Bodily Movement and Facial Actions in Ex

449896
2012
POM0010.1177/0305735612449896DavidsonPsychology of Music
Article
Psychology of Music
40(5) 595–633
Bodily movement and facial © The Author(s) 2012
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DOI: 10.1177/0305735612449896
performance by solo and duo pom.sagepub.com
instrumentalists: Two distinctive

case studies
Jane W. Davidson
University of Western Australia, Australia
Abstract
The research literature concerning gesture in musical performance increasingly reports that musically
communicative and meaningful performances contain highly expressive bodily movements. These
movements are involved in the generation of the musically expressive performance, but enquiry into
the development of expressive bodily movement has been limited. In two studies this paper explores
the expressive components of bodily movement in both solo and ensemble musical performance. The
first study examined flute and clarinet performers in both solo and duo settings. Whilst each player
had a specific way of expressing musical goals through their bodily movement, there were features
common to the woodwind instruments investigated. Detailed analyses revealed that, although
many movements were possible, performers used only six basic expressive gesture types. The second
study described a performance of the internationally celebrated pianist, Lang Lang, focusing on
the relationship between musical affect, bodily movement and facial expression. Analysis also
revealed extensive and striking use of combined bodily and facial expression, which were involved
in articulating structural features of the music and the narrative of the work. Findings suggest the
existence of a repertoire of expressive information used for the generation of expressive ideas, and
available to the observers of music performers.
Keywords
body, expression, facial, gesture, performance
Introduction
The role of the body in the production and perception of music has been discussed for many
centuries. For instance, baroque treatises on performance explained the subtle interaction
between posture, gesture, emotion, and meaning in musical performances for both performers
Corresponding author:
Jane W. Davidson, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, 6009, Australia.
Email: jane.davidson@uwa.edu.au
596 Psychology of Music 40(5)
and audience (Gellrich, 1991). Experimentation by Truslit (1938, cited in Repp, 1993) revealed
that music is ‘expressively shaped’ by the performer’s body. He asked performers to execute
short musical excerpts whilst performing motion curves: open movement, closed movement, and
winding movement. Using the objective measurement of the acoustic signals achieved, he dis-
covered that, whilst embodying different motion curves, differences were created in the musical
products (see Repp, 1993). Truslit’s was an important foundation for empirical investigations
into music production, the body, and generated and perceived expressivity.
Little systematic empirical research was done in classical music performance, however, until
I undertook my own PhD studies, which were completed in the early 1990s (Davidson, 1991).
Now, along with the growing interest in and general understanding of how body and mind
interact in the generation and performance of skilled and expressive human behaviours, the
study of the relationship between the body and music is a rapidly growing area of research (see
Broughton and Davidson, 2012). But the work has been diverse, and questions have been wide-
ranging, varying from what actually constitutes movement in a musical performance (techni-
cal, essential/expressive, ancillary, etc.), to how social and cultural context promotes different
types of physical interaction. An interest in understanding how expressive, affective meanings
in music are produced and perceived through body movement has led to three fundamental
questions underpinning my own work:
1. What type of bodily movements and facial actions are used in the production of an
expressive musical performance?
2. To what degree are bodily movements and facial actions used for purely musically expressive
effects?
3. To what degree are bodily movements and facial actions in a musical performance of
a socially communicative nature; that is, for co-performer and performer–audience
interactions?
In this paper, I begin by outlining the major trends in investigations into bodily movement
and music in order to address my on-going research questions and provide a contextual frame-
work for the studies undertaken. The first study aimed to explore the use and development of
bodily movements in duo performances. It was a laboratory study in which musicians learned
a piece of music composed with an explicit range of expressive musical goals. It explored the
strategies and outcomes the performers developed from first sight-reading through to final per-
formance. The second study adopted an ecological approach to methodology, using film footage
for analysis of a live performance by a world-famous concert pianist in a solo recital. Systematic
observations were undertaken with the aim of understanding which movements were used in
the production of musical features and other extra-musical elements.
Background literature
In 2009 I wrote a survey chapter exploring both movement and collaboration in musical per-
formance (see Davidson, 2009). In it, I identified four major areas of empirical enquiry into the
role of the body in musical performance that have emerged in the growing research literature:
(1) motor programming studies, that is, investigating how the body assembles a musical perfor-
mance; (2) musical affect studies, those studies exploring expressivity and its communication
through bodily means; (3) training studies, which explore techniques that use bodily move-
ment and movement metaphors for the development of strategies to enhance physical, musical
Davidson 597
and expressive elements of performance; and (4) collaborative music-making studies, including
co-performer interaction and performer–audience concerns, that explore the ways in which
bodily communication is used for the coordination of musical and extra-musical material. I
draw upon these categorizations, reproducing parts of the survey chapter of 2009, as well as
more recent work, to offer an overview of current research to situate my own studies reported
in the current paper.
Motor-programming studies
An immediate challenge in understanding movement systems is that there is a ‘degrees of freedom
problem’ associated with the millions of bone, muscle, and nerve impulses that create human
actions (Davidson, 2009). The suggestion that motor programmes operate for classes of move-
ments (Bernstein, 1967) has been widely supported. However, functional-operation theories range
from those that consider the brain as a central executive to control movements, to ideas where
movement control arises in an open system, and the movements are self-organizing (Dahl,
2004; see also Davidson, 2009). System function is far from understood, but music performers
do need to understand that the generation and embedding of motor programmes in memory is
a vital process.
Palmer and Dalla-Bella (2004) have shown that highly skilled, well-practised pianists move
their fingers approximately three-to-four events ahead of time, suggesting that an early retrieval
for action is required, motor activity being an anticipatory and unfurling behaviour in perfor-
mance (see Davidson, 2009). So at the level of motor programming, we see that musicians
develop powerful mechanisms to enable the production of a piece of music. By achieving such
skill, a high degree of automation results (motor programmes so strongly mentally embedded
that action is produced through unconscious thought processing). It is evident that the expert
performer’s conscious thoughts become relatively ‘free’ to deal with moment-by-moment modi-
fications that may be necessary as the music is performed; for example, adapting the pianist’s
‘touch’ to accommodate a keyboard or a specific room acoustic (see Lehmann & Davidson,
2002). It has been demonstrated that the accumulated practice necessary to achieve automa-
tion and fluency to a professional skill level (see Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993)
results in enlarged representations of somatosensory and auditory cortex (Pantev, Engelien,
Candia, & Elbert, 2001), as well as in motor areas of the brain (Altenmüller & Gruhn, 2002).
But this physical skill is not a simple mechanical process. It also has within its programming
material of an expressive and culturally determined nature. In a pioneering study of piano
keyboard performances Shaffer (1984) noted that, additional to achieving motor program-
ming automaticity for fluent production of the music, the performers also embedded within
motor programmes timing profiles that were related to musical structure features; for example,
slowing always occurred at phrase boundaries. In other words, the performer does not play in a
purely mechanically efficient manner. The performer also has a set of representations that
draw on knowledge and experience of culture and musical style, impacting how their move-
ments are assembled and presented.
Coupled with motor programming, biomechanical factors shape how we produce musical per-
formances. Wiesendanger, Baader and Kazennikov (2006) have shown, for example, that the
bow arm of the string player is constrained by the dynamic principles in operation between the
bow, string, and arm. Baily (1985) discussed how the cultural characteristics of musical instru-
ments depend upon ergonomic principles. The example cited was the dutar of Afghanistan, which
is similar to all other lute-like instruments in shape and size, evidently for hand-holding benefits.
Bejjani and Halpern (1989) investigated both jazz and classical trumpet playing to discover differ-
ences between neutral and playing postures. With variables including neck shape and length and
dental overbite impacting outcomes, the authors concluded that anthropometric factors con-
strain performance. Thus all these fundamental bodily elements need to be considered in an effort
to understand the expressive elements and constraints on musical performance.
Musical affect studies

