations have adopted in policy to address conflicts of interest. The
disclosure process is intended to help the work force be transparent and
accountable for (explain or justify) their actions and decisions. Disclosure
of a potential conflict of interest does not make it an actual conflict, but
may help eliminate the perception. On the other hand, disclosure of an
actual conflict of interest does not remove the conflict, but helps get it in
the open to be properly addressed. It’s important to disclose both
potentially perceived and actual conflicts of interest to allow others to
evaluate the matter and make the decision, rather than keep it to oneself
and then create an ethical or legal situation. The individual cannot make
the determination as to whether it is a conflict or not because he or she
does not have an independent or objective point of view.

When you identify a situation that may be a conflict, or could be

perceived as a conflict, notify your supervisor or University Compliance,
Ethics, and Risk at complianceandethics@ucf.edu. They can help advise
you on how to either remove the conflict by recusing yourself from the
situation altogether, or develop a management plan to manage the
conflict.

2. Discuss the online resources available to Find out

publishers copyrights.

Introduction:
The Copyright Act, 1957 (the ‘Act’) came into effect from January 1958.
The Act has been amended five times since then, i.e., in 1983, 1984, 1992,
1994, 1999 and 2012. The Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012 is the most
substantial. The main reasons for amendments to the Copyright Act, 1957
include to bring the Act in conformity with two WIPO internet treaties
concluded in 1996 namely, the WIPO Copyright Treaty (“WCT”) and WIPO
Performances and Phonograms Treaty (“WPPT”); to protect the Music
and Film Industry and address its concerns; to address the concerns of
the physically disabled and to protect the interests of the author of any
work; Incidental changes; to remove operational facilities; and
enforcement of rights. Some of the important amendments to the
Copyright Act in 2012 are extension of copyright protection in the digital
environment such as penalties for circumvention of technological
protection measures and rights management information, and liability of
internet service provider and introduction of statutory licenses for cover
versions and broadcasting organizations; ensuring right to receive
royalties for authors, and music composers, exclusive economic and
moral rights to performers, equal membership rights in copyright
societies for authors and other right owners and exception of copyrights
for physically disabled to access any works.
You can apply for copyright through offline or online mode. In offline
mode, you have to fill the application and then have to send this
application to the department of copyright along with fee of copyright.
Once your application file, you will get a diary number which is generated
after filing of the application. After filing of application your application
will go to the examination department if they find any error in your
application then they will inform you so you can remove the defects and
if anyone objects your copyright and if your copyright work is already
copyrighted then in case your copyright application may be rejected.If
you want to register your copyright through online application then it will
be easier for you. If you want to register your copyright through online
application then you have to fill your application on the website of
copyright. First, you have to visit the official website of copyright
registration ( http://copyright.gov.in/ ) then you have to click on the
button of new copyright registration.After clicking on the new registration
button a new page will open where you have to make your login ID and
during the whole process of the registration process, you have to log in
through this ID. So first you have to make your ID on the website.After
signup on the website click on the link of online copyright registration
then you have to fill the online application of registration. During filling of
this application, you have to fill your personal and profession details and
have to give information about your work for which you want to get
copyright. This online form is to be filled up in four easy steps. First is you
have to fill the complete form then you have to press on the save button
so your application will be saved on the website then you have to click on
step 2 to move to next step.Then you have to fill the statement of
particular then you have to save this and then you can move to the
3rd After clicking on the 3rd step you have to fill the information about
your work so fee o registration will we charged according to your work
after filling this you have to click on the next button.In the last step, you
have to pay your registration fee you can pay through online or offline
mode. After submission of fee, you will get a diary number which is
generated after completion of form so you can use this for future
reference. After submission of the form, it will get 30 days for its
registration. In case if there is already filed a copyright for your work then
your application may be rejected.
Conclusion:
As you can see in the above article that copyright protection
and trademark registration is important nowadays because anyone can
copy your work and copyright will give protection for your work and
anyone breach your right then he will get punishment under the
copyright act. If you want to get copyright for your website then it is very
easy you can file your form online on the website of copyright
registration. You will get copyright on your work after 30 days of filing of
application. So as you can see above it is very easy to get copyright on
your work and it is also important to get copyright on your work so you
should consider the above-given points.

