Exploring relationships between expressive and structural

elements of music and pianists’ gestures

Marc R. Thompson
Finnish Centre of Excellence in Interdisciplinary Music Research
Department of Music, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
mathomps@jyu.fi - http://users.jyu.fi/∼mathomps

Geoff Luck
Finnish Centre of Excellence in Interdisciplinary Music Research
Department of Music, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
luck@campus.jyu.fi - http://users.jyu.fi/∼luck

Proceedings of the fourth Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology (CIM08)

Thessaloniki, Greece, 3-6 July 2008, http://web.auth.gr/cim08/

Background in computing mathematics and statistics. High-resolution motion capture systems have been used
in several studies to investigate connections between music and movement (Wanderley, Vines, Middleton, McKay &
Hatch, 2005; Eerola, Luck & Toiviainen, 2006, 2007; Luck & Sloboda, 2008). The use of such systems allows one to
quantify relationships between music and movement, especially when a combination of movement and audio features
are extracted and analyzed computationally. For example, musicians’ movements can be parsed into trajectory
vectors, from which basic kinematic features such as velocity and acceleration can be calculated. Specific movements
can then be linked back to specific musical content and structure, and relationships between the two identified.

Background in psychology of music. In the embodied view of music cognition (Leman, 2008), the body acts as the
mediator between mind and physical energy. In other words, musical intentionality, as it relates to individual
expression or musical structure is manifested by corporal articulations. Already, it has been shown that with
movement alone, people can perceive the performance manner of musicians (Davidson, 1993), the emotional
characteristics of dancers (e.g., Dittrich, Troscianko, Lea, & Morgan, 1996) or systematic relationships between
expressive dance and music (Krumhansl & Schenk, 1997). Pianists make interesting subjects because their expressive
gestures are constrained to their sitting position yet their gestures enhance musical interaction and communication.

Aims. To explore relationships between expressive and structural elements of music and features of musicians’
movement during performance.

Method. Three pianists performed individually a piece of music three times at different levels of expression. Audio
recordings were made of the performances while the participants’ movements were recorded using an eight-camera
optical motion capture system. The kinematic features speed and acceleration for each body part was correlated with
the audio’s RMS amplitude in order to explore how playing in different levels of expression affects overall movement.

Results. Cross-correlations resulted in a series of low to medium correlation coefficients. However, some
consistencies for individual body parts were found. First, a tendency towards a negative lag for the head and shoulder
markers, for both speed and velocity, indicated that head and shoulder movement tended to precede peaks in RMS
amplitude. Second, a tendency towards a positive lag for the wrists and elbows, for both speed and velocity, suggests
that movement of the arms tended to follow peaks in RMS amplitude. Also in some instances, the head coefficient
rose between each expressive manner, indicating that amplified head movement played a role in playing with more
expression.

Conclusions. Relationships between musicians’ body movement and their expressive performance have been
quantified empirically. The temporal evolution of head and elbows within a musical performance indicate their
respective roles in piano playing. The head follows the phrase structure but moves in anticipation of musical events
and the elbow, as a kinetic feedback immediately follows musical events. The point that their coefficient values rise as
the level of expression increases reveals that amplified body movement plays an important role in communicating
musical expression.