A controlled study revealed that when the same piece of music was played with different expres-
sive intentions (deadpan or withheld expression, with usual expression, and with exaggerated
expression), the performers moved their bodies in identifiably different ways (Davidson, 1993).
This research enabled me, as the investigator, to show that, although the hands, arms, head, and
torso of performers followed similar movement contours (those required to execute the music)
across performances, there were significant differences in the scale of the movements. These
suggested that the more highly expressive the intention, the larger and more ample the move-
ments; the less expressive the intention, the smaller the movement (Davidson, 1994).
Other researchers, including Wanderley and colleagues (Wanderley, 2002; Wanderley,
Vines, Middleton, McKay, & Hatch, 2005; Wanderley & Vines, 2006) found relationships
between movement quantity and expressivity. Exploring individual differences in clarinettists,
they found that musical considerations – mainly phrase structure and metrical considerations –
seemed to be the points at which most movement beyond the bare minimum required for tech-
nical execution occurred.
I went on to discover that there were indeed concentrated moments where specific identifi-
able movements could be found. These movements had qualities akin to the types of non-verbal
communication that accompany speech, such as metaphorical and illustrative features, which
both generate and react to ideas being expressed (Davidson, 2005). The example of head shak-
ing during playing is a useful case for discussion. This movement type took place in a rapid
series, seeming to mirror musical repeats of a specific figure or sequence. Other gestures seemed
to have iconic value; that is, where some feature of the musical action was being described. For
example, pianists used their hands, upper torso, head, and even sometimes their elbow to trace
the contour of the music being played. This arguably is done to ‘draw out’ the smooth legato
line that is being attempted in the music (see Davidson, 2009).
I refer to these specific movements embedded within the overall flow of the performance as
identifiable, individual gestures. Delalande (1990) had already categorized three types of such
identifiable movements: effective gestures – those tied directly to sound production; accompanist
gestures – those supporting, but not directly involved in, sound production; and figurative gestures
– symbolic rather than physical in nature, and envisaged to be perceived by the observer. From
my extensive observations, such accompanist and figurative gestures do become integrated into
the overall motor programme to such an extent that, even if in one way their function may not
be ‘necessary’ to the musical production, their role becomes nonetheless essential for the indi-
vidual performer and at some level this impacts the sound produced. For example, singing which
focuses physically outward towards the audience may employ larger projected postures and ges-
tures, and these larger movements in turn have an impact on the sounds produced (see Davidson
& Coulam, 2006).
Individual instrumentalists use a restricted number and range of gestures, yet these have the
potential to express highly variable information depending on the musical and social context in
which they are used. Indeed, in 2007 I undertook an assessment of a pianist’s movement
Davidson 599
vocabulary and showed that the movements were limited to less than 20 movement types,
which happened to appear across all sorts of musical styles. In one style of music (Beethoven,
for example) an emphatic ‘wiggle’ of the torso might be used illustrate an ornament in the
music, yet in another context (C. P. E. Bach), it could signal the start of a long legato passage
(Davidson, 2007). Such gestures were found to be person-specific and there was a high degree
of individual variability in how many gestures were used, with some people having a far more
restricted vocabulary than others (Davidson, 2005).
So far, in reviewing my own research, specific gestures have been shown to articulate musi-
cal expression – ideas about structure – to facilitate the production of musical sounds. Some
researchers (e.g., Watt & Ash, 1998) have taken these ideas to an extreme to suggest that musi-
cal material itself operates like a virtual person – a social inter-actor – with the performer. So,
in a score-indicated fortissimo, a pianist may nod her head as she plays loudly. This action could
be an illustration of the force of the movement required, or she may be ‘agreeing’ with the force
of the musical sounds by nodding in ‘agreement’, as if interacting with another person. These
are all speculative ideas, but it is feasible that the music itself operates on the performer like a
partner in conversation, and in the case of a musical performance, the performer both gener-
ates and reacts to the musical structures (Davidson, 2009). In addition to these musical goals,
the movements are used for social function, but a function typically focused on the effective
coordination and communication of the performance material (see Davidson, 2005).
Music training studies

The relationship between movement, metaphor and musical meaning has featured in several
schools of music pedagogy. For instance, Dalcroze’s pedagogical approach, Eurhythmics, draws
on human behaviours such as breathing and walking, aiming to integrate and strengthen links
between the body and brain through kinesthetic awareness for musical engagement (Farber &
Parker, 1987; Galvao & Kemp, 1999). In essence, bodily activity provides metaphors for expres-
sion and understanding of, and developing sensitivities to, musical concepts (Juntunen &
Hyvönen, 2004). For example, movement coordination is achieved through activities such as
groups of children bouncing balls in unison to illustrate how musical material needs to be coor-
dinated and musical phrases shaped. At a more advanced level, Pierce (1994, 1997) has drawn
on movement concepts to assist tertiary level and professional performers to optimize the
expressive features of playing.
In addition to the use of metaphor for musical meaning, movement techniques have also
been developed based on detailed anatomical knowledge to optimize physical posture, stance
and alignment. The motor programming required for energy efficient action is the focus of both
the Alexander Technique (Tarr, 2008) and the Feldenkrais Method (Buchanan & Ulrich, 2001).
The techniques have often been applied as psychological tools to reduce some of the physical
problems that can occur when performers become overly tense and anxious (Jain, Janssen &
DeCelle, 2004). Indeed, generally, there has been an increased awareness of how body and mind
need to be aligned in order to minimize psychological stressors on musicians. Focus on condi-
tioning of the body now includes concern with diet, exercise and rest (see Williamon, 2004).
Collaborative music-making studies

Co-performer interaction. In an exploratory study, Davidson and Coulam (2006) showed that a
co-performing accompanist preferred collaborating with singers who coordinated musical
detail through non-verbal means, using the sorts of metaphoric musical movement devices
mentioned earlier. Also, in addition to these, illustrative gestures were found to be useful and
popular. Techniques used included clicking fingers to set a tempo, or a series of regulatory head
nods and arm gestures to monitor entrances and exits. When interviewed after rehearsal and
performance activity, the co-performers spoke about these non-verbal signs as being crucial to
the successful ensemble.
In an earlier work, Davidson and Good (2002) showed that collaborative activities between
string quartet members depended in almost equal measure upon: (1) the dynamics of musical
content and its co-ordination; and (2) those dynamics of a more personal nature (for example,
the first violinist making a head nodding gesture of approval to the second violinist after exe-
cuting a particularly well-accomplished passage), in order to make the social group cohere. The
case also showed that individual agendas – even if at odds with the musical goals – were
expressed through bodily posture and gestures. Indeed, in the study there was personal tension
between several members of the ensemble and this was apparent in physical behaviours.
Williamon and Davidson (2002) found that piano duet partners most frequently used a
looking movement behaviour as an indication for timing regulation; with practice, from first
meeting through to a performance, the quantity of non-verbal interaction increased. Through
the course of the rehearsals the movement styles of the two individuals altered. While the
player who moved the most reduced the quantity of his movements, the other player produced
more movement; the two beginning to move as one, adapting to accommodate one another’s
movement styles.
Focusing on the requisites of ensemble performance, Davidson and King (2004) highlighted
that specific moment-by-moment information needs to be processed and responded to in an on-
going manner; for example, in order to accommodate a co-performer’s sudden change of tempo
or cope with a memory slip. Such a capacity to deal with these matters clearly depends on for-
mer exposure to such situations and so also relies on knowledge gained from similar situations.
But, most powerfully, it depends on the attentional focus of the co-performers.
Work by King (née Goodman) and colleagues (see Davidson & King, 2004; Ginsborg & King,
2012; Goodman, 2002) has drawn on Bales’ (1950, 1999) small group behaviour framework.
It has shown that, in terms of both speech and gesture used in music rehearsals, performers’
discourses exceed a suggested ‘normal’ social upper limit found in spoken interaction, suggest-
ing that the performers gave mainly positive socio-emotional reactions (perhaps stronger than
witnessed in other small-group scenarios).
In addition to the illustrative, regulatory and emblematic gestures reported in many of the
studies, it has been both observed and discussed (Davidson, 2007; Davidson & Coulam 2006)
that performers – whether singers or instrumentalists – also make non-verbal signals which
reveal unconscious processes of self-stimulation (e.g., rubbing the ear lobe in a gentle manner,
or flicking the finger tips in a particularly soft but repetitive manner). These completely uncon-
scious movements have been regarded as important factors in determining performance qual-
ity. Those performers who were rated highest by their collaborating accompanist used more of
these self-stimulating adaptors, the movements seeming to offer some cue as to the performer’s
own socio-emotional state.
Performer–audience interaction. Performers usually develop their musical material for audience
consumption. Frith (1996) observes that a performance involves thoughts and actions which
relate to: (1) the occasion itself (e.g., postures and gestures of the larger than life ‘stage
Davidson 601
persona’); (2) the music to be performed (the musical material’s narrative content, e.g., ‘living’
out the qualities of the character depicted in a song); and (3) the individual performer’s true
states (current mood, sense of self, etc.). This suggests that there is potential for tension
between the information contained in the music (its own narrative content), the performer’s
real state (the individual performers on stage, presenting their own personalities), and behav-
iours they may engage in to present the music and themselves to their co-performers and audi-
ence. It would seem that performers need to be efficient at managing these aspects in
combination.
Robbie Williams, a top pop performer, creates a seamless coherence between himself and co-
performing musicians to engage the audience actively in the performance. In an analysis of
Williams’ performance of ‘She’s the One’ at the Knebworth Music Festival in 2004, I was able to
show that Robbie used empathic gestures with his band, making movements in time with their
accompaniment, and took time engaging with them on stage (see Davidson, 2006). He also
engaged his audience on a special performance ‘catwalk’ which stretched out into the crowd.
Additionally, the audience was very familiar with Robbie’s performance content through exten-
sive exposure on video. In the analysis, it became evident that the crowd knew Robbie’s own
emblematic gestures and could make them ahead of cue in the song, anticipating the unfurling
narrative. Despite the thousands in the crowd, the whole audience was found to sway, swirl,
dance, and sing in perfect unison with their idol. Thus the example revealed that the pop audi-
ence has a special kind of attunement to the musician’s stage persona in the performance.
Of course, each individual performance is a unique confluence of new interactive elements,
and familiarity with such experiences prepares co-performers for likely scenarios and outcomes.
Audiences are also likely to influence the way in which the performers interact.
Empirical studies
With the above findings in mind, two studies were undertaken, each focusing on the bodily and
facial actions of performers, but each study dealing with very different types of data. The first
study collected video of duo players developing a performance from their individual practice to
work in an ensemble, and how this progression shaped expression and coordination as observed
in movement. As the outcomes were rather unexpected due to a lack of facial actions, a second
and very different study was undertaken, focusing on a case study pianist. A pianist was selected
because the instrument is not held or blown, and thus may afford more freedom for facial as
well as bodily expression. With this idea in mind, the second study focused again on the ques-
tion relating to how bodily and facial actions interacted, but with a hypothesis that the pianist
would be more likely than the clarinet and flute duos to show the relationship between the body
and face. Also, given that the duo study did not include a live performance, this final condition
enabled observations of a performer who was dealing with a real audience. Thus analyses were
undertaken of a world-renowned pianist in a live concert.
Study 1: Clarinet and flute duo performance

