Unit I

Laws of Thermodynamics

Prof. Pramod Chaudhari

UNIT -I: Laws of Thermodynamics: Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics,
First Law, Its limitations, Joules Experiment, Applications of first law to
flow & non - flow processes & cycles, Steady flow Energy Equation &
its applications, Second Law of Thermodynamics, Equivalence of
Clausius & Kelvin Plank statement. (9)

Unit II. Gas laws and Gas Power Cycles: Ideal Gas: definition,
Boyle's Law, Charles Law, Equation of state, Constant pressure,
Constant volume, Constant temperature, Adiabatic & Polytropic
processes on P - V and T - S diagrams, calculations of heat transfer,
work done, internal energy, change in enthalpy. Gas Power Cycles: Air
standard cycle & assumptions, Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual Cycle,
Analysis of cycles for thermal Efficiency (9)
Unit III. Entropy: Concept of Reversibility & Irreversibility, Clausius
Inequality, Entropy as a property, Increase of entropy principle,
change of entropy in various processes. (9)

Unit IV. Steam Properties and Vapour Power Cycle: Steam

formation, phase changes, properties of steam, Use of steam
tables, study of PV & T – S charts for steam, dryness fraction, its
determination, Separating calorimeter ,Throttling calorimeter,
combined Separating & throttling calorimeter Vapour power cycles:
Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle, comparison, Efficiency of Rankine
cycle, effect of superheat, boiler & condenser pressure on
performance of Rankine cycle. (9)
Unit V. Steam Generators: Classifications, constructional details of
boilers, Features of High pressure boilers, IBR act, Boiler Draught
(Natural & Artificial), Boiler performance calculations - EER, efficiency,
Heat Balance sheet. (9)

TEXT BOOKS
1. P. K. Nag, Engineering Thermodynamics, Tata McGraw Hill
Publications.
2. Rayner Joel, Engineering Thermodynamics, ELBS Longman.
3. D.S.Kumar, Thermal Engineering
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Y. Cengel & Boles, Thermodynamics- An Engineering Approach, Tata
McGraw Hill Publications.
2. C. P. Arora, Engineering Thermodynamics. Tata McGraw Hill
Publications.
3. P. L. Ballany, Thermal Engineering, Khanna Publishers.
4. Kothandaraman and Domkundwar, Thermodynamics and Heat
Engines.
 Basics of Thermodynamics
The name thermodynamics came from the Greek words therme (heat)
and dynamics (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to
convert heat into power.

Defn: It the science which deals with the study of energy conversion.

Thermodynamics, basically entails four laws known as Zeroth, First,

Second and Third law of thermodynamics.
The Zeroth law deals with thermal equilibrium and establishes a concept
of temperature.
The First law throws light on concept of internal energy.
The Second law indicates the limit of converting heat into work and
introduces the principle of increase of entropy.
The Third law defines the absolute zero of entropy.
These laws are based on experimental observations and have no
mathematical proof.
Table presents the laws of thermodynamics along with the
scientists associated with their invention and year of invention.

Thermodynamic
Scientists/Researchers Year
Laws
Zeroth Law Fowler and Guggenheim 1939
First Law Joule, Mayer, Thompson and Colding 1845
Second Law Carnot 1824
Third Law Nernst 1907
Fourth Law Onsagar 1968
System: A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space
which one wants to study. A particle of an object can be a system, object
itself can be a system, earth or whole solar system can be a system. It
depends on the observer who is observing it.

Surrounding: The mass or region outside the system is called the

surroundings. Everything extraneous to the system is surrounding

Boundary: The Surface, layer or membrane that separates the system

from its surroundings is called the boundary.

Boundary may be real or imaginary and it may be fix or moving

 The System

Universe: System plus surrounding constitute the Universe

Universe = System + Surrounding
 Types of Systems
Open System: The system in which both mass and energy can cross
the boundary is called as open system. E.g. Water heater, water pump.

Closed System: : The system in which only energy but not the mass
can cross the boundary is called as closed system. That is, no mass can
enter or leave a closed system. But energy, in the form of heat or work,
can cross the boundary; and the volume of a closed system does not
have to be fixed. E.g. pressure cooker
 Closed System
Mass interaction = Zero

Isolated System: An isolated system is that system which exchanges

neither energy nor matter with any other system or with environment

Mass interaction = Zero

Energy interaction = Zero
e. g. = Thermos Flask
Adiabatic System: An adiabatic system is one which is thermally
insulated from its surroundings. It can, however, exchange work with its
surroundings. If it does not, it becomes an isolated system.