Implications. The combination of empirical methods of music psychology and sophisticated mathematical, statistical,
and signal processing methods has produced formalized knowledge on piano performance that may be applied to both
music education and live performance.
Musical activity can be seen as a holistic
phenomenon (Aldridge, 1996) in which
cerebral intentionality and corporal behavior
are intricately linked, culminating in an
expressive or emotionally stimulating event.
As a multimodal experience, the elements of
the musical apparatus are complex and
difficult to define. Still, the view that corporal
behavior enhances musical performances by
acting as a mediator of the musician’s
intended expression has in the last 20 years
become an increasing focus of empirical
investigations. Past studies have shown that
audiences are able to differentiate between
different levels of expression during
performances in both the auditory (Kendall &
Carterette, 1990) and visual domains
(Davidson, 1993 & 1995) or recognize
different emotions from watching
performances without sound (Dahl & Friberg,
2003).
Corporal movement as an overt manifestation
of the musician's expressive intentions and
goals has been the subject for various case
studies of famous musicians known for
expressive, sometimes eccentric physical
display during performances (e.g. Thompson,
Graham & Russo, 2005; Eldson, 2006;
Davidson, 2006) or even during studio
recorded performances (e.g. Delalande, 1988,
1995, etc.). These studies demonstrate that
the body movement attains meaning by
adding an extra-musical dynamic to
performances because they are presented in
a social or idiosyncratic context.
By stressing the communicative aspect of
expressive body movement, these studies
help indicate that expressive movement
should not be thought of as a subordinate to
sound, but plays a prominent role within a
musical experience. The aim of this study is
to explore the relationships between musical
structure, as in musical phrases, and
expressive body movement during piano
performances.
Embodied Music Cognition
Embodied music cognition (Leman, 2008) is a
research discipline that is interested in
studying the role of the human body in all
musical activities. Under this framework, the
body acts as the mediator between the
musical mind and physical energy. In other
words, musical intentionality, as it relates to
individual expression or musical structure is
manifested by corporal articulations. These
articulations or gestures serve as a
communication tool in musical activities.
Embodied music cognition stresses the
importance of studying musical phenomena
within its ecological setting, in which all
modalities are present. This framework is
seen as an alternative to the more abstract
and rule-based strategies of studying music
phenomena. While rule-based paradigms can
be used to test specific models (e.g. melodic
similarity), they may not take into account
elements of musical phenomena occurring
outside the rules of the current model
(Jensenius, 2007). Embodied music cognition
takes into account that music is a multi-
modal experience, elegantly suited for the
cross-modal capacities of the human mind.
Embodied musical structure
It has been shown that embodying a musical
structure, particularly one related to the
temporal organization of music (meter,
tempo), plays the most critical role in beat
induction and synchronization. Luck &
Sloboda (2008) studied the spatio-temporal
properties of conducting gestures. In a study
in which participants synchronized with point-
light displays of conducting features, it was
found that beat induction was mediated by
changes in speed along the trajectory of a
gesture and had less to do with changes in
direction of said gesture. A related study
(Luck & Toiviainen, 2006), in which data was
collected in a more ecological setting by
attaching markers to a conductor while
directing an ensemble, revealed that the
ensemble tended to synchronize with points
of deceleration of the baton’s marker.
A musical structure that represents musical
form, such as phrase structure, can also be
perceived through movement alone.
Krumhansl & Schenck (1997) conducted a
study to explore the structural and expressive
relationships between music and dance. While
being exposed to dance performances in one
of three conditions (Music and Dance, Dance
only or Music only), participants indicated the
occurrence of section ends and new ideas,
 CIM08 - Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology - Proceedings
and judged the amount of tension and
emotion expressed. Even in the dance alone
condition, participants were able to
distinguish section boundaries and new ideas,
which correlated with musical phrase
boundaries.
It has been noted that different types of
gestures convey different types of
expressivity. For example, in a study in which
observers were asked to continuously rate
tension and phrasing of bodily movements in
a series of clarinet performances (Vines,
Krumhansl, Wanderley & Levitin, 2006), it
was found that gestures associated with
tension were related to expressivity while
gestures associated with phrasing indicated
musical structure.
Luck & Toiviainen (2007) explored the
relationships between posture and vocal
performance by extracting a number of
kinematic features from motion capture data
and correlating this data with the
corresponding audio tracks of the vocal
performance. Most notably, it was found that
specific head positions influenced the voice’s
timbre. Specifically, spectral irregularity (≈
noisiness) increased when the head was tilted