This study builds on work published along with Malloch (see Davidson & Malloch, 2009), but it
does not replicate any analyses from that publication. The current paper looks at two perform-
ers who featured in the Davidson and Malloch publication, but uses different recordings of the
performance data, the emphasis being on the bodily expressions and facial actions observed in
a full video display. In 2009, the data analyzed were collected from one single motion capture
marker placed at the end of each player’s instrument, revealing how each player moved the
instrument: (a) in first establishing a solo version of a short duo piece; and then (b) how the
instruments were then moved as the two players collaborated inter-musically and inter-personally,
moving towards an agreed interpretation. The results of the 2009 study were described only
using motion capture technology and were mapped onto the sounds/musical effects of the per-
formance. The results of these mappings revealed a relationship between overall musical effects
and the movement of the instruments – such as phrase peaks being created through a ‘surging
forwards’ of the instruments. Also, an instrument’s movement often created continuity to link
sections of the music together, generating a sense of wholeness: for instance, a sustained musi-
cal note was given an assisted sense of connection to the next note through a forward-moving
instrument. The study also showed how the two players worked with their instruments to pro-
duce a coordinated duo. For example, the clarinettist used forward movements with the clarinet
to literally move the flautist’s tempo along, and to coordinate a specific point of arrival. These
results did not, however, look at video material and thus did not examine a full visual display of
the bodies of the performers themselves. Furthermore, facial and physical actions per se were
not identified, so the explanations that emerged in the discussion were limited to the general
points just summarized.
In the current research, the video-only data are now analyzed for specific physical behav-
iours and identifiable gestures, and an extra ensemble of players is considered for comparative
purposes.
Method
Participants. The study required players of flute and clarinet. Four players were recruited, all of
them being female. Two performers were professionals who work as a flute-and-clarinet duo
and their motion capture data had been analzsed in Davidson and Malloch (2009). Both of
these women were in mid-life, the clarinettist being approximately eight years older than the
flautist. They are referred to as ensemble 1. The other two were post-graduate students – friends
who had attended the same secondary school and university music department. Both in their
mid-20s, and though they had not played a flute and clarinet duo before, they had extensive
experience playing together in a large ensemble which had the same regular music director.
These players are referred to as ensemble 2.
Materials. The performers worked on a short piece of music for flute and clarinet especially
composed for the study by British composer and academic Mark Slater. Mark had been asked to
compose a work that could be performed as two solos, or that the lines could combine and func-
tion as a duet. The underlying research question was whether the players would play the solo
lines with the same facial and bodily actions as the duo. To control for potential variability
between instruments, Mark was asked to compose parts of equal technical difficulty which
used a very similar range of musical effects. The score in the duet form is shown in Figure 1.
The work is based on both stepwise and arpeggiated melodic material that reappears in slight
variation and extension across its three short sections. The rhythmic energy of the piece passes
between flute and clarinet as each takes on and off beat melodies. The three sections each have
a strong phrase boundary and a different expressive timing and dynamic effect: section A (bars
1–8) begins at a tranquil crotchet moving at 68 bpm, alternating between 4/4 and 3/4 time
Davidson
Figure 1. For Stephen and Jane, composed by Mark Slater
603
and requiring only a small dynamic range from pp to mp levels; section B (bars 9–13) moves into
a clear waltz as it increases its speed to crotchet at 104 bpm, and the dynamics and pitch range
augment in volume and height, until a sudden shift back to the original speed and 4/4; section
C again moves between 4/4 and 3/4, gradually reducing the melodic material and the dynam-
ics back to the opening levels, but now incorporating a molto ritenuto. Thus, in duo perfor-
mance, good coordination is required in order to agree and establish the changes requested in
the score.
Two video cameras were used to record the performers from front and side angles in order
to capture all of their motions. (This was in addition to the motion-capture system [PEAK
Motus] from which data were collected, analyzed and published in Davidson & Malloch,
2009.)
Procedure for current study. As it was an explicit aim to investigate how the music was approached
as a solo line and then as a duo, it was necessary to begin by showing the players their solo lines
only. Then, and only when the solo version had been achieved, the duo version was shown to
them and they were able to work with their duo partner to achieve an agreed version. Thus
video recordings were made of each player working from sight-playing of the solo line through
to final duo collaboration. The women were all invited to practise the piece for as many times as
they felt necessary, and in a manner of their choosing, in order to feel they had achieved a grasp
of the musical content and a desired interpretation. In the solo condition, each player chose to
play the piece four times in run-though, each having additionally practiced small sub-sections
or single notes between the run-throughs.
After each instrumentalist had played the piece through by themselves, the two different duo
pairings were asked to come together to work on the piece – in a practice akin to preparing for
an ensemble concert. At this point they were given the duo version and the opportunity to see
how their solo line fitted with their partner’s. They were free to work on the piece and each duo
discussed and then played through the duo version five times, prior to giving a sixth and agreed
‘final and polished interpretation’.
From these data, owing to analyses that had occurred in the 2009 paper, the following run-
throughs were examined:
• Solo 1, solo 4 (referred to in the following analysis as solo A and solo B)

• Duo 1, duo 6 (referred to in the following analysis as duo A and duo B)
Unlike the 2009 publication, which focused on only a part of the data, this paper undertakes an
analysis of the entire piece.
In order to explore how the music was approached and then achieved using bodily expres-
sions, it was necessary to undertake a systematic observation procedure, using strong criteria
for the selection of specific movements/facial actions. This was achieved by drawing on my
extensive experience of observing and identifying expressive vocabularies (Davidson, 1991,
1994, 2005, 2007). My knowledge of previous analysis categories was applied to the data
observed; but previous knowledge also permitted the possibility for the determination of new
categories. In this report, movement category only and not amplitude of a movement is deter-
mined. This is because most movements were of a similar amplitude across performers, and
also as no objective measurement was made (e.g., motion capture measurement techniques),
the movement types were labelled, thus permitting comparisons of whether or not these move-
ments persisted or modified in multiple solo and duo renditions.
Davidson 605
Results
The solos – number 1 (solo A) and number 4 (solo B). A first level of description of the performances
is show in Appendix 1, which traces the expressive body movement and facial expressions
across two run-throughs for each solo performer. This itemizes expressive movements by bar.
Table 1 distils these expressive body movement descriptions further, grouping movement types
according to individual. Looking at these, several points can be summarized:
1. The movements comprise side-to-side torso sways, knee bends and torso movements
which often combine into bobbing movements, elbow circling, instrument circling, and
raising up of the end of the musical instrument;
2. The flautists seem to make similar kinds of movements, as do the clarinettists. In other
words, players of the same instruments move in similar ways;
3. Despite clearly identifiable flute playing expressions (sideways leaning when bobbing)
and clarinet playing expressions (raising the bell of the instrument upwards), the types
of bodily engagement were similar – legs and torso movements relating to rhythmical
swaying or bobbing, and movements related to holding the instruments such as circling
the instrument;
4. Between the two flute players, flautist 1 moves less than flautist 2;
5. Clarinettist 1 moves in a more variable manner than the other players;
6. Movement effects coincide with musical contours:
• The rising and falling of a phrase being associated with knee bending;
• Held notes associated with a crouched upper body position;
• Rhythmic passages associated with rocking, swaying and toe-tapping.
A final level of descriptive analysis is shown in Table 2, distilling the expressive movements
observed in these performances into a movement vocabulary employed by the instrumentalists.
It is clear that, though there are small variations between instruments, the movements gener-
ated are of a consistency that at some level relate to the way in which the instruments are held
and blown.
Furthermore, both instruments seem to use similar physical means of generating musical
effects. For example, the continuity between notes across a bar-line or in an arpeggiated figure
is achieved with specific movements. The sway (side-to-side rocking action, with weight being
shifted from one foot to another and the torso inclining in the direction of the foot bearing the
weight of the body) or the bob (an action of bending and straightening the knees, with an
accompanying rising and falling of the torso) appear to be used to generate energy and direc-
tion in the musical phase. The four instrumentalists use the circling action of their instrument
as an expressive gesture, most typically in situations of phrase end and musical closure.
As Wanderley and Vines (2006) and others have noted (see Thurston, 1977 on clarinet
technique), whilst these actions are not necessary to close a phrase – a dabbing, punctuated
action could equally be employed – there is evidently a cultural practice that encourages this
movement. Also, the players report that this sort of rotational action: ‘feels natural, is pleasur-
able to do, and beneficial to achieving musical goals’ (clarinettist in ensemble 1, commentary
in between run-throughs). This is of course connected in a direct physical way to the elbow
circling, again something both clarinettists observed to be a characteristic of western classical
playing. Though the clarinettist in ensemble 1, who was also a highly experienced teacher,
noted that it is a very natural and pleasurable movement, she does try to moderate the amount
606
Table 1. Summary of the expressive movement used by soloists (two flautists and two clarinettists) in solo A and solo B
Solo Section A (bars 1–8) Face Additional Section B (bars Face Additional Section C (bars Face Additional
Body comment 9–13) Body comment 14–20) Body comment
Fl 1 A Three definitive head One Four bars Rigid body (bars No Only one Head inclines to No No
nodding gestures fleeting lip with no 9–12) expression bar of no right, bobs upward expression expressive
linked to descending movement expressive expressive on ascending line movements
melodic passage (bars as the movement movement (bars 14, 15, 16, (bars 18, 19
3,4,5) mouthpiece (bars /still (bar & 17) & 20)
is tilted to 1,2,7,8) 13)
create the
note (bar 6)
Fl 1 B Knee-bending gesture No Two bars No expressive Lifts Nods head upward No No
(bar 1) expressive of no movement eyebrows at on ascending line expression expression/
Three definitive head movement expressive end of five- (bars 14, 17 & 18) stillness
nodding gestures movement note phrase (bars 15,
(bars 3,4,5) (bars 2 & 8) (bars 9, 10, 18, 19 & 20
Head moves with a 11)
bending and rocking
backwards action
(bars 6 & 7)
Fl 2 A Body rises up (bars No Bar 8 no Bends knees, No Large flourishing No No
1 & 2) expressive expressive following pitch expressive sweep from high to expression expression/
Bending body to right movement movement contour with movement lower and upward stillness
Psychology of Music 40(5)

