Chap.1. COURSE OBJECT.

BASIC CONCEPTS of THERMODYNAMICS

1.1. Course Object
Thermodynamics = science of energy, in the broadest sense
Energy = a measure of the motion amount
Motion can be – mechanical
– thermal
– electrical
– chemical, etc.
Thermodynamics appeared as science from research and
experiments regarding the transfer conditions of heat to
mechanical work. The starting point was the steam machine.
The Energy forms are classified into two main categories:
→ ordered energies: can be totally transformed in mechanical
work W
i.e.: kinetic E, potential E, Eel
→ disordered energies: have a limited capacity to be
transferred in mechanical work
i.e.: U – internal E, Q – heat transfer
 the necessity to define the maximum fraction of an energy
that can be transformed in W. This is the exergy.
Anergy = the fraction of a disordered energy that cannot be
transformed into W.
It results that the energy is: E = Ex + An
For - ordered forms of energy: Ex = E
- disordered forms of energy: Ex < E
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The exergy of disordered energies depends on:

- the energy parameters
- the surrounding parameters.
The higher the degree of disorder in a system (the higher the
entropy S level), the lower the ability of the system to perform
L, expressed based on Ex.
Thermodynamic analysis is based on two investigation
procedures:
➢ the phenomenological method providing analysis at
macroscopic scale.
- uses the Thermodynamic Laws (principles) stated on
experimental observations
 First Law: the conservation and transformation of
energy principle
- it is a quantitative law
- it introduces the Energy
 Second Law: asserts the natural direction of
spontaneous processes in nature
- it is a qualitative law, stating that energy has quality
- it introduces the Entropy
 Third Law (Nernst theorem): states the value of entropy
at zero temperature
➢ the statistic method: analyses microstructure models.
- it is used when the phenomenological method is not
efficient or to complete it.
Other methods – thermodynamic cycles: Carnot, Clausius
– thermodynamic potentials: Gibbs/Helmholtz
Engineering Thermodynamics = studies processes involving
Q and W transfer.
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1.2. Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

1.2.1. Energy
- E is a quantitative measure of bodies motion.
In engineering applications, the way that the energy is
transferred from one form to another is important.
1.2.2. Heat and Work
- do not characterize the thermodynamic state of a system
- are forms of energy transfer, process quantities
- appears only during interaction between bodies.
Q - microphysical form of energy transfer between bodies
as a result of thermal interaction by virtue of a
temperature difference.

W - macrophysical form of energy transfer between bodies

as a result of mechanical interaction by virtue of a pressure
difference (Thermodynamics) or movement (Physics)
1.2.3. Thermodynamic System
= a set of material bodies that interact with each other and
with the surrounding by exchanging Q, W, and matter (m)
a) open system: exchanges of Q, W, and m
b) closed system: exchanges Q, L
c) adiabatic isolated system: does not exchanges Q
d) isolated system: does not exchanges Q, W, and m
1.2.4. Surroundings
= a set of bodies with which the system exchanges energy and
substance.
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In an isolated system, after a while, the state of energetic

(mechanical and thermal) equilibrium is established.
Internal equilibrium state  same pressure and
temperature throughout the mass of the system.
Mechanical/thermal equilibrium state  same
pressure/temperature throughout the mass of the system.
External equilibrium state  uniform pressure and
temperature at the border between the system and its
surroundings.
1.2.5. Thermodynamic (State) Parameters
- characterize the state of a system in equilibrium.
a) intensive parameters: do not depend on the system mass
: can be measured
i.e.: pressure, temperature
b) extensive parameters: depending on the system mass
: one cannot measure them
i.e.: - volume: V [m3] = m [kg]  v [m3/kg]
- internal energy: U [J] = m [kg]  u [J/kg]
- enthalpy: H [J] = m [kg]  h [J/kg]
- entropy: S [J/K] = m [kg]  s [J/kg K]
1.2.6. Thermal Equation of State
The thermodynamic equilibrium state can be specified by
several related state quantities.
Typically, thermal agents evolving in thermodynamic systems
have two degrees of freedom: p and T.
The thermal equation of state connects these two parameters
and the volume by:
f (p, V, T) = 0
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1.2.7. Thermodynamic Process

= the succession of intermediate states between an initial and a
final state.
Final state ≡ initial state  closed process or cycle.
Contrarily  open process.
When a thermodynamic parameter is kept constant:
isometric process: V = ct
isobaric process: p = ct
isothermal process: T = ct
adiabatic process: δQ = 0
Upon the process behavior in time:
steady-state regime:
unsteady-state regime: .
Thermodynamic processes can be classified as:
Reversible Process: if in both directions between an initial
and a final state, the intermediate
equilibrium states are the same.
Irreversible Process: when different intermediate
equilibrium states appears back and
forth between two states.
Real processes in nature and in thermal machines are
irreversible, having as causes of irreversibility:
- mechanical and gas-dynamic friction,
- finite temperature/pressure differences in Q/W transfer proc.,
- mixing or diffusion,
- throttling when passing through valves,
- irreversible burning of fuels,
- nuclear disintegration.