downwards, while RMS amplitude (≈
loudness) increased when the head was tilted
upwards. Tilting the head downwards may
obstruct the vocal apparatus, thus causing
more noisiness in the signal. Tilting the head
upwards, on the other hand, could have the
opposite effect, freeing the vocal apparatus,
and permitting a greater flow of air.
There is also evidence that even in
performances with no expressive intentions,
ancillary movement occurs causing
modulations in sound, accounting for the
naturalness that is often said to be absent
from synthesis techniques (Wanderley,
Depalle & Warusfel, 1999).
Gesture Categorization
As was stated in the introduction, body
movement in music performance attains
significance when contextualized within the
musician’s intended musical expression. As a
corporal articulation is bestowed with
significance, it can be categorized as a
musical gesture.
3
Recent literature has sought to systemize
musical gestures into two or more
dichotomies. The idea is to differentiate
between gestures that produce sound and
those that accompany those that produce
sounds (Delalande, 1988, 1995; Cadoz &
Wanderley, 2000). The latter category has
also been called ancillary (Wanderley, 1999)
despite the prominent role it plays in
communicating the musician’s intended
musical expressions while tracing the
evolution of sound (Godøy, 2006). Through
mimicking, anticipating and re-acting to
musical events, musical gestures articulate
the musician’s own impression of the music
being performed while embodying the music’s
structure with kinetic feedback.
Quantification
Audio data quantification techniques have
undergone considerable development in
recent years, and there are many different
approaches based upon principles including
signal processing, machine learning, cognitive
modeling, and visualization (Downie, 2003).
Such techniques have been used, for
example, in areas such as computational
music analysis (e.g., Lartillot, 2004, 2005),
improvisional music therapy analysis (Luck et
al., 2006; Luck et al., 2008), and
quantification of the singing voice (Sundberg,
1987), to name but a few.
Movement data quantification techniques
have developed in parallel with the audio
techniques mentioned above, and frequently
utilise high-quality motion-capture data.
Areas under investigation have included
performing musicians’ movements (e.g.,
Wanderley, Vines, Middleton, McKay, & Hatch,
2005), dance movements (e.g. Dittrich,
Troscianko, Lea, & Morgan, 1996) and
conductors’ gestures (e.g., Luck, 2000; Luck
& Nte, 2007; Luck & Sloboda, 2008).
Moreover, the movement- and audio-based
approaches have been combined in several
studies examining, for instance,
expressiveness in audio and movement
(Camurri, De Poli, Friberg, Leman, & Volpe,
2005; Camurri, Lagerlöf, & Volpe, 2003),
children’s rhythmic movement to music
(Eerola, Luck, & Toiviainen, 2006), and
 CIM08 - Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology - Proceedings
conductor-musician synchronization (Luck &
Toiviainen, 2006).
The present study
This study examines expressive body
movement specific to piano performance. We
have broken down the motor movement
employed in piano performance into two loose
dichotomies: movements used for function
and movements used for expressivity. The
category into which a specific movement falls
may depend on the degree of freedom
allocated to that body part during
performance. The fingers, wrists and lower
back, for example, are physically required to
play the notes on the piano and their total
movement is restricted by the specific music
being played. The shoulders and the head,
meanwhile, are freer to move and not as
involved in the production of sound.
Therefore, we might expect a pianist to use
their head and shoulders, as opposed to their
fingers, wrists, or lower back, to embody
musical expression.
In the present study, three pianists were
asked to play the same piece (Brahms:
Intermezzo in A major, Opus 118 # 2) in
three different pre-determined expressive
dispositions (minimum expression, normal
expression & maximum expression). This
paradigm had been already been utilized in
perceptual studies (Davidson 1993, 1995;
Wanderley et al., 2005). We employed it here
to investigate if different levels of expressivity
affect the musician’s corporal behavior.
We were most interested in relationships
between musical phrase structure in relation
to head and shoulder gestures. We
hypothesized that in the case of piano
performances, these gestures would play at
least a small role in conveying musical
phrases and an embodiment. The different
manners of expression should reveal a
heightened amount of head and shoulder
movement influenced by the music’s phrase
boundaries. The musical excerpt can be
thought of as having a typical phrase and
harmonic structure of the Romantic era. We
anticipated that the lyrical quality of the
melody and rich harmony would be an
influence on the participants’ expressive body
movements. Also, by having the participants
4
play in three expressive conditions ranging
from no expression to exaggerated
expression, we expected to be able to discern
what types of body movements were
Method 1: Data collection
Participants. Three pianists volunteered to
take part in the study. Player 1 (b. 1982,
Finnish, 15 years playing experience) was a
student in Piano Pedagogy at the Jyväskylä
University of Applied Sciences. Player 2 (b.
1978, Finnish, 22 years playing experience)
had received her Bachelors in Piano
Performance from the same university one
year earlier. Player 3 (b. 1977, Hungarian, 17