(bars 3 & 4) rising/ (bar 12/ posture – large (bars 19 &
Down–up knee- lowering of knees still) bob (bar 14) 20)
bending movements (bars 9 & 10) Sways from high
(bar 5) Circles end of to a lower right
Legs and torso bend/ flute (bars 11 & bending posture -
stretch movement to 13) bob (bars 15, 16,
upright (bars 2, 6, 7) 17, 18)
(Continued)
Davidson
Table 1. (Continued)
Fl 2 B Torso rising up (bar 2) No Bars 1 Bends knees, No Bar 12 no Sway from high to No No
Torso impulse moving expressive & 6 no following pitch expression expressive lower and rising expression expression/
torso higher (bar 6) movement expressive contour with movement/ body position stillness
Accent movements in movement rising/ still (bars 14, 15, 16, (bars 19 &
torso (bars 7 & 8) lowering of knees 17, & 18) 20)
Knee bending (bars 9 & 10)
(bars 3,4,5) Circles end of flute
(bars 11& 13)
Cl 1 A Toe taps (bars 1 & 2) No No Toe taps, rocks No facial All bars Bends knees as No All bars
Elbows circle (bars expressive expressive body side to side expression contain notes descend – expressive show
3 & 4) movement movement (bars 9, 10, 11) expressive bob (bar 14) movement expression
Knee bending (bars 5, (bars 2 & 8) Lifts of torso (bar movement Side-to-side sway
6 & 7) 12) (bars 15, 16, 17,
Circles bell of & 18)
instrument Low bend knees –
(bars 13) bob (bar 19)
Crouched, in bob
posture (bar 20)
Cl 1 B Toe taps and elbows Eyebrows All bars Body movement Eyebrows Bar 13 no Bends and No No
circle combined (bars raise (bars 6 contain upwards onto raise (bars expression/ straightens whole expression expression/
1 & 2) & 7) expressive balls of feet, 9, 10 & 11) still body – rising slow stillness
Elbows circle (bars movements moving in a bob - with circling (bar 20)
3 & 4) swaying motion elbow
Swaying (bars 5 & 6) (bars 9, 10 & 11) (bars 14, 15, & 18)
Lifts of torso (bar Up and down
12) bending and
stretching –
bobbing (bars 16
& 17)
(Continued)
607
608
Circles bell of
clarinet to stop
(bar 19)
Cl 2 A Elbows circle out No All bars Side-to-side sway No Bar 13 no Beats instrument No No
(bars 1 & 2) expressive contain (bars, 9, 10 & 11) expression expression/ bell up and down expressive expression/
Head nod (bars 3 & 7) movement expressive Crotchet beats still (bars 14, 15) movements stillness
Lift of the bell of the movements indicated with Sways side to side (bar 20)
instrument (bars 6 bell and elbow (bars 16 & 17)
& 8) beats (bar 12) Elbows circle,
Side-to-side sway beating time (bar
(bars 4 & 5) 19)
Cl 2 B Side-to-side sway No All bars Side-to-side sway No Bar 13 no Moves torso up Stillness
(bars 1, 2, 4, & 5) expressive contain (bars 9, 10, & 11) expression expression/ (bars 14, 16) (bars 19 &
Head nod (bar 3) movement expressive Soft elbow beats still Sways side to side 20)

Lifts bell of instrument movements (bar 12) (bars 15 & 17)
(bars 6 & 7)
Davidson 609
Table 2. Types of movement across performers
Instrument Movement type

Flute Bending and Upward Inclining Circling end Nodding of
straightening of torso sway, of flute in head, up
knees – whole movement typically rotational and down
body moving up to right action action
and down, bob
Clarinet Bending and Upward Side- Circling end Elbows Nodding of
straightening of torso to-side, of clarinet circling head, up
knees – whole movement sway in rotational and down
body up and action action
down, bob
Additional movement Raising
idiosyncrasies displayed eyebrows (Fl
by single flute and 1); Toe tapping
single clarinet (Cl 1)
of movement undertaken, for if too much movement is present ‘some of the technical control
issues of blowing are negatively affected’. Surprisingly, there were very few facial expressions,
except for raised eyebrows, which were not consistent features of the run-throughs. The fact
that both instruments involve the mouth in holding the instrument and generating the breath-
flow required to produce the musical tone could affect the degree to which the face is used for
expressive ends.
Coordination is necessary for ensemble performance, so it was in this context that expressive
facial actions were specifically hypothesized as communicative tools.
The duos – number 1 (duo A) and number 6 (duo B). The same process of descriptive analyses was
undertaken in the duos as in the case of the solo performances. Appendix 2 reveals the move-
ment profiles of players in the duo condition. Evidently these share strong characteristics with
the solo run-throughs. But, as Table 3 condenses this information, in the duo condition, we see
that the musicians modify the way in which they move in order to synchronize and interact
closely with one another.
The following points are worth noting:
1. Although once again there are no facial actions, these performances include a number of
glances to coordinate entrances, exits and musical effects;
2. Whilst the types of movements used are of the same gestural repertoire as those adopted
in the solos, in the ensemble condition the movements are clearly undertaken for interac-
tive purpose, for example the bobbing and swaying in bars 14–18 show the interactions
between the instrumentalists and the musical lines, the bodies clearly contributing to the
achievement of the coordination;
3. With the first performers – the professional ensemble 1 – it is the clarinettist who leads
the movements/music, whereas in the second ensemble, it is the flautist who seems to
lead – evidenced by the nature of the glances between players, and the more dominant
role in leading a bar or bringing off notes.
610
Table 3. Summary of the expressive movement used by the flautists and clarinettists in ensemble 1 and ensemble 2 in the duo A and duo B
performances of Mark Slater’s composition
Solo Section A (bars Face Additional Section B (bars Face Additional Section C (bars Face Additional
1–8) Body comment 9–13) Body comment 14–20) Body comment
Fl 1 Definitive head Received All bars Inclining sway No Only bar Head nods (bar No No
duo nodding gestures glance from contain to right, in expressive 13 with no 14) expressive expressive
A linked to timing and clarinettist expressive
synchrony with movement expressive Body swaying movement movement
coordination with (bar 1) information
the clarinettist movement/ (bars 14, 15, (bars 19 &
clarinettist (bars Responds to (bars 9,10 & 11) communication 16, 17 & 18) 20)
1,2,3,4,5,6,7 & 8) clarinettist Up & down
Upward body (bar 8) head nodding
movement (bar 6) accompanying
clarinet accents
(bar 12)
Cl 1 Head nodding (bars Glance to All bars Sways side No All bars contain Knee bending Glances to No
duo 1 & 2) contact contain to side in expressive expressive as notes flautist to expressive
A Elbows circle (bars flautist expressive synchrony with movement movement descend (bar coordinate movement
3, 4 & 5) (bar 1) information flautist (bar 9, 14) (bar 19) (bar 20)
Knee bending (bars Glances to 10 & 11) Body swaying
6 & 7) flautist Head nods with (bars 14, 15,
(bar 8) flautist (bar 12) 16, 17 & 18)
Circles end of
clarinet (bar 13)
Fl 1 Inclines torso to Receives No Bobbing up and Receives All bars contain Bobbing, Looking Two bars
duo B clarinettist (bar 1) clarinettist’s expressive down in quaver clarinettist’s expressive playing off to clarinet of no
Definitive knee glance (bars movement rhythm (bar 9, glance movement clarinet line to receive expressive