3. How will you check plagiarism of a scientific work

using urkund software

Introduction:
What does Ouriginal do? 
Ouriginal compares a submission with previously submitted texts and
answers to assignments at NTNU and texts available via sources on the
internet. The system performs an analysis and compiles a report
indicating similarity in percentage (hit percentage) between the
submitted text and texts in other sources. The report provides direct
reference to sources and text in sources that have
similarities. Note: NTNU’s database of texts is exclusive to NTNU. Texts
are, as of today, not compared with texts in databases of other
institutions.
How to deliver texts for plagiarism control?
Texts (answers to assignments) can be submitted in 3 different ways:
Upload the text via Ouriginal's web interface to the teacher's account.
Send the text via e-mail directly to the teacher's account in Ouriginal.
Deliver the text in Blackboard or Inspera.(The Blackboard integration is
planned available autumn 2017.)
 Get started and create user #
 To use Ouriginal, you must create an analysis account in Ouriginal.
This is done the first time you log in to Ouriginal using Feide.
 To register and log in for the first time, follow the steps below or go
straight to item 7 using this: Ouriginal login
 Go to: http://www.Urkund.com/en/ and click on " Log in ".
 Click on " Log in to the Ouriginal system " in the "Access Portal".
 Use "Shibboleth login".
 Find NTNU by clicking on the drop down menu. (Tip: By pressing "N"
on the keyboard you scroll through the institutions beginning with "N"
and come faster to NTNU.) Select "Norges teknisk-...
 Click on “Login using Shibboleth”.
 The first time you log in, you come to this page to validate Feide
details. Uncheck “ Accept for future “ and click “ Yes, continue “.
 You come to this page to set up your account in Ouriginal. Keep
information as is, do not change anything. Review “Terms of Service”
and then check for “I Accept Ouriginal’s Terms of Service”. Then click
on “Create”.
 The page “Registration complete appears”. Click on “Proceed to your
account”.
 You will enter your account and page (inbox), whereupon texts sent to
your account and result from the plagiarism control will be displayed.
You have now created an account and can start using Ouriginal.
 Once you have created a user, you can log in as explained above.

4. Outline the significance of citation databases – Web

of Science and Scopus.

In modern science, the assessment of the effectiveness of researchers’

activities often implies the use of scientometric indicators. They are
calculated based on scientific publications, the information about which is
commonly stored in bibliographic databases.

The largest and most famous databases to date are Scopus and Web of
Science (WoS). The presence of texts in these databases increases the
scientist’s rating and favourably affects the work’s reliability level.

What Are Scopus and Web of Science?

Scopus and Web of Science are the largest worldwide-used citation
databases. Today, these are the most respected platforms for analysing
peer-reviewed literature: scientific publications, conference proceedings,
and books.
What Is Web of Science?
The scientometric Web of Science (WoS) database consists of over 33,000
publications. WoS contains such data filters as:
☆Title
☆Publication
☆Name
☆Year published
☆Author
☆Document type and more

A variety of sorting options allows browsing through large volumes of

data fast.

The basis of indexed Web of Science resources is comprised of scientific

publications in natural, exact, and social subject areas. Humanities
publications appear in this database significantly less often. Therefore,
researchers specializing in humanities more often search editions to place
their research on Scopus.
What Is Scopus?
Scopus is one of the largest databases that hosts 23,700 titles from 5,000
publishers. Scopus contains:
Scientific literature on various :
☆disciplines
☆Articles
☆Abstracts
☆Books
☆Collections of conferences Monographs
The publications are updated daily. Thus, users are provided with access
to a large volume of the latest information. It enables them to track
current trends, as well as find colleagues for joint research. Scopus has
special tools that allow the researcher to go further into the field of
research, data analysis, and monitoring of link usage frequency.

What Is the Difference between Scopus and Web of Science?

WoS and Scopus share a lot of common features. Nevertheless, these
databases have a couple of significant differences. For instance, the Web
of Science database allows deeper search of published papers dating back
to 1900, whereas Scopus covers more modern materials.