Homogeneous System: A system which consists of a single phase is

termed as homogeneous system. Examples : Mixture of air and water
vapour, water plus nitric acid and octane plus heptane.

Heterogeneous System: A system which consists of two or more

phases is called a heterogeneous system. Examples : Water plus steam,
ice plus water.
 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if the temperature and
pressure at all points are same ; there should be no velocity gradient ;
the chemical equilibrium is also necessary.
It is only under thermodynamic equilibrium conditions that the properties
of a system can be fixed.
Thus for attaining a state of thermodynamic equilibrium the following
three types of equilibrium states must be achieved :
1. Thermal equilibrium. The temperature of the system does not
change with time and has same value at all points of the system.
2. Mechanical equilibrium. There are no unbalanced forces within the
system or between the surroundings. The pressure in the system is
same at all points and does not change with respect to time.
3. Chemical equilibrium. No chemical reaction takes place in the
system and the chemical composition which is same throughout the
system does not vary with time.

PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM:

Any measurable characteristic of a system is called a property. Some

familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass
m. The list can be extended to include less familiar ones such as
viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and elevation.

Properties are state function and do not depend on the path followed
There are two types of properties: Intensive and Extensive;

Intensive Property: These properties do not depend on the mass of

the system. Examples : Temperature and pressure.

Extensive Property: These properties depend on the mass of the

system. Example : Volume, mass. Extensive properties are often
divided by mass associated with them to obtain the intensive
properties. For example, if the volume of a system of mass m is V,
then the specific volume of matter within the system is V/m = v which
is an intensive property.
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if the bodies A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with a third body C separately then the two bodies A
and B shall also be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This is the
principle of temperature measurement. Block diagram shows the zeroth
law of thermodynamics and its application for temperature measurement

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

Application of Zeroth law for temperature measurement
Introduction to First Law of Thermodynamics:
Joule’s Experiment
FIRST LAW for a process;
δQ - δW = dE
E consists of E = U + KE + PE
U -internal energy
KE - the kinetic energy
PE - the potential energy
For the process A Q – W = E2 -E1
Similarly for the process B Q – W = E1 - E2

An isolated system which does not interact with the surroundings Q = 0

and W = 0. Therefore, E remains constant for such a system.
First law compels that this is possible only when there is also heat
interaction between the system and the surroundings.

In other words, if you have to get work out, you must give heat in.

• Thus, the first law can be construed to be a statement of conservation

of energy - in a broad sense.

• In the example shown the area under curve A < that under B

• The cycle shown has negative work output or it will receive work from
the surroundings. Obviously, the net heat interaction is also negative.
This implies that this cycle will heat the environment. (as per the sign
convention).
For a process we can have Q=0 or W=0

• We can extract work without supplying heat (during a process)

but sacrificing the energy of the system.

• We can add heat to the system without doing work (in process)
which will go to increasing the energy of the system.

• Energy of a system is an extensive property

• Whenever we expend heat energy, we expect to derive work
interaction (or else the heat supplied is wasted or goes to change the
energy of the system).

• The first law introduces a new property of the system called the
energy of the system.
• It appears that heat (Q) is not a property of the system but the energy
(E) is.
• How do we distinguish what is a property of the system and what is
not?
• The change in the value of a “property” during a process depends only
on the end states and not on the path taken by a process.
• In a cycle the net in change in “every property” is zero.
HEAT and WORK are not properties because they depend on the path
and not on end states.

HEAT and WORK are not properties because their net change in a cycle
is not zero.
To sum up:
I law for a cycle: δQ = δW
I law for a process is Q - W = ΔE
Q - W = ΔU As; ΔKE = 0, ΔPE = 0
Q = ΔU + W
For an isolated system Q = 0 and W = 0.
Therefore ΔE=0
 Limitations of I Law
1) First law of thermodynamics does not differentiate between heat and
work and assures full convertibility of one into other whereas full
conversion of work into heat is possible but the vice-versa is not
possible.

2) First law of thermodynamics does not explain the direction of a

process. Such as theoretically it shall permit even heat transfer from low
temperature body to high temperature body which is not practically
feasible. Spontaneity of the process is not taken care of by the first law of
thermodynamics.
Perpetual motion machine of the first kind (PMM-I) is a hypothetical
device conceived, based on violation of First law of thermodynamics. Let
us think of a system which can create energy as shown below.