bending gesture 7 & 8) (bar 2) 10, & 11) (bar 13) (bars 14, 15, instruction movement
linked to timing of Leaning towards 16, & 17) to (bars 2 & 8)
elbow circling of clarinettist Body sway coordinate
clarinettist (bar 3) (bar 12) (bar 18) (bar 19)
Develops into head
nodding and knee
bending gestures
(bars 4,5 & 6)
(Continued)
Davidson
Cl 1 Inclines body to Glance to All bars Vigorous Glances to All bars contain Bends and No All bars
duo B flautist (bar 1) flautist (bar contain bobbing and Flautist (bar expressive straightening expressive contain
Elbows circle (bars 1) expressive circling of 13) movements whole body – movement expressive
2, 3, 4 & 5) with Watching movements instrument very large scale movements
increased energy flautist and (bars 9, 10 & bob (bars 14, but bar 20
and amplitude directing 11) 15, 16, 17 & – still and
across each bar timing with Head nods on 18) upright.
Nodding (bar 6) eye contact accents (bar 12) Circling elbows
Head nodding in (bars 7 & 8) (bars 14, 18)
time with flautist
(bars 7 & 8)
Brings self and
flautist off with
a circling of the
instrument bell
(bar 8)
Fl 2 Body rises up (bars Glances to Bar 8 no Nodding (bars 9 No No movement Very large No No
duo A 1,2 & 7) clarinettist movement &10) expressive expression (bar movement as expressive movement
Bobbing up and (bars 1, 6) expression Circles end of movement 12) body rises up – movement expression
down (bar 3) flute, rises to full extended bob in bar 20
Swaying (bars 4,5,& height (bar 11) – leading the
6) Circles flute in clarinet
silence (bar 13) (bar 14)
Bobbing
(bar 15)
Swaying (bars
16, 17, & 18)
Circling flute
(bar 19)
(Continued)
611
612
Cl 2 Bobbing up and No All bars Head nod No All bars contain Mirroring the No Stillness bar
duo down in synchrony expressive contain coordinating expressive expressive flute with expressive 20
A with flautist (bar 1) movement expressive with flautist movement movements rising bob movement
Bobbing up and movements (bars 9 & 10) (bar 14)
down with elbow Side-to-side Bobbing (bars
circles out (bars 2, sway (bar 11) 15, 17 & 18)
3 & 4) Bell of the Side-to-
Side-to-side sway, instrument side sway,
accenting notes marking beat or mirroring
(bars 5 & 7) used for timing flautist
Lift of the bell of effect (bars 12 (bar 16)
the instrument and & 13) Elbows circle
circles instrument Circles end of (bar 19)
(bars 6 & 8) clarinet (bar 13)
Fl 2 Torso rising up No Bars 1 Bobbing – knee Receives No expressive Sway from No Stillness
duo B (bars 2 & 5) expressive & 6 no bending (bars 9, clarinettist’s movement high to low expressive bars 19 &
Torso impulse movement expressive 10 & 11) glance to (bar 12) and back – movement 20
moving torso movement Circles end of time note slow bob (bar
higher, then bends f lute (bar 13) ending 14)
(bars 3 & 4) (bar 13) Sway from
Accent movements high to low,
in torso (bars 7 & 8) leaning to

right (bars 15,
16, 17 & 18)
Cl 2 Side-to-side sway No All bars Side-to-side Glances to All bars contain Stretches No Stillness
duo B (bars 1, 2, 3 & 4) expressive contain sway (bars 9,10 flute expressive body up to full expressive bars 19 &
Nod (bar 3) movement expressive & 11) (bar 13) movements height (bar 14) movement 20
Lifting bell of movements Soft elbow beats Sways (bar 15)
instrument (bars 3, (bar 12) Head nod (bars
6, 7, & 8) Circles end of 16,17 & 18)
clarinet (bar 13)
Davidson 613
The ensemble work shows its interactive nature and the usefulness of the glances as well as
bobs, nods and sways to coordinate musical effects. In fact, in both ensembles there was little
discussion, but an entwining of bodies that settled the interpretation almost immediately. In
ensemble 2, the B duo was very similar in its musical ideas to A duo, and the video data demon-
strates a tuning in to the task through the movement style.
The long-established ensemble 1 reveals a contrast in personal playing styles. The clarinet-
tist is highly dynamic in musical ideas and the use of her body. She leads the flautist, who
becomes far more active with her body in the ensemble condition than the solo performances.
Discussion
This study provides rich data going some way to understand the type of bodily movements and
facial actions used in the production of an expressive musical performance. In summary, it
seems that the biomechanical features of playing the specific woodwind instruments used leads
to some rather specific uses of the body; for example, the leaning movements of the flautists.
The range of expressive bodily movements used are limited (see Table 2), but seem to serve a
function closely allied to articulating expressive effects depicted in the musical score. For exam-
ple, the subito tempo primo in the clarinet part at bar 12 leads to both clarinettists beating the
crotchet pulse, one using the upper torso, the other using elbow beating movements, thus mov-
ing the end of the instrument. This specific example raises a point that draws this study’s find-
ings back to the results of previous research: there is a movement vocabulary, but it can be used
in a variable manner for similar expressive ends. Indeed, in the duo conditions the two clarinet-
tists still make the emphatic beat movements on the crotchets, but in the case of clarinettist 1,
she uses head nods instead of upper torso beats, whereas clarinettist 2 continues to make elbow
beats and circles with the end of the clarinet. This finding was also apparent in analyses of
detailed repeat performances by a pianist (see Davidson, 2007).
The duo performances are highly interactive, showing how these performers coordinate
using movement in order to achieve a consistent musically expressive goal, for example in bars
9, 10 and 11, the on- and off-beats of the clarinet to flute bounce between one another with
bodily movements of sways, bobs and nods, that bring the players into a tight coordination.
We also observe that glances assist with musical coordination, but that these are not as fre-
quent as one might have imagined. They do not happen regularly, but rather at major boundar-
ies: at the start of the work, the transitions between sections at the end of the work. This is
consistent with the observation of piano duettists (Williamon & Davidson, 2002).
It is somewhat surprising to note that, with the exception of isolated moments when eye-
brows are raised or the lip moved, generally, the performers do not display any of the expressive
effects on their face.
The movements described in this study are a phenomena I have observed in every single
study I have undertaken, and has led me to refer to Cutting and his colleagues’ work on the idea
of a centre of moment for physical expression (Cutting & Proffitt, 1981; Cutting, Proffitt, &
Kozlowski, 1978). The theory argues that there is a central point about which all other move-
ments operate – swinging, swaying, and rotating – which is crucial in the disclosure of infor-
mation about intention. Working with a pianist/composer (see Davidson, 1995), I attempted to
control a music-learning situation by introducing a learning condition that constrained pia-
nists from moving in this circular, swaying movement during learning and performance. The
results revealed the final performances to be far less musically expressive than those where the
performers were allowed to sway and rotate freely. The upper torso swaying or rotation observed
in the flute and clarinet work may indeed be a core element for generating coordinated and
pleasurably natural musical expression (see Davidson, 2005, for a fuller discussion of this idea),
since Cutting and colleagues argue it is the natural means through which the body manifests
its internal intention. Or, as Runeson and Frykholm (1983) note, movements specify their
causes. In Davidson and Malloch (2009), I noted that the core of a good musical interaction
seems to depend on the musicality inherent to the performer and naturally expressed through
the body.
Intuitively, we all know that we rely on facial expressions for the communication of emo-
tional intention in social meeting: the face revealing vital cues about the emotional state of the
person encountered. Yet the woodwind players in the study barely showed any expressions on
their faces. One possible explanation for this is that, since they hold their instrument in or close
to their mouths, the face is too occupied with the activity of instrument control. Another allied
possibility is that the gestures they do make, such as sways and bobs, are in fact expressions of
internal states that can be expressed at a number of levels from face to finger tip, and that, in
the context of woodwind playing, the body is a better means of articulating this inner inten-
tional state. This idea would be consistent with the work by Cutting and colleagues, which
showed that any part of the moving body could provide sufficient expressive information for
identity to be revealed. Also, in Davidson (1997), I revealed that head-only and hands-only
information from pianists revealed virtually identical expressive information to observers, sug-
gesting that the movements had an expressive equivalence.
Facial expression has been reported in studies on co-performer coordination (see, for exam-
ple, Davidson & King, 2004; Williamon & Davidson, 2002), revealing that glances and eyebrow
expressions as well as smiles have been used to coordinate entrances and exits in string and
keyboard ensembles. But empirical work on instrumentalists has been very limited, certainly in
terms of facial expressions generated as the player performs. Facial expression has received
some experimental coverage in the music, movement, and expression research, but focused
centrally on singing. For example, in observing singers, Ohgushi and Hattori (1996) showed
that musically trained observers found facial expression better at communicating emotion than
the auditory alone. Scotto di Carlo and Guaïtella (2004) demonstrated that emotion was identi-
fied better in speech than song; however, voice alone did not communicate emotions as well as
when combined with a visual image. The singer’s facial expression was found to influence
observers’ judgements of musical dissonance, interval size, and affective valence (Thompson,
Graham, & Russo, 2005). Thompson and Russo (2007) revealed that observers were able to
detect the size of the interval sung based on visual information from facial expressions and
head movements alone.
Given the result that no expression was found on the faces of both flautist and clarinettist it
was decided to develop a study of another instrument. Even though we know the face to be a
rich source of expressive information in many contexts and in some musical contexts, the sec-
ond stage of the current paper was to investigate whether instrumentalists who do have the
freedom to make facial expressions in their playing – that is players who do not blow a musical
instrument – do so in a manner consistent with the overall body gestures used. For this reason,
a single exploratory case study of a pianist was undertaken.
As the expressive bodily movement in the first study seemed very clearly related to musical
structure of the work, it seemed that a second useful step would be to perform a work where
there was an explicit emotional narrative, hence one of the major Romantic works for piano
was chosen, to see whether this affected expression. Finally, the first study had not involved live
performance, so there was no sense of whether or not some communicative audience-directed
Davidson 615
expressions could have been used and added to the palette of expressive movements. Rather
than working in the confines of the laboratory, it seemed necessary to explore real live concert
performances to explore audience effects. These approaches had been adopted before in my
observations of popular performance (e.g., Robbie Williams in Davidson, 2006). In this con-
text, the approach was to look for a world-leading performer working in major live concert
situations.
Study 2: A pianist’s use of bodily and facial expression in

