CICIND Metallic Materials Manual

CICIND Metallic Materials Manual - E
CICIND
METALLIC MATERIALS MANUAL
March 2003
CICIND documents are presented to the best of the knowledge of its members as guides only. CICIND is not, nor are any
of its members, to be held responsible for any failure alleged or proved to be due to adherence to recommendations, or
acceptance of information, published by the association in a Model Code or other publication or in any other way.
Copyright CICIND 2002

ISBN 1-902998-16-2
Office of the Secretary, 14 The Chestnuts, Beechwood Park, Hemel Hempstead, Herts. HP3 0DZ, UK
Tel: +44 (0)1442 211204 Fax: +44 (0)1442 256155 e-mail: secretary@cicind.org
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CICIND METALLIC MATERIALS MANUAL
NOTE
THE DATA IN TABLES, DIAGRAMS AND DATA

SHEETS ARE INTENDED AS GENERAL INFORMATION ONLY. FOR DESIGN PURPOSES IT IS
IMPERATIVE THAT REFERENCE BE MADE TO APPROPRIATE MATERIALS STANDARDS AND
SPECIFICATIONS; ALSO TO MATERIALS PRODUCERS AND APPROPRIATE NATIONAL DIRECTIVES
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................................1–1
1.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................1–1
1.2 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................................1–1
1.3 Layout of Manual ...............................................................................................................................................1–1
1.4 Units conversion..................................................................................................................................................1–1
1.5 Commonly Used Chemical Elements ................................................................................................................1–2
2. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................2–1
2.1 Acid Dewpoint Corrosion...................................................................................................................................2–1
2.1.1 Dewpoint.......................................................................................................................................................2–1
2.2 Metallic Chimneys and Flues.............................................................................................................................2–2
2.2.1 Material Groups ...........................................................................................................................................2–3
2.2.2 Metallic Materials for Chimneys and Flues...............................................................................................2–3
3. GUIDE TO MATERIAL SELECTION .................................................................................3–1
3.1 Criteria ................................................................................................................................................................3–1
3.1.1 Temperature .................................................................................................................................................3–1
3.1.2 Chemical Loadings ......................................................................................................................................3–1
3.1.3 Corrosion Allowance ...................................................................................................................................3–1
4. METALLIC MATERIALS STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS.........................................4–1
4.1 Structural Steels..................................................................................................................................................4–1
4.2 Weathering Steels ...............................................................................................................................................4–1
4.3 Stainless Steels, Nickel Base Alloys and Titanium ...........................................................................................4–2
4.3.1 Stainless Steels .............................................................................................................................................4–2
4.3.2 Nickel Alloys and Titanium .........................................................................................................................4–2
4.4 Chemical effects ..................................................................................................................................................4–3
4.5 Allowance for Corrosion ....................................................................................................................................4–3
5. STAINLESS STEELS ............................................................................................................5–1
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................5–1
5.2 Guidelines for Selection......................................................................................................................................5–1
5.3 Basic Grades of Stainless Steels .........................................................................................................................5–1
5.3.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels............................................................................................................................5–1
5.3.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels................................................................................................................................5–1
5.3.3 Duplex Stainless Steels ................................................................................................................................5–2
5.4 Material Selection ...............................................................................................................................................5–2
5.5 Corrosion Resistance ..........................................................................................................................................5–2
5.6 High-Temperature Corrosion Resistance.........................................................................................................5–4
5.7 High Performance Grades .................................................................................................................................5–4
5.7.1 Austenitic High Performance Stainless Steels............................................................................................5–5
5.7.2 Duplex High Performance Stainless Steels.................................................................................................5–5
5.7.3 Mechanical Properties .................................................................................................................................5–6
5.7.3.1. Austenitic Stainless Steels. .........................................................................................................................................5–6
5.7.3.2. Duplex Stainless Steels...............................................................................................................................................5–6
5.7.4 Physical Properties.......................................................................................................................................5–6
5.7.5 Corrosion Resistance of High Performance Stainless Steels in Flue Gas Environments.........................5–6
5.7.5.1. Resistance to Inorganic Acids.....................................................................................................................................5–6
5.7.5.2. Sulphurous Acid. ........................................................................................................................................................5–7
5.7.5.3. Chloride - and Other Halide Ion-Containing Aqueous Environments. .......................................................................5–7
