Thermodynamics system:

A small part of the universe to which we will apply the laws of thermodynamics or in which
thermodynamics process take place is called thermodynamics SYSTEM.

The rest of the universe outside the system close enough to the system to have some perceptible
effect on the system is called the surroundings

The surfaces which separates the system from the surroundings are called the boundaries.

The thermodynamics system may be classified into following three groups:

Closed System:
This is the system of fixed mass whose boundries are determined by the space of the working
substance occupied int it. In a closed system, heat and work cross the boundary of the system, but
there is no addition or loss of the original mass of the working substance.

Open System:
In this system, the working substance crosses the boundary of the system. The heat and work may
also cross the boundary.
Isolated System:
It is the system of fixed mass and no heat or work cross its boundary.

Properties of a system:
The quantities which identify the state of a system are called properties. These are macroscopic in
nature.
The thermodynamics properties are divided into the following two classes
Extensive properties:
The properties of the system whose value for the entire system is not equal to the sum of their
values for the individual parts of the system, are called extensive properties.
For example total volume, total mass and total energy of a system are extensive properties.
Intensive Properties:
The properties of the system, whose values for the entire system is not equal to the sum of their
values for the individual parts of the system, are called intensive properties.
For example, temperature, pressure and density of a system are intensive properties
State:
It is the condition of a system as defined by the values of all its properties. It gives a complete
description of the system.
Any operation in which one or more properties of a system change is called a change of state.
Phase:
It is a quantity of mass that is homogeneous throughout in chemical composition and physical
structure e.g. solid, liquid, vapor and gas.
Phase consisting of more than one phase is known as heterogeneous system.

Control Volume:
A control volume is a fixed region in space chosen for the thermodynamic study of mass and
energy balances for flowing systems. The boundary of the control volume may be a real or
imaginary envelope. The control surface is the boundary of the control volume.
Take an open system i.e. it has both mass and energy flowing through the system. If you have to
analyze this system you can’t take a fixed amount of mass as you do in a closed system because
this mass won’t be fixed in the space and is constantly flowing. Therefore you have to take a
volume through which the mass flows over a period of time and then determine the properties by
observing this fixed volume. This volume is known as a control volume and the boundary of the
control volume is known as a control surface.
Working Substances:
In thermodynamics a working substance is defined as a fluid (liquid or gas) in which energy can
be stored, removed or transferred through.
Example Air in IC engine, steam in boiler, water in hydraulic turbine.

Heat and Work:

Heat is the energy in transition between the system and the surroundings by virtue of the difference
in temperature
 While work is the transfer of mechanical energy between two systems.
 Work done BY the system is +ve
 Obviously work done ON the system is –ve
 Heat given TO the system is +ve
 Obviously Heat rejected by the system is –ve

If we let the piston move in a slow quasi-static process from initial volume Vi to final volume Vf,
the total work done by the environment on the gas is

Equilibrium state:
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A
system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.
There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium unless the
conditions of all the relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied. For example, a system is in
thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same throughout the entire system, That is, the
system involves no temperature differential, which is the driving force for heat flow.
Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure, and a system is in mechanical equilibrium if
there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time.
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a process, and
the series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of the process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the process, as
well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.

When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasistatic, or quasi-equilibrium, process.
A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow process that allows the system
to adjust itself internally so that properties in one part of the system do not change any faster than
those at other parts.

Thermodynamic Cycles:
A thermodynamic cycle consist of a series of thermodynamic process, which take place in a certain
order, and the initial conditions are restored at the end of the process is called cycle of closed cycle.
The thermodynamic cycle uses in I.C engine is example of closed cycle.
A thermodynamic cycle consist of a series of thermodynamic process, which take place in a certain
order, and the initial conditions are not restored at the end of the process is called cycle of open
cycle.
Thermodynamic cycle uses in jet engine is example of open cycle.
Efficiency of a Cycle:

It may be defined as the ratio of work done to the heat supplied during a cycle. Mathematically,
efficiency of a cycle is
Work done
η=
Heat supplied
Hence,
Work done during a cycle = Heat supplied – Heat rejected
Heat supplied – Heat rejected
η=
Heat supplied
The efficiency, as given above, is the theoretical efficiency of the cycle. There it is known as
theoretical thermal efficiency.

Laws of thermodynamics:
Following are the three laws of thermodynamics.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics:

This law states that when two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

First law of thermodynamics:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, through it can be transformed from one form to
another. According to this law, the energy due to heat supplied (Q) must be balanced by the
external work done (W) plus the gain in internal energy (E) due to rise in temperature. In other
words,
Q=W+E

Second Law of thermodynamics:

It is impossible to construct an engine working on a cyclic process, whose sole purpose is to
convert heat energy into work. This is also known as law of degradation of energy.

Thermodynamic Temperature Scale:

There are four temperature scales in use today,

1. Celsius scale
2. Kelvin scale
3. Fahrenheit scale
4. Rankine scale
Fahrenheit scale:
Fahrenheit temperature scale is a scale based on 32 for the freezing point of water and 212 for the
boiling point of water, the interval between the two being divided into 180 parts.

Celsius scale:
Celsius temperature scale is a scale based on 0 for the freezing point of water and 100 for the
boiling point of water, the interval between the two being divided into 100 parts.

Kelvin scale:
Kelvin temperature scale is a scale based on 273.15 for the freezing point of water and 373.15 for
the boiling point of water, the interval between the two being divided into 100 parts.

Rankine scale:
Rankine temperature scale is a scale based on 491.67 for the freezing point of water and 671.67
for the boiling point of water, the interval between the two being divided into 180 parts.

 Fahrenheit and Celsius are frequently used in everyday, around the house measurements
 Absolute zero-based Kelvin and Rankine scales are more commonly used in industry and
the sciences
Relation between different temperature scale:
The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by
T(K) = T(C) + 273.15
The Fahrenheit scale is related to the Celsius scale by
T(F) = 1.8T(C) + 32
The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by
T(R) = T(F) + 459.67
The Rankine scale is related to the Kelvin scale by
T(R) = 1.8T(K)

Triple point of pure water:

The temperature and pressure at which a substance can exist in equilibrium. in the liquid, solid,
and gaseous states. The triple point of pure water is at. 0.01°C.
 Problems
P-1. The deep body temperature of a healthy person is 37°C. What is it in kelvins?
P-2. Consider a system whose temperature is 18°C. Express this temperature in R, K, and °F.
P-3. The temperature of a system rises by 15°C during a heating process. Express this rise in
temperature in kelvins.
P-4. The temperature of a system drops by 45°F during a cooling process. Express this drop in
temperature in K, R, and °C.
P-5. A room is initially at the outdoor temperature of 25°C. Now a large fan that consumes 200 W
of electricity when running is turned on (Fig. 2–49). The heat transfer rate between the room and
the outdoor air is given as
Q = UA(Ti _ To)
where U = 6 W/m2 · °C is the overall heat transfer coefficient, A = 30 m2 is the exposed surface
area of the room, and Ti and To are the indoor and outdoor air temperatures, respectively.
Determine the indoor air temperature when steady operating conditions are established.