performance
A second step in understanding the physical expressions of musicians was to look again at pia-
nists, as previous studies had revealed identifiable expressive body movements (see Davidson,
1994, 2007). These included head nodding, head shaking, body swaying, and a range of wrist
rotation, hand lifts and hand and arm lifts. In the studies from 1994 and 2007, the face was not
examined. For the current study, given the recent results of research by Thompson and col-
leagues, and also adopting Cutting’s ideas of expressive intentions being represented at a num-
ber of levels in the body (e.g., upper torso movement as well as hands), it was hypothesized that
compound body movements/facial actions would be generated by the pianist for expressive pur-
pose. For example, a raising of the eyebrows and lifting of the left hand as a creation/reaction
expression to the pianist anticipating a resolving chord in a cadence. Taken together it was
posited that these combined movement/facial expressions would be part of a movement vocab-
ulary for the communication of the performer’s expressive intention.
Stimuli
A filmed recording of a live performance was used in this study. It was necessary to use filmed
data, so that repeated viewings of the data could be used to create an analysis. The artist, Lang
Lang, was chosen since he is renowned for his highly communicative and expressive perfor-
mances. The film was accessed through YouTube (Sissco, 2006).
Musical stimulus material

Rather than using a work composed specifically for the task (as in the first study in this paper),
it was deemed valid to draw upon the standard concert repertoire. Liszt is popular core reper-
toire for pianists. The Liebestraum (Dream of love), Nocturne no. 3 is based on a poem by
Freiligrath, O lieb, so lang du lieben Kannst (O love, as long as you can love). The poem expresses the
‘all-conquering power of love and kindness’ that urges lovers to love with the essence of their
beings and never to express a harsh word, for death soon brings separation and regret. Whether
or not Liszt follows the narrative literally, it is obvious that the work is created with this poem in
mind. Also, the pianist performing this work will certainly be familiar with the narrative and so
it could be considered as a known element for expression in performance.
Procedure
The filmed recording of the performance was observed through multiple viewings by the author
and a graduate student, Sharon Chung. Initially this was done independently, and then the
observations were brought together, compared and discussed. Since there was more than 95%
agreement in both the location and type of movement identified independently, and the conver-
sation between observers brought 100% agreement, no statistical test of agreement level was
undertaken.
Results and discussion

This live performance had been edited for broadcast using cameras set at five different camera
angles, with the final version for broadcast being shown in each camera angle as follows:
• Front-view close up (1 minute, 10 seconds);

• Rear-view close up (44 seconds);
• Side profile shot – medium distance (14 seconds);
• Side profile shot – long distance from back of auditorium (5 seconds);
• Keyboard close-up (2 minutes, 1 second)
As the body including face was only in camera shot for a quarter of the whole performance, the
total description of note-by-note expressive movements/facial actions that had been possible in
the first study (Appendices 1 and 2) was not possible in this context. However, after multiple
observations of the film, it became evident that the pianist did produce compound bodily ges-
ture/facial actions on every observable moment of expressive action seen on film. That is, all the
expressive moments identified included the compound body/face actions. These compound
expressions could be implied in some other camera shots; for example, the rear view shot often
showed the head turned to the side so a facial expression could be in part observed and so seen to
coincide with a forward and crouched torso movement; and the medium distance shots showed
the face in side profile. Thus careful viewing by the two analysts permitted a gestural repertoire
to be recorded for Lang Lang performing this work, and this is listed in Table 4.
From this table, the initial hypothesis for this study is supported. That is, there would be facial
expressions and a relationship between the facial expressions and the body movements gener-
ated by this performer. Furthermore, it became evident that the body movements were rather
Table 4. Showing bodily and facial expressions used by Lang Lang in his performance
Bodily expression identified Concurrent facial expression identified

Forward sway/backward sway Generally eyebrows slightly raised, sometimes with
mouth slightly open
Head nodding (up and down) Generally eyebrows slightly raised, sometimes with
mouth slightly open
Head shaking (side to side) Eyes closed, eyebrows raised and mouth slightly open
Leaning back with head tilted upward Eyes closed, eyebrows raised and mouth open
Leaning or crouching forward moving towards With furrowed brow, whole face intense and closed,
the keys sometimes in crying or sobbing gesture
Explosive burst of body, Fast backward surge Mouth wide open, eyes wide open
Left or right hand raised, Tracing or Eyes often following the direction of the hand
conducting the other hand as it plays
Hand making a single gesture, lifted high, such Eyes often following the direction and intensity of the
as touching heart, or opening the fingers and hand gesture
thus emphasizing a note or chord being played
Davidson 617
similar in type to those discovered in a study of another pianist in Davidson (2007). For example,
body swaying, head nods and shakes and hand lifts. Given the commonality in these major areas
of the body used for expressive purpose, it could be that these indicate types of expressive body
movement most typical for generating expressive gestures in piano performance. These expres-
sive movements were found to have links to musical structure. For example, the swaying seemed
to have some correspondence with the overall rhythmic pulse; the nods were related to the place-
ment of chords or key notes and the hand lifts traced a melody line or chordal effect occurring in
the other hand. But these body gestures each have a corresponding facial expression: the
crouched, hunched position having a frowning intense facial expression to accompany it; the
backward stretching body posture having a raised eyebrow and closed eyes.
To illustrate Lang Lang’s movement repertoire, examples of these compound bodily and
facial expressions are captured in a sequence of photographic stills, kindly created from the
video by Sharon Chung.1 Though these images ‘freeze’ the dynamic and unfurling perfor-
mance, they nonetheless indicate the different types of expressions found. Note that these stills
come from the opening six bars (bars 1–6), and the musical climax of the work (bars 55–60).
These two points were selected as they were both available for observation from the film edit in
front/side view and because they represented key moments in the work’s structure.
From the initial upbeat note in the left-hand, Lang Lang began to move with a swaying
movement towards the keys. As he played the third repeated middle C, he shook his head from
side to side and changed the direction of the sway backwards, away from the keyboard.
During these first six bars, Lang Lang swayed forwards and backwards, and as he approached
the cadence over bars 5–6, his body moved backwards in the swaying action, raising from a
crouched to upright sitting position, and shaking the head over the three ascending notes at bar 5.
The eyebrows were also raised during this action (see Figure 2 and Figure 3).
The movements seem to indicate the musical relaxation and a lessening of physical tension.
Then, as Lang Lang struck the C minim in the middle of bar 5, he relaxed and nodded his head
backwards, releasing his jaw and letting his mouth fall open (see Figure 4).
At the work’s climax, bars 55–56, the body is swayed in quite an exaggerated manner, and
before reaching the climax of the high-G octave, Lang Lang’s facial expression anticipated the
building tension with frowning eyebrows, closed eyes, and tensed facial muscles, with the
mouth slightly opened. The image shown in Figure 5 is one of anticipation of the musical/
emotional climax. At this point, the musical interpretation is highly involved, with a strong
dynamic and building musical tension. The climax and release, and subsequent movements are
shown in Figures 6 and 7. The body surged forward (in the swaying action), the left hand and
arm burst off the chords and Lang Lang surged backward, his face showing the open-mouthed
release of tension.
After the climax, the downward octave melody in bar 56 was played with emphasis on every
note, now in a slower tempo, and the physical expressions displayed a reflective and contempla-
tive rather than tense quality. Lang Lang’s body swayed backwards, away from the piano with
a tilt to the back of his head. He frowned, closing his eyes and slightly opening his mouth, rais-
ing the left arm and hand towards his chest, in a gesture which strokes the location of his heart
(Figure 8).
After this short period of musical and physical relaxation, the music builds again (bars 57–
59) and the forward and backward swaying once more began to build in momentum. Lang
Lang revealed a more fragile expression with frowning eyebrows, tensely closed eyes, and
upward moving cheek muscles causing the edge of the lips to raise into a crying/sobbing ges-
ture (see Figure 9).
After this passage, the music moves into a chromatic ornamented cadenza at bar 60, during
which Lang Lang bent forward, hunched over the keys, but with the face in a smiling position,
the corners of the lips and eyebrows being raised (see Figure 10).
After this passage, Lang Lang smiled more broadly, lifting his head and raising his eyebrows
across a rising arpeggio figure (see Figure 11). As he struck the first note of the re-commence-
ment of chromatic notes, he raised his left hand and moved it forwards, as if marking the new
section and then tracing the shape of the melodic line being played in his right hand.
At this turning point from major chord arpeggio to the leggiero chromatic descending pas-
sage, Lang Lang looked up to his left hand, keeping a smile on the edge of the mouth as this
chromatic passage continued in the lighter sonority. The hand gesture makes the musical turn-
ing point very prominent together with the use of Lang Lang’s facial gesture.
In summary, Lang Lang generates an intense expressive intention whose message is distrib-
uted across both body and face. Evidently, there is a strong relationship between musical struc-
ture, its execution and gestures that suitably accompany it, either to generate, coincide with, or
respond to the structure and its effects. Although an audience per se has not been asked for
feedback here, I spent many hours analyzing this performance, and it is apparent to me as a
perceiver that an expressive narrative can be read into the performance which maps consis-
tently with what we know about the compositional intention of the work by Liszt. In this con-
text, it is an intimate love encounter. Lang Lang’s own use of physical tension and abandon
leads to a decoding of the meaning associated with the tension and release of physical intimacy,
as shown specifically in bars 55 and 56. Whether consciously employed or not, the physical
expressions of the body and face offer a means by which the performer can generate expression
which is both integrated into the musical effects created – timing and dynamic effects – and
which exists independently of them. That is, I can observe these expressions of physical release
in the still images, or better still, experience them as I observe the dynamics of the performer as
observed on film, or indeed in the live performance context.
Figure 2. Showing the first expressive gesture, captured in bar 2, as Lang Lang plays the third C of the
phrase (the corresponding musical moment is also shown in the score excerpt)
Davidson 619
Figure 3. Measure bar where Lang Lang is playing three ascending crotchets, the musical score excerpt
indicates the precise location
Figure 4. Lang Lang playing the minim C in the melody of bar 5