years playing experience) was a visiting
researcher in Musicology at the University of
Jyväskylä’s music department. All participants
received an honorarium for their participation
in the form of gift vouchers.
Apparatus. Audio recordings of all
performances were made in a professional
recording studio using a Yamaha C7
Disklavier, a high quality microphone and
ProTools recording software. In addition,
fifteen reflective markers were attached to
key locations on the body (four on the head,
one on each shoulder, one at the centre of
the back, two on the lower back, two on the
elbows, two on the wrists, one on each
middle finger), and two markers were placed
at each end of the keyboard to act as
reference points. The three-dimensional
spatial position of the markers was recorded
at 120 fps using an eight-camera optical
motion capture system (Qualisys ProReflex).
Procedure. After the 15 markers were placed
on the participants, they were invited to
practice at the piano to get used to playing
with markers attached to their body. Once
comfortable with the setting, they were
instructed to play the first sixteen measures
of the Brahms Intermezzo in A major Opus
118 #2 three times, each time using one of
three levels of expression: Minimum
expression, normal expression and maximum
expression. The words “movement” and
“gesture” were avoided as far as possible.
The goal was to let each pianist interpret for
him or herself what was meant by different
levels of expression. Meanwhile, the Brahms
 CIM08 - Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology - Proceedings
Intermezzo was chosen because each
participant had had experience playing it.
Method 2: Computation
Extracting movement features. In order to
correlate the pianists’ movements with their
performances, we extracted two kinematic
features related to the velocity and
acceleration of the participants’ body
movements. The method used to extract the
features was used by one of the current
authors in Luck & Toiviainen (2006).
The raw movement data acquired from the
motion capture system was imported into
MATLAB as times series data representing the
location of each marker on the three
dimensions of the Cartesian coordinate
system. Using a numerical differentiation
algorithm, the components of speed and
velocity of each dimension were obtained for
the head, shoulder, lower-back, elbow, wrist
and finger markers. The movement variables
used for our analysis, instantaneous speed
and acceleration, were then derived by
calculating the length of the vector
comprising of the velocity components and
those for acceleration components. To
reduce the amount of noise in the data and
obtain a curve representing the larger body
movements, the data was passed through a
running median filter with a window size of 15
frames. To further facilitate analysis, several
variables were then averaged together
according to marker type. Thus, the 4 head
markers were averaged together to obtain the
trajectory of a single phantom head marker.
Likewise, the two shoulder markers and two
lower back markers were also averaged
together to obtain trajectories of a single
phantom shoulder and lower back marker,
respectively.
Extracting audio features. We extracted
several audio features relating to sound
energy, phrase structure and harmony using
the MIR Toolbox (Lartillot and Toiviainen,
2007). The audio recordings were imported
into MATLAB and were passed through a
frame decomposition algorithm with a window
length of 0.023 seconds and hop value of 120
5
(to derive a number of frames equal to the
length of the movement trajectories).
The root mean square (RMS) of each frame
was additionally estimated using the MIR
Toolbox and stored in a time series. Although
we extracted and experimented with other
features, including spectral flux, spectral
centroid and spectral irregularity, we
concluded that RMS amplitude would be the
most useful for the current analysis as it is a
good indicator of temporal sound energy and
accurately depicts the music’s phrasal
structure. In order to conform to the
movement variables as well as to attain a
signal represents the major fluctuations in
sound energy; the RMS was passed through
the same median filter as the movement
variables.
Results
Temporal relationships between the
movement features and RMS amplitude were
examined using a series of cross-correlation
analyses. Specifically, cross-correlations were
calculated between RMS amplitude and each
of the two movement features for each of the
marker locations at each of the performance
manners for each pianist, using lags up to
+/1 second (+/-120 frames). This lag value
was chosen as it was considered that
significant corporal articulations would rarely
occur more than one second before or after
its related musical event.
The results of this cross-correlation procedure
were a series of low to medium correlation
coefficients. However, put into proper context
of music performance, it is possible to make
observations that either suggest
commonalities across each participant or
predict contrasting performance styles
between each performer.
The results of these analyses are summarized
in Figure 1, which shows the maximum
correlation and its respective lag for each
movement feature, at each expressive
manner, for each performance of each
participant.
Figure 1. The scatter plots show the maximum correlation plotted at its lag value for each
performance of each participant. Data is presented for the correlations of speed and RMS
amplitude and acceleration and RMS amplitude. Participant 3 played the set of
performances twice.