PMM-I, based on violation of Ist law of thermodynamics

Here a device which is continuously producing work without any other
form of energy supplied to it has been shown in (a), which is not feasible.
Similarly a device which is continuously emitting heat without any other
form of energy supplied to it has been shown in (b), which is again not
feasible.
Above two imaginary machines are called Perpetual Motion Machines of
1st kind.
 Steady Flow Energy Equation
[SFEE]
In many practical problems, the rate at which the fluid flows through a machine
or piece of apparatus is constant. This type of flow is called steady flow.

Assumptions :

The following assumptions are made in the system analysis :

(i) The mass flow through the system remains constant.

(ii) Fluid is uniform in composition.
(iii) The only interaction between the system and surroundings are work and
heat.
(iv) The state of fluid at any point remains constant with time.
(v) In the analysis only potential, kinetic and flow energies are considered.
 SFEE
Let
Q = Heat supplied (or entering the boundary) per kg of fluid,
W = Work done by (or work coming out of the boundary) 1 kg of fluid,
C = Velocity of fluid ,
Z = Height above reference datum,
p = Pressure of the fluid,
u = Internal energy per kg of fluid, and
pv = Energy required for 1 kg of fluid. (Flow work)
This equation is applicable to any medium in any steady flow. It is
applicable not only to rotary machines such as centrifugal fans, pumps
and compressors but also to reciprocating machines such as steam
engines.
 SFEE
Steady Flow System
Inlet

The mass entering the system equals the mass leaving, also energy entering the
system equals energy leaving.
 SFEE
As per the condition of steady flow….

Energy at the inlet = Energy at the outlet

Q – W = (u2 – u1) + (P2V2 – P1V1) + (C22/2– C12/2) + g (Z2 – Z1)

Q – W = (h2 – h1) + (C22/2– C12/2) + g (Z2 – Z1)
As h = u + PV [Enthalpy]
 Applications of SFEE
Steam or Gas Turbine : In a steam or gas turbine, steam or gas is
passed through the turbine and part of its energy is converted into work
in the turbine. This output of the turbine runs a generator to produce
electricity as shown in Fig. The steam or gas leaves the turbine at lower
pressure and temperature.
 SFEE
Q – W = (h2 – h1) + (C22/2– C12/2) + g (Z2 – Z1)

For turbine :
Z1 = Z2, C1 = C2, Q = 0 (If adiabatic)
W = (h1 – h2)
Work developed = Decrease in Enthalpy
Boiler: A boiler transfers heat to the incoming water and generates the
steam. The system is shown in Fig.
 SFEE
Q – W = (h2 – h1) + (C22/2– C12/2) + g (Z2 – Z1)

For Boiler :
C1 = C2, W = 0, Z1 = Z2

Q = (h2 – h1)

Heat transferred = Increase in enthalpy

Steam Nozzle: In case of a nozzle as the enthalpy of the fluid decreases and
pressure drops simultaneously the flow of fluid is accelerated. This is generally
used to convert the part of the energy of steam into kinetic energy of steam
supplied to the turbine.
 Q – W = (h2 – h1) + (C22/2– C12/2) + g (Z2 – Z1)
For Nozzle: Z1 = Z2, W= 0, Q = 0 (Adiabatic)
Applying SFEE

If C1 << C2, then

 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics has been enunciated meticulously by
Clausius, Kelvin and Planck in slightly different words although both statements
are basically identical. Each statement is based on an irreversible process. The
first considers transformation of heat between two thermal reservoirs while the
second considers the transformation of heat into work.

Kelvin-Planck Statement: “It is impossible to construct an engine, which while

operating in a cycle produces no other effect except to extract heat from a single
reservoir and do equivalent amount of work”.
Ƞ = W/Q1
Ƞ < 100% [ Possible]
Ƞ = 100% [Not Possible]
Clausius Statement: “It is impossible for a self acting machine working in a
cyclic process unaided by any external agency, to convey heat from a body at a
lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature”.
In other words, heat cannot flow from a colder to a hotter body without any
external work

T1
Q2 COP = Q2/W

R
W=0 COP = ∞ Not Possible

Q2
T2

Although the Clausius and Kelvin-Planck statements appear to be different, they

are really equivalent in the sense that a violation of either statement implies
violation of other.
COP = Q2/W
COP < ∞ Possible
COP = ∞ Not Possible
 Perpetual Motion Machine of 2nd Kind
PMM - II
A machine can be imagined which
would continuously absorb heat from a
single thermal reservoir and would
convert this heat completely into work.
The efficiency of such a machine would
be 100 per cent. This machine is called
the perpetual motion machine of the
second kind (PMM2).
Fig. shows the perpetual motion
machine of the second kind. A machine
of this kind will evidently violates the Ƞ = 100% not possible
second law of thermodynamics.