Figure 5. Lang Lang’s expression at the first chord of the main climax of the work at bar 55
Figure 6. Execution of the octave Gs, the notes of the phrase climax at bar 55
Davidson 621
Figure 7. Lang Lang plays the descending quaver passage as the musical climax subsides, bar 56
Figure 8. Lang Lang as he plays the last two crotchet octaves of bar 56
Figure 9. Lang Lang playing bars 57–59, and the music excerpt from the score
Figure 10. Bar 60 – and the chromatic descending melody line

Davidson 623
Figure 11. Bar 60 on the turning point of the chromatic descending passage, after the extended arpeggio
passage
Conclusions
This paper has comprised a literature review and two rather different case studies. Taken
together, the contents demonstrate that playing a piece of music requires high-level interaction
of developed cognitive and action processes. Musical performance skills involve the biomechan-
ical aspects of playing the music fluently, but coexist with expressive intentions manifested
through bodily movements and facial expressions that permit the communication of musical
intention (clarifying musical structural features), or meaning (narrative designated such as the
Liszt piano work).
In the first study there was a strong and common base for the expressive gestural vocabulary
for the two clarinettists and the two flautists. Across the two different types of woodwind instru-
ment used, there were identifiable gesture types employed, though there were individual stylis-
tic differences. Surprisingly, facial expressions were lacking in the performances of these
woodwind players, but this was explained at least in part as a consequence of playing the
instrument by mouth. The study demonstrated both individual differences and how performers
influence one another when playing in a duo. The results showed that in an ensemble a more
dominant player shapes the less-dominant individual’s interpretation and movement patterns.
In the case of an experienced professional duo, this interaction encouraged a physically and
musically restrained interpreter to engage in a dance-like interaction with her more fluent part-
ner affecting a positive, rather than negative, outcome.
The second study revealed that, for the case-study pianist, facial expressions were present
and were clearly consonant with the larger-scale expressive bodily gestures that were being
generated. In other words, the facial expressions provided information of a similar type to the
overall bodily movements, offering an additional layer of information about expressive
intention.
Revisiting the research questions asked at the start of this paper, we have been able to explore
bodily movements and facial actions used in the production of an expressive musical perfor-
mance and noted that, despite differences according to instrument, swaying is an overarching
expressive device used by three different types of instrumentalist. We also found that, owing to
the interactive movement activity in the duo study, bodily movements can be of a communica-
tive nature for co-performers. In the case study by Lang Lang, we see that the compound move-
ments of body and facial expressions offer audience members an insight into the articulation of
musical structures as well as the narrative of an underlying meaning of the work – in this case
the power of physical love.
Whilst the work offers only preliminary observations, it does much to reinforce previous
studies and supports again this notion of a physical centre for expressive information which
might operate in a hierarchical manner (cf. Cutting & Proffitt, 1981; Cutting et al., 1978). That
is, at a global level as captured in swaying or swinging gestures or in a local manner in a move-
ment such as a raised eyebrow or a hand lift. Indeed, the movements categorized in Table 2 and
Table 4 all stem from the core swaying movement as a fundamental element of movement
expression in the woodwind and the pianist’s performance. At an initial level, then, the expres-
sive bodily movement operates to generate in the music an immediate and communicative pur-
pose for the performer as he/she creates the performance (generating and responding to the
musical sounds in an interactive manner between self and music, rather like what Watt and
Ash suggested in 1998). But the data in the first study also reveal a second level of function: to
provide co-performer cues for regulation of musical content and expression of immediate and
perhaps idiosyncratic expressive content. The movements used to generate these stimuli draw
from individual movement repertoires that are based on a shared biological/culturally bound
way of moving, as shown in the commonality of the areas of the body which revealed expres-
sive information.
Returning to the overarching research questions that underpin all my research into expres-
sive body movement, it is evident that the two investigations undertaken in this paper have
contributed new knowledge in the area by showing which movements are regarded as posi-
tively musically expressive. It has been demonstrated that bodily movement is a key area for
further enquiry for both performers and audiences alike.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-
profit sectors.
Note
1. I am grateful to Sharon Chung who assisted with the current analysis and offered up her own
interpretation of these and other data as part of her study requirements at the University of Western
Australia.
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Biography
Jane Davidson is Deputy Director of the Australian Research Council’s Centre of Excellence for the
History of Emotions and the Callaway/Tunley Chair of Music at The University of Western
Australia. Her research is broadly in the area of performance studies, with expressive body move-
ment being her core interest. She has published extensively and secured a range of research
grants in both Australia and overseas. She was Editor of Psychology of Music, 1997–2001.
628
Appendix 1
Bar-by-bar description of the soloists (two flautists and two clarinettists) movements in solo A and solo B
Bar no., 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
section A
Fl 1 A Still Still Head nod on first Head nod on first Head nod on Bottom lip flicks Still Still
beat of bar beat of bar first beat of bar out as mouthpiece
moves to create the
notes
Fl 1 B Knees bend, Still Head nod on Head nod on Head nod on Bends head forwards Head moves up Still
then body first beat of bar, first beat of bar, first beat of bar,then rocks back on trill
rises on first moves with moves with moves with
note fluency fluency fluency
Fl 2 A Body rises Moving to Bends body Bends body Swoops down Rises quickly, Reaches full Still
up over the a high still down then up, down then up, with knee bends straightening knees height and
two bars position inclining to right inclining to right stillness
Fl 2 B Still Torso rising Gives upward Gives upward Smooth gradual To still posture Pulses the Beats torso
slightly body impulse, body impulse, raising of torso, accented beats in silence
to higher then bends down then bends down with torso
posture movements
Cl 1 A Toe taps Toe taps Elbows circle Elbows circle Bends knees, Bends knees, Bends knees, Still
outwards outwards following pitch following pitch following pitch
contour with contour with rising/ contour with
rising/lowering lowering of knees rising/ lowering
of knees of knees
Cl 1 B Toe taps, Toe taps, Elbows circle Elbows circle Rocking Rocking, eyebrows Eyebrows stay Toe taps