Figure 2. The speed for marker types have been
superimposed over the corresponding performance’s RMS
amplitude to observe the relationships between features.
Notice how the head movements (a and c) anticipate
peaks of sound energy while the right elbow and right
wrist movements slightly precede attacks.
It can be seen that both participants 1 and 2
were fairly consistent in the way they moved
across the three levels of expression. This is
revealed by the fact that the highest
correlations for each marker type tend to
occupy a similar position space, i.e.,
similar correlation coefficient and similar lag,
regardless of the level of expression.
Participant 3, on the other hand, tended to
move differently depending upon the level of
expression he intended to convey in his
playing. This is demonstrated by the
differences in correlation coefficients and lags
for the various marker locations at the three
levels of expression. These differences are
apparent in both examples of his playing (set
1 and set 2).
In terms of relationships between specific
markers and RMS amplitude, a couple of
points are worth mentioning. First, a
tendency towards a negative lag for the head
and shoulder markers, for both speed and
velocity, indicates that head and shoulder
movement tended to precede peaks in RMS
amplitude. Second, a tendency towards a
positive lag for the wrists and elbows, for
both speed and velocity, suggests that
movement of the arms tended to follow peaks
in RMS amplitude.
These relationships can also be seen in Figure
2, which shows time-series data for selected
marker locations plotted along with RMS
amplitude. This visual presentation highlights
the relationship between a marker’s
trajectories with the audio’s temporal
evolution. These figures were prepared by
passing the features through a zero-phase
digital filter, which passes the data through
the algorithm twice, in forward and reverse
respectively. This application smoothens the
data by eliminating less significant peaks,
emphasizing general relationships.
Furthermore, the feature data were
normalized to enable them to be viewed on
the same axes.
In Figure 2a and 2c, a relationship is seen
between the head marker’s speed and RMS
amplitude for Participant 2 and Participant 3.
While the correlation coefficient for these
variables was relatively low (Figure 2a:
 CIM08 - Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology - Proceedings
coefficient of 0.35 with a maximum lag value
of -0.133 seconds and Figure 2c: coefficient
of 0.37 with a maximum lag value of -0.7
seconds), one can still discern a relationship
between both features in which high
occurrences of head marker speed anticipate
strong bursts of sound energy. The opposite
can be said in Figures 2b and 2d. Here, the
bursts of speed for the right elbow (2b) and
right wrist (2d) markers occur after the sound
event (Figure 2b: coefficient of 0.37 with a
maximum lag value of 0.39 seconds and
Figure 2d: coefficient of 0.19 with a
maximum lag value of +0.74 seconds).
Discussion
This study focused on exploring the
relationships of corporal movement and
gestures with musical structure at different
levels of expressivity. We extracted the
kinematic features speed and acceleration
from movement data and correlated this with
the RMS amplitude feature extracted from
audio. These correlations resulted in relatively
low values of correlation coefficients.
However, when put into the context of music
performance, these values nevertheless
revealed the function of individual parts of the
body and indicated whether body movement
changed with increased expression.
Figure 2 shows how the head marker
anticipates musical events and elbow and
wrist markers occur after the musical event.
The head markers may have increased in
speed before bursts of sound energy for
various reasons. Possibly, the participants
were preparing to play large chords or
increase their sound. However it could also be
linked to expressivity as a way of preparing
themselves for a moment in the music to
which they want to draw attention. The bursts
of elbow and wrist speed after the musical
events can be seen as a kinetic feedback
following the initial point of hitting the piano
keys. The energy used to strike the piano
keys is deflected to the elbow.
Taking the view that some musical gestures
are specifically related to the logistics of piano
playing while others are related to
communicating expression, it may be
reasonable to suggest that the head markers
in Figure 2 are characterizing the temporal
8
envelope of the overarching musical
structure. If one considers the musical phrase
structure as being analogous to periodic
processes such as breathing, it may be
reasonable to assume that head gestures
‘breath’ with the music.
The ‘different levels of expression’ paradigm
was employed to investigate if corporal
behavior was affected by performing with less
or more expression than usual. Figure 1
shows that the body movements of
Participants 1 and 2 did not fluctuate very
much in different performance manners. It is
actually telling how the speed and
acceleration markers stay in the same
location in the scatter plot throughout
different performances, let alone levels of
expression. Only Participant 3 has data that
shows that his movements changed
drastically between different performance
manners. This is seen in the sporadic
placement of the elements in the scatter
plots. The circles, representing the head
markers in Figure 1 indicate show that the
correlation coefficient increased as the level
of expression increased, resulting in faster
and larger head gestures. Further analysis
needs to be done to determine why this might
be. But in the end, it may come down to
artistic and stylistic differences.
The answer to this revealed itself in
subsequent interviews with the participants.
Participant 3, for example, defined playing
with minimum expression as to play
robotically, without nuance and ignoring the
score’s dynamic or expressive indicators.
Participant 1, on the other hand, defined
playing without minimum expression as only
following the score’s dynamic and expressive
indicators. In other words, without her own
expressive ideas and input. Interestingly, in
terms of individual expression and
intentionality, Participant 1’s definition makes
more sense for she was removing herself
from the performance while Participant 1
used only his intention, removing the
composer’s intentionality. Despite this
anecdotal side note, the contradiction in
defining what it means to play with
expression needs to be taken into account for
future studies concerning the embodiment of
musical structure.
 CIM08 - Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology - Proceedings
The combination of empirical methods of
music psychology and sophisticated
mathematical, statistical, and signal
processing methods has produced formalized
knowledge on piano performance that may be
applied to both music education and live
performance. In both cases, these results
could help students and performers improve
their ability to convey expressive and
structural elements of the music being
played.
However, our results revealed that correlating
musical structure with body movement using
a computational method remains problematic
and inconclusive. Future analysis will include
a wider range of movement and audio
features. Additional participants could also
used, which would validate the use of
statistical methods in order to find
commonalties between musicians.
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