5.7.5.4. Ranking of Individual Grades.....................................................................................................................................5–7
5.7.5.5. Acidic Environments Containing Halides - Flue Gas Condensates. ...........................................................................5–7
5.8 Corrosion Acceptance Tests...............................................................................................................................5–8
5.9 Potential substitution of super-austenitic stainless steel for nickel base alloys..............................................5–9
6. NICKEL ALLOYS ..................................................................................................................6–1
6.1 Effects of Alloying in Stainless Steels and Nickel Alloys .................................................................................6–1
6.2 Selection and Performance of Materials...........................................................................................................6–1
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7. TITANIUM ...............................................................................................................................7–1
7.1 Titanium Linings ................................................................................................................................................ 7–1
7.2 Definition of the Operating Environment ........................................................................................................ 7–1
7.3 Resistance of Titanium to hot concentrated reducing acids ........................................................................... 7–1
7.4 Resistance of Titanium to fluoride species ....................................................................................................... 7–1
7.5 Selection............................................................................................................................................................... 7–1
7.6 Design Stresses.................................................................................................................................................... 7–2
7.7 Physical Properties ............................................................................................................................................. 7–2
7.8 Product Form...................................................................................................................................................... 7–2
7.9 Installation .......................................................................................................................................................... 7–2
7.10 References ........................................................................................................................................................... 7–2
8. ELEVATED TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES....................................................................8–1
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 8–1
8.2 Elevated Temperature Properties..................................................................................................................... 8–1
8.3 High Temperature Design Factors.................................................................................................................... 8–1
8.3.1 Service Life .................................................................................................................................................. 8–1
8.3.2 Allowable Deformation................................................................................................................................ 8–1
8.3.3 Environment ................................................................................................................................................ 8–1
8.3.4 Cost............................................................................................................................................................... 8–2
8.4 Criteria for Selection.......................................................................................................................................... 8–2
8.4.1 Short-Time Tensile Properties .................................................................................................................... 8–2
8.4.2 Creep ............................................................................................................................................................ 8–2
8.4.3 Creep-Rupture ............................................................................................................................................. 8–2
8.4.4 Thermal Stability ......................................................................................................................................... 8–3
8.4.5 Physical Properties ...................................................................................................................................... 8–3
8.4.6 Modulus of Elasticity................................................................................................................................... 8–3
8.5 Effect of Atmosphere.......................................................................................................................................... 8–3
9. LOW TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES..............................................................................9–1
10. .......................................................................................................................................................10–1
11. .......................................................................................................................................................11–1
12. USEFUL INFORMATION....................................................................................................12–1
12.1 Material Data Sheets ........................................................................................................................................ 12–1
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1 Commonly Used Elements...................................................................................................................................1–2
Table 3-1 Corrosion allowance for the sheet steel thickness for general structural steels and for creep-resistant steels .3–2
Table 3-2 Addition to sheet steel thickness when using rust-resistant steels subject to aggressive condensates .................3–2
Table 3-3 Steel yield strength values (fy,k) at temperature from prEN13084-7:2001 ..........................................................3–3
Table 4-1 Limits of exposure to acidic condensation ..........................................................................................................4–3
Table 4-2 External corrosion allowance (CE).....................................................................................................................4–4
Table 4-3 Internal corrosion allowance (CI).......................................................................................................................4–5
Table 4-4 Minimum strengths inN/mm2 ...............................................................................................................................4–6
Table 4-5 Impact values for nominal thickness 10-150mm ..................................................................................................4–6
Table 4-6 Indication of maximum temperatures commonly used for structural steels ........................................................4–6
Table 4-7 Suggested maximum service temperatures in air for stainless steels ..................................................................4–6
Table 4-8 Summary of data on corrosion resistance of carbon steel and
A242 Type 1 HSLA steel in natural gas combustion products............................................................................4–7