PMM-2 is not possible

 Equivalence of Both the Statements of 2nd Law

The Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius statements are equivalent in their

consequences, and either statement can be used as the expression of
the second law of thermodynamics. Any device that violates the Kelvin–
Planck statement also violates the Clausius statement, and vice versa.
This can be demonstrated as follows.
1) Violation of Clausius Statement Leads to the Violation of Kelvin Planks
Statement.: Let us consider the arrangement as shown in Fig. A refrigerator (R)
and heat engine (E) working between two same temperature limits T1 and T2.

Let us assume a refrigerator which operating in cycle transfers heat from low
temperature reservoir to high temperature reservoir without expense of any
work, thus based on violation of Clausius statement.
Violation of Clausius Statement Leads to the Violation of Kelvin
Planks Statement
Refrigerator transfers heat Q2 to high temperature reservoir while
extracting heat Q2 from low temperature reservoir.

Let us also have a heat engine between same temperature limits of T1

and T2 and produce net work W. Heat engine receives heat Q1. Let us
now devise a composite system.

In such a situation the combination of refrigerator and heat engine results

in equivalent heat engine which produces work ‘W’ while exchanging
heat with only one reservoir at temperature T1.
This type of equivalent system is producing work as a result of only one heat
interaction and thus violation of Kelvin Planck statement.

Thus, it shows that violation of Clausius statement also causes violation of

Kelvin Planck statement.

Violation of Kelvin Planks Statement Leads to the Violation of Clausis

Statement: Home Work
 HEAT ENGINE
Heat engine is a device used for
converting heat into work as it has
been seen from nature that conversion
from work to heat may take place easily
but the vice-versa is not simple to be
realized. Heat and work have been
categorized as two forms of energy of
low grade and high grade type. energy into high grade of energy is not
Conversion of high grade of energy to possible. For converting low grade of
low grade of energy may be complete energy (heat) into high grade of energy
(100%), and can occur directly whereas (work) some device called heat engine
complete conversion of low grade is required.
Thus, heat engine may be precisely defined as “a device operating in
cycle between high temperature source and low temperature sink and
producing work”. Heat engine receives heat from source, transforms
some portion of heat into work and rejects balance heat to sink. All the
processes occurring in heat engine constitute cycle.

Efficiency of heat engine can be given by the ratio of net work and heat
supplied.

ηheat engine = Net work / Heat supplied = W /Q1

Refrigerator is a device similar to heat
pump but with reverse objective. It
maintains a body at temperature lower
than that of surroundings while
operating in a cycle. Block diagram of
refrigerator is shown in Fig.
Refrigerator also performs a non
spontaneous process of extracting heat
from low temperature body for
Block diagram shows how refrigerator
maintaining it cool, therefore external
extracts heat Q2 for maintaining body at
work W is to be supplied for it.
low temperature T2 at the expense of
work W and rejects heat to high
temperature surroundings
 By 1st Law W = Q1 – Q2
Performance of refrigerator is quantified by coefficient of performance,
which could be defined as:

And W = Q1 – Q2
Heat pump refers to a device used for
extracting heat from a low temperature
surroundings and sending it to high
temperature body, while operating in a
cycle. In other words heat pump
maintains a body or system at
temperature higher than temperature of
surroundings, while operating in cycle.
Block diagram for a heat pump is given
is required for such heat transfer. Heat
here: As heat pump transfers heat from
pump shown picks up heat Q2 at
low temperature to high temperature,
temperature T2 and rejects heat Q1for
which is non spontaneous process, so
maintaining high temperature body at
external work
temperature T1.
For causing this heat transfer, heat pump is supplied with work W as shown.

As heat pump is not a work producing machine and also its objective is to
maintain a body at higher temperature, so its performance can’t be defined using
efficiency as in case of heat engine.