Besides, the topic of research is also important. While Web of Science

collects information on the natural, technical, and social sciences, Scopus
also has a wide variety of publications in the humanities field, although
neither of them is considered to be specialised.

Scopus vs Web of Science: Which Database Is Better?

When comparing the use of Web of Science and Scopus in academic
papers, there is no definite answer regarding which database is better.
Most users agree that these platforms complement each other.

Scopus offers a more extensive list of modern sources. An additional

advantage of Scopus is the implementation of an independent sourcing
system. Moreover, its interface is often considered more user-friendly.

Web of Science, on the other hand, provides the most in-depth citation
by source. Another advantage of using WoS is the availability of a large
volume of scientific literature published in the past.

Both systems subdivide sources into quartiles according to the citation

level. Based on this indicator, you can assess their quality.

All in all, both platforms are equally efficient. They offer the functionality
that allows the user to achieve the assigned tasks without difficulties. The
specific choice directly depends on the goals pursued by the researcher.
5. What is h – index and g- index? How will you
calculate the impact factor of a journal?

h-index:
Unless you have been hiding under a stone in the last ten years, you will
probably have heard about the h-index. It is defined as follows (Hirsch,
2005:16569):
A scientist has index h if h of his/her Np papers have at least h citations
each, and the other (Np-h) papers have no more than h citations each.
A h-index of 20 means that an academic has published at least 20 papers
that have received at least 20 citations each. The h-index thus combines
an assessment of both quantity (number of papers) and an approximation
of quality (impact, or citations to these papers).
h-index rewards consistent stream of high-impact publications.
An academic cannot have a high h-index without publishing a substantial
number of papers. However, this is not enough. These papers need to be
cited in order to count for the h-index. Hence the h-index favours
academics that publish a continuous stream of papers with lasting and
above-average impact.

g-index:
 The g-index is calculated based on the distribution of citations
received by a given researcher's publications, such that:
 given a set of articles ranked in decreasing order of the number of
citations that they received, the g-index is the unique largest number
such that the top g articles received together at least g2 citations.
g-index looks at overall record:
 A g-index of 20 means that and academic has published at least 20
articles that combined have received at least 400 citations. However,
unlike the h-index these citations could be generated by only a small
number of articles. For instance an academic with 20 papers, 15 of
 which have no citations with the remaining five having respectively
350, 35, 10, 3 and 2 citations would have a g-index of 20, but a h-index
of 3 (three papers with at least 3 citations each).
g-index allows highly-cited papers to bolster low-cited papers:
Roughly, h is the number of papers of a certain “quality” [citations]
threshold, a threshold that rises as h rises; g allows citations from higher-
cited papers to be used to bolster lower-cited papers in meeting this
threshold. Therefore, in all cases g is at least h, and is in most cases
higher. However, unlike the h-index, the g-index saturates whenever the
average number of citations for all published papers exceeds the total
number of published papers; the way it is defined, the g-index is not
adapted to this situation.
Conclusions:
The h-index and g-index are both limited by the number of papers one
publishes. Hence these indices – and especially the g-index – will always
favour academics that publish more papers (provided they are cited at
least moderately well). These indices are therefore not very suitable to
assess the impact of academics that have published one or two ground-
breaking contributions, but have not published any further highly cited
work. For these academics, the total number of citations might be a more
appropriate metric. That’s exactly why Publish or Perish provides a wide
range of metrics. The variety of metrics allows you to select the metrics
most appropriate to your purpose.
The impact factor is one of these; it is a measure of the frequency with
which the “average article” in a journal has been cited in a particular year
or period. The annual JCR impact factor is a ratio between citations and
recent citable items published. Thus, the impact factor of a journal is
calculated by dividing the number of current year citations to the source
items published in that journal during the previous two years.
The impact factor is useful in clarifying the significance of absolute (or
total) citation frequencies. It eliminates some of the bias of such counts
which favor large journals over small ones, or frequently issued journals
over less frequently issued ones, and of older journals over newer ones.
Particularly in the latter case such journals have a larger citable body of
literature than smaller or younger journals. All things being equal, the
larger the number of previously published articles, the more often a
journal will be cited.