elbows elbows circle outwards, much outwards, much vigorously raised raised
circle out out more energized more energized
and quicker and quicker
Cl 2 A Elbows Elbows circle Head nod down Side-to-side sway Side-to-side Lifts bell of Head nods and Holds bell
circle out out sway instrument lifts bell on each up still
marked note
Cl 2 B Side-to-side Side-to-side Up and down Side-to-side sway Side-to-side Lifts bell of Lifts bell of Holds bell
sway sway nod with bell of sway instrument instrument up still
instrument
(Continued)
Davidson
Appendix 1. (Continued)
Bar no., section B 9 10 11 12 13
Fl 1 A Rigid Rigid Rigid Rigid Still
Fl 1 B Lifts eyebrows at end of Lifts eyebrows at end of Lifts eyebrows at end of Still Still
five-note phrase five-note phrase five-note phrase
Fl 2A Bends knees, following Bends knees, following Circles end of flute, rising Stands up and Circles end of flute in
pitch contour with rising/ pitch contour with rising/ to full height still silence
lowering of knees lowering of knees
Fl 2 B Bends knees, following Bends knees, following Circles end of flute Still Circles end of flute in
pitch contour with rising/ pitch contour with rising/ silence
lowering of knees lowering of knees
Cl 1 A Toe taps, rocks body side Toe taps, rocks body side Toe taps, rocks body side Lifts shoulders Circles bell to close off
to side to side to side the note, then still
Cl 1 B Eyebrows raise, movement Eyebrows raise, movement Eyebrows raise, Lifts shoulder, Still
upwards onto balls of feet, upwards onto balls of feet, movement upwards onto still
moving in a rotational moving in a rotational balls of feet, moving in a
motion motion rotational motion
Cl 2 A Side-to-side sway Side-to-side sway Side-to-side sway Strong crotchet Still
beats indicated
with bell
Cl 2 B Side-to-side sway Side-to-side sway Side-to-side sway Soft elbow beats Still
629
630
Bar no., 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
section C
Fl 1 A Head inclines to Head inclines to Head inclines to Rocks head Still Still Holds position,
right, rocks upward right right upward on standing firm
on ascending line ascending line
Fl 1 B Rocks head upward Still Still Rocks head Still Still Holds position,
on ascending line upward on standing firm
ascending line
Fl 2 A Large flourishing Sways from high Sways from high Sways from lower Sways from high Still Still
sweep from high to to a lower right to a lower right right posture up to to a lower right
lower and upward bending posture bending posture full height bending posture
posture
Fl 2 B Smooth sway from Gently sways from Gently sways from Gently sways from Gently sways from Still Still
high to lower and high to a lower high to a lower high to a lower high to a lower
rising body position right bending right bending right bending right bending
posture posture posture posture
Cl 1 A Bends knees as notes Side-to-side sway Side-to-side sway Side-to-side sway Side-to-side sway Low bent Crouched,
descend knees held position
Cl 1 B Bends and Bends and Up and down Up and down Bends and Circles bell Stands still
straightens whole straightens whole bending and bending and straightens whole of clarinet to and upright

body, with circling body, with circling stretching stretching body, with circling stop
elbow on rest elbow on rest elbow on rest
Cl 2 A Beats instrument bell Beats instrument Sways side to side Sways side to side Sways side to side Elbow circles Still
up and down bell up and down and beats time
Cl 2 B Moves body up Sways side to side Moves body up Sways side to side Sways side to side Still Still
Davidson
Appendix 2
Bar-by-bar description of the duettists movements in duo A and duo B
Bar no., 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
section A
Fl 1 duo A Glance to Cl, Up and down Head nods in Head nods Head nods Body moves Beats time Beats time with
nod movement time with elbows in time with upward with head head. Looks to Cl
matching of of Cl elbows of Cl
head nods of Cl
Cl 1 duo A Glance to Fl, Nod on strong Elbows circle Elbows circle Elbows Bending Bends knees, Glances to Fl for
nod beat outwards outwards circle knees, following end
following pitch contour
pitch contour with rising/
with rising/ lowering of
lowering of knees
knees
Fl 1 duo B Inclines torso Still Moves with Head nodding Head Head nodding Glancing Cl, Glances to Cl
towards Cl fluency, knees and knees nodding and knees head nodding
bending in time bending and knees bending on accents
with Cl circling bending
Cl 1 duo B Inclines Elbows circle Elbows circle, Elbows Elbows Up and down Watching Glances to Fl and
towards Fl out more energized circle, more circling nodding with Fl, directing brings them off
energized flautist timing with circling of bell
Fl 2 duo A Glancing at Body moving Up and down, Sways Sways Glancing at Reaches full Still
Cl, body rises to a high still bobbing Cl, sways height and
up position stays still
Cl 2 duo A Bobs up and Bobbing with Bobbing Bobbing Side-to-side Lifts bell of Sways side to Holds bell up still
down in elbows circling sway instrument side, accenting
synch with Fl elbows circle notes
Fl 2 duo B Still Torso rising Gives upward Gives upward Smooth To still Pulses the Beats torso in
slightly to body impulse, body impulse, gradual posture accented beats silence
higher posture then bends down then bends raising of with torso
down torso, movements
Cl 2 duo B Side-to-side Side-to-side Up and down Side-to-side Side-to-side Lifts bell of Lifts bell of Holds bell up still
631
sway sway nod with bell of sway sway instrument instrument
instrument
(Continued)
632
Bar no., section B 9 10 11 12 13
Fl 1 duo A Inclining sway, to right, Inclining sway, to right, in Inclining sway, to up and down head Still
in synch with Cl synch with Cl right, in synch with Cl nodding, accompanies
Cl accents
Cl 1 duo A Sways body side to side Sways body side to side Sways body side to Head nods on accents Circles bell to close off
side the note, then still
Fl 1 duo B Bobbing in time with Bobbing in quaver rhythm Bobbing up and down Inclining towards Cl Glances to Cl
quaver beat in quaver rhythm
Cl 1 duo B Vigorous bobbing and Vigorous bobbing and Vigorous bobbing and Head nods on accents Glancing to finish in
circling of instrument circling of instrument circling of instrument synch
Fl 2 duo A Down up nodding Down-up nodding Circles end of flute, Still Circles end of flute in
rises up to full height silence
Cl 2 duo A Up down nodding, Up-down nodding Side-to-side sway Strong crotchet beats Circles Cl to come off
Fitting timing with Fl indicated with bell note
Fl 2 duo B Bobbing - follows pitch Bobbing – follows pitch Bobbing Still Circles end of flute in
contour with rising/ contour with rising/ silence, looks to Cl
Lowering of knees Lowering of knees,
Interacting with Cl interacting with Cl

Cl 2 duo B Sway Sway Sway Soft elbow beats Circles Cl, glances
to Fl
(Continued)
Davidson
Bar no., 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
section C
Fl 1 duo A Sway and head nods Sway Sway Sway Sway Still Still
Cl 1 duo A Bends knees as notes Sway Sway Sway Sway Glancing to Fl to Still
descend finish
Fl 1 duo B Playing off Cl, bobbing Bobbing against Bobbing against Bobbing against Sway Looking to Holds
Cl Cl Cl clarinet for end position,
point standing firm
Cl 1 duo B Bends and straightens Bends and Up and down Up and down Bends and Circles bell of Stands still
whole body, with straightens whole bending and bending and straightens clarinet to stop and upright
circling elbow relaxing body stretching stretching whole body, with
on rest circling elbows
Fl 2 duo A Large flourishing sweep Bobbing Sways from Sways from Sways from high Circles flute to Still
from high to lower high to a lower lower right to a lower right bring off last
torso and knee upward right bending posture up to bending posture note
posture posture full height
Cl 2 duo A Mirrors Bobbing Mirrors Fl Bobbing Bobbing Elbows circles Still
Posture of Fl posture and beat time
Fl 2 duo B Smooth sway from high Gentle swaying Gentle swaying Gentle sway Gentle sway from Still Still
to low and then rising from high to from high to from high to high to a lower
body position a lower right a lower right a lower right right bending
bending posture bending posture bending posture posture
Cl 2 duo B Moves body up to full Sways Bobs Sways Sways Still Still
height
633

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instrumentalists: Two distinctive

Musical affect studies

Music training studies

Collaborative music-making studies

Study 1: Clarinet and flute duo performance

• Solo 1, solo 4 (referred to in the following analysis as solo A and solo B)

Psychology of Music 40(5)

Psychology of Music 40(5)

Table 2. Types of movement across performers

Instrument Movement type

Psychology of Music 40(5)

Psychology of Music 40(5)

Study 2: A pianist’s use of bodily and facial expression in

Musical stimulus material

Results and discussion

• Front-view close up (1 minute, 10 seconds);

Bodily expression identified Concurrent facial expression identified

Figure 4. Lang Lang playing the minim C in the melody of bar 5

Figure 10. Bar 60 – and the chromatic descending melody line

Psychology of Music 40(5)

Psychology of Music 40(5)

Psychology of Music 40(5)

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