Performance of heat pump is quantified through a parameter called coefficient of

performance (C.O.P). Coefficient of performance is defined by the ratio of
desired effect and net work done for getting the desired effect.

For heat pump : Net work = W

Desired effect = heat transferred Q1 to high temperature body at temperature,
T1.
By 1st Law W = Q1 – Q2
And as COP of Refrigerator is given by:

COP values of heat pump and refrigerator can be interrelated as:

(COP)HP = (COP)Ref. + 1
 CARNOT CYCLE
Nicholas Leonard Sadi Carnot, an engineer in French army originated
use of cycle (Carnot) in thermodynamic analysis in 1824 and these
concepts provided basics upon which second law of thermodynamics
was stated by Clausius and others.

Carnot cycle is a reversible thermodynamic cycle comprising of four

reversible processes.
Carnot Cycle (P – V)
The assumptions made for describing the working of the Carnot engine are as
follows :
(i) The piston moving in a cylinder does not develop any friction during motion.
(ii) The walls of piston and cylinder are considered as perfect insulators of heat.
(iii) The cylinder head is so arranged that it can be a perfect heat conductor or
perfect heat insulator.
(iv) The transfer of heat does not affect the temperature of source or sink.
(v) Working medium is a perfect gas and has constant specific heat.
(vi) Compression and expansion are reversible.
The work delivered from the system during the cycle is represented by the
enclosed area of the cycle. Again for a closed cycle, according to first law of the
thermodynamics the work obtained is equal to the difference between the heat
supplied by the source (Q1) and the heat rejected to the sink (Q2).

∴ W = Q1 – Q2

Also, thermal efficiency

ƞth Since;

ƞth
Impracticalities of Carnot Cycle:

The Carnot cycle cannot be performed in practice because of the following

reasons :
1. It is impossible to perform a frictionless process.
2. It is impossible to transfer the heat without temperature diference.

3. Isothermal process can be achieved only if the piston moves very slowly to
allow heat transfer so that the temperature remains constant. Adiabatic process
can be achieved only if the piston moves as fast as possible so that the heat
transfer is negligible due to very short time available. The isothermal and
adiabatic processes take place during the same stroke therefore the piston has
to move very slow for part of the stroke and it has to move very fast during
remaining stroke. This variation of motion of the piston during the same stroke is
not possible.
 Solved Problems
Example 1: A nozzle is a device for increasing the velocity of a steadily
flowing stream. At the inlet to a certain nozzle, the enthalpy of the fluid
passing is 3000 kJ/kg and the velocity is 60 m/s. At the discharge end, the
enthalpy is 2762 kJ/kg. The nozzle is horizontal and there is negligible heat
loss from it.
(a) Find the velocity at exists from the nozzle. (b) If the inlet area is 0.1 m2
and the specific volume at inlet is 0.187 m3/kg, find the mass flow rate. (c) If
the specific volume at the nozzle exit is 0.498 m3/kg, find the exit area of the
nozzle.
S.F.E.E.
Q – W = (h2 – h1) + (C22/2– C12/2) + g (Z2 – Z1)
Given h1 = 3000 kJ/kg h2 = 2762 kJ/kg
v1 = 0.187 m3 /kg v2 = 0.498 m3 /kg
C1 = 60 m/s A1 = 0.1 m2
For Nozzle: Q = W = 0 and Z1 = Z2
SFEE for nozzle