Table 5-1 Austenitic Stainless Steels .................................................................................................................................5–10
Table 5-2 Guideline to relative corrosion resistance of basic stainless steels ..................................................................5–10
Table 5-3 Type 316 S31600 Steel Properties.....................................................................................................................5–11
Table 5-4 Type 316 S31600 Steel Properties....................................................................................................................5–12
Table 5-5 Type 317 Stainless Steel (S31700) Properties...................................................................................................5–13
Table 5-6 Type 410 Stainless Steel (S41000) Properties...................................................................................................5–14
Table 5-7 Type 410 Stainless Steel (S41000) Properties ..................................................................................................5–15
Table 5-8 Modulus of elasticity at various temperatures...................................................................................................5–16
Table 5-9 Modulus of rigidity at various temperatures .....................................................................................................5–16
Table 5-10 Poisson’s Ratio at various temperatures..........................................................................................................5–16
Table 5-11 Suggested suitability of linings for steel stacks to withstand chemical
and temperature environments of flue gas........................................................................................................5–17
Table 5-12 Chemical Composition1 of wrought high-performance austenitic stainless steels (wt. pct)2............................5–18
Table 5-13 Chemical Composition1 of wrought high-performance duplex stainless steels (wt. pct)2 ................................5–19
Table 5-14 Minimum mechanical properties in basic ASTM specifications for high performance
austenitic stainless steels ..................................................................................................................................5–19
Table 5-15 High performance austenitic stainless steels ASME allowable design stress values (ksi) ...............................5–20
Table 5-16 Minimum mechanical properties in basic ASTM specifications for high performance
duplex stainless steels .......................................................................................................................................5–20
Table 5-17 High performance duplex stainless steels ASME allowable design stress values (ksi) ....................................5–21
Table 5-18 Ambient temperature physical properties of high performance austenitic stainless steels ..............................5–21
Table 5-19 Ambient temperature physical properties of high perfromance duplex stainless steels ...................................5–22
Table 6-1 Selection of nickel alloys in ascending order of PRENW....................................................................................6–2
Table 6-2 PRENW values for increasing alloy content .......................................................................................................6–2
Table 6-3 Limiting chemical composition for C276 ............................................................................................................6–2
Table 6-4 Physical properties of C276 at high temperatures ..............................................................................................6–3
Table 6-5 Physical properties for C276 ..............................................................................................................................6–3
Table 6-6 Typical room temperature tensile properties of annealed C276 material...........................................................6–4
Table 6-7 Guidelines for the selection of stainless steel and nickel alloy for FGD equipment ...........................................6–4
Table 6-8 Guidelines for material selection for FGD equipment - Temperature 50-65°C* ................................................6–4
Table 7-1 Composition of commonly used titanium alloys ..................................................................................................7–3
Table 7-2 Suitability of titanium alloys for different operating conditions..........................................................................7–3
Table 7-3 Titanium Alloy Design Stresses ...........................................................................................................................7–4
Table 7-4 Titanium Alloy Physical Properties.....................................................................................................................7–4
Table 8-1 Steel yield strength values (fy,k) at temperature from prEN13084-7:2001 ..........................................................8–5
Table 8-2 Short term tensile properties ...............................................................................................................................8–6
Table 8-3 Suggested maximum service temperatures in air .................................................................................................8–6
Table 8-4 Physical properties of Type 309 (S30900) ...........................................................................................................8–6
Table 8-7 Physical properties of Type 310 ...........................................................................................................................8–9
Table 8-8 Elevated temperature physical properties of high-performance austenitic stainless steels ...............................8–10
Table 8-9 Elevated temperature physical properties of high-performance duplex stainless steels ....................................8–11
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4-4 Comparison of corrosion rates under exposure to fuel-oil combustion-product gas ........................................4–8
Figure 5-1 Operating zones in a generic FGD system as defined in ASTM STP 837 ..........................................................5–8
Figure 5-2 Commonly used grades of stainless steel.........................................................................................................5–23
Figure 5-3 Corrosion rates for stainless steels in various gases.......................................................................................5–24
Figure 5-4 Solid solution strengthening effects by alloying in austenitic stainless steels ..................................................5–24
Figure 5-5 Effect of nitrogen on the strength and ductility of Type 304 stainless steel.....................................................5–25
Figure 5-6 Strengthening effect of nitrogen in high performance austenitic stainless steels
as manifested in ASTM A240 minimum strength requirements.....................................................................5–25
Figure 5-7 High temperature strength of austenitic stainless steels...................................................................................5–26
Figure 5-8 High temperature strength of duplex high performance stainless steels ..........................................................5–26
Figure 5-9 Young's Modulus for a selection of standard and high performance stainless
steels using four different techniques ............................................................................................................5–27
Figure 5-10 Thermal conductivity of high performance stainless steel structure types
compared with Type 316 stainless steel ........................................................................................................5–27
Figure 5-11 Mean coefficient of thermal expansivity for different high performance stainless steel
structure