A2 = 0.023073 m2
Example 2: In an air motor cylinder the compressed air has an internal
energy of 450 kJ/kg at the beginning of the expansion and an internal
energy of 220 kJ/kg after expansion. If the work done by the air during
the expansion is 120 kJ/kg, calculate the heat flow to and from the
cylinder.
Solution. Internal energy at beginning of the expansion,
u1 = 450 kJ/kg
Internal energy after expansion, u2 = 220 kJ/kg
Work done by the air during expansion, W = 120 kJ/kg
Heat flow Q, By Ist Law Q = (u2 – u1) + W
∴ Q = (220 – 450) + 120
= – 230 + 120 = – 110 kJ/kg
Hence, heat rejected by air = 110 kJ/kg. (Ans.)
Example 3: In an internal combustion engine, during the compression
stroke the heat rejected to the cooling water is 50 kJ/kg and the work
input is 100 kJ/kg. Calculate the change in internal energy of the working
fluid stating whether it is a gain or loss.
Solution. Heat rejected to the cooling water, Q = – 50 kJ/kg
(–ve sign since heat is rejected)
Work input, W = – 100 kJ/kg
(–ve sign since work is done on the system)
Using the relation, Q = (u2 – u1) + W
– 50 = (u2 – u1) – 100
or u2 – u1 = – 50 + 100 = 50 kJ/kg
Hence, gain in internal energy = 50 kJ/kg. (Ans.)
Example 4: 10 kg of fluid per minute goes through a reversible steady
flow process. The properties of fluid at the inlet are : p1 = 1.5 bar, ρ1 = 26
kg/m3, C1 = 110 m/s and u1 = 910 kJ/kg and at the exit are p2 = 5.5 bar,
ρ2 = 5.5 kg/m3, C2 = 190 m/s and u2 = 710 kJ/kg. During the passage,
the fluid rejects 55 kJ/s and rises through 55 m. Determine :
(i) The change in enthalpy (Δ h) ;
(ii) Work done during the process (W).
Solution. Flow of fluid = 10 kg/min
Properties of fluid at the inlet : Pressure, p1 = 1.5 bar = 1.5 × 105 N/m2,
Density, ρ1 = 26 kg/m3 Velocity, C1 = 110 m/s Internal energy
u1 = 910 kJ/kg
Fluid Properties at the exit : Pressure, p2 = 5.5 bar = 5.5 × 105 N/m2,
Density, ρ2 = 5.5 kg/m3, Velocity, C2 = 190 m/s, Internal energy,
u2 = 710 kJ/kg
Heat rejected by the fluid, Q = 55 kJ/s
Rise is elevation of fluid = 55 m.
(i) The change in enthalpy, Δh = Δu + Δ(pv) ……i

= 1 × 105 – 0.0577 × 105

= 105 × 0.9423 Nm or J = 94.23 kJ
Δu = u2 – u1 = (710 – 910) = – 200 kJ/kg
Substituting the value in eqn. (i), we get
Δh = – 200 + 94.23 = – 105.77 kJ/kg. (Ans.)
(ii) The steady flow equation for unit mass flow can be written as
Q = ΔKE + ΔPE + Δh + W
where Q is the heat transfer per kg of fluid

ΔPE = (Z2 – Z1) g = (55 – 0) × 9.81 Nm or J = 539.5 J or ≈ 0.54 kJ/kg

Substituting the value in steady flow equation,
– 330 = 12 + 0.54 – 105.77 + W or W = – 236.77 kJ/kg.
Work done per second = – 236.77 × 10/60 = – 39.46 kJ/s = – 39.46 kW
Example 5: In a gas turbine unit, the gas flow through the turbine is 15
kg/s and the power developed by the turbine is 12000 kW. The
enthalpies of gas at the inlet and outlet are 1260 kJ/kg and 400 kJ/kg
respectively, and the velocity of gases at the inlet and outlet are 50 m/s
and 110 m/s respectively. Calculate :
(i) The rate at which heat is rejected to the turbine, and
(ii) The area of the inlet pipe given that the specific volume of the gases
at the inlet is 0.45 m3/kg.
Solution. Rate of flow of gases, m = 15 kg/s,
Volume of gases at the inlet, v = 0.45 m3/kg
Power dev. P = 12000 kW, ∴ W. D, W = 12000/15 = 800 kJ/kg
Enthalpy at the inlet, h1 = 1260 kJ/kg, & at the outlet, h2 = 400 kJ/kg
Velocity at the inlet, C1 = 50 m/s, & at the outlet, C2 = 110 m/s.
(i) Heat rejected, Q : Using SFEE,

[ Z1 = Z2]

Kinetic energy at inlet = C12/2 = 502/2 = 1250 J/Kg = 1.25 KJ/Kg.

Kinetic energy at inlet = C22/2 = 1102/2 = 6050 J/Kg = 6.05 kJ/kg
Substituting these values in above eqn., we get
1260 + 1.25 + Q = 400 + 6.05 + 800
∴ Q = – 55.2 kJ/kg
i.e., Heat rejected = + 55.2 kJ/kg = 55.2 × 15 kg/s = 828 kW.
(ii) Inlet area, A :
Example 6: In a steam plant, 1 kg of water per second is supplied to the
boiler. The enthalpy and velocity of water entering the boiler are 800
kJ/kg and 5 m/s. The water receives 2200 kJ/kg of heat in the boiler at
constant pressure. The steam after passing through the turbine comes
out with a velocity of 50 m/s, and its enthalpy is 2520 kJ/kg. The inlet is 4
m above the turbine exit. Assuming the heat losses from the boiler and
the turbine to the surroundings are 20 kJ/s, calculate the power
developed by the turbine. Consider the boiler and turbine as single
system.
Solution. Enthalpy of water entering the boiler, h1 = 800 kJ/kg
Velocity of water entering the boiler, C1 = 5 m/s
Enthalpy of steam at the outlet of the turbine, h2 = 2520 kJ/kg
Velocity of steam at the outlet of the turbine, C2 = 50 m/s
Elevation difference, (Z1 – Z2) = 4 m
Net heat added to the water in the boiler, Q = 2200 – 20 = 2180 kJ/kg
Power developed by the turbine : Using SFEE,

Hence, power developed by the turbine = 458.8 kW. (Ans.)

Example 7: A turbine, operating under steady-flow conditions, receives
4500 kg of steam per hour. The steam enters the turbine at a velocity of
2800 m/min, an elevation of 5.5 m and a specific enthalpy of 2800 kJ/kg.
It leaves the turbine at a velocity of 5600 m/min, an elevation of 1.5 m
and a specific enthalpy of 2300 kJ/kg. Heat losses from the turbine to the
surroundings amounts to 16000 kJ/h. Determine the power output of the
turbine.
Solution. Steam supplied, m = 4500 kg/h, C1 = 2800 m/min
Z1 = 5.5 m, h1 = 2800 kJ/g,
C2 = 5600 m/min Z2 = 1.5 m,
h2 = 2300 kJ/kg,
Heat losses from the turbine to the surroundings, Q = – 16000 kJ/h
Applying the steady flow energy equation at entry (1) and exit (2)

– 4.44 – W = 1.25 (500 + 3.26 – 0.039) or W = 633.44 kJ/s

∴ Power output of the turbine = 633.44 kW. (Ans.)
Example 8: A heat engine receives heat at the rate of 1500 kJ/min and
gives an output of 8.2 kW. Determine :
(i) The thermal efficiency ; (ii) The rate of heat rejection.
Example 9: During a process a system receives 30 kJ of heat from a
reservoir and does 60 kJ of work. Is it possible to reach initial state by an
adiabatic process ?
Solution. Heat received by the system = 30 kJ, Work done = 60 kJ
Process 1-2 : By first law,
Q1–2 = (U2 – U1) + W1–2
30 = (U2 – U1) + 60
∴ (U2 – U1) = – 30 kJ.
Process 2-1 : By first law,
Q2–1 = (U1 – U2) + W2–1
∴ 0 = 30 + W2–1 ∴ W2–1 = – 30 kJ.
Thus 30 kJ work has to be done on the system to restore it to original
state, by adiabatic process.
Example 10: Find the co-efficient of performance and heat transfer rate
in the condenser of a refrigerator in kJ/h which has a refrigeration
capacity of 12000 kJ/h, Power input, W = 0.75 kW
Refrigeration capacity, Q2 = 12000 kJ/h
Power input, W = 0.75 kW (= 0.75 × 60 × 60 kJ/h)

Hence C.O.P. = 4.44. (Ans.)

Q1 = Q2 + W = 12000 + 0.75 × 60 × 60
= 14700 kJ/h
Hence, heat transfer rate = 14700 kJ/h.
Example 11. What is the highest possible theoretical efficiency of a heat
engine operating with a hot reservoir of furnace gases at 2100°C when
the cooling water available is at 15°C ?
Solution. Temperature of furnace gases, T1 = 2100 + 273 = 2373 K
Temperature of cooling water, T2 = 15 + 273 = 288 K
Example 12. A Carnot cycle operates between source and sink
temperatures of 250°C and – 15°C. If the system receives 90 kJ from the
source, find :
(i) Efficiency of the system ; (ii) The net work transfer ;
(iii) Heat rejected to sink.
Solution. Temperature of source, T1 = 250 + 273 = 523 K, Temperature
of sink, T2 = – 15 + 273 = 258 K, Ht. received by the system, Q1 = 90 kJ

(ii) The net work transfer, W = ηcarnot × Q1

= 0.506 × 90 = 45.54 kJ. (Ans.)
(iii) Heat rejected to the sink, Q2 = Q1 – W = 90 – 45.54 = 44.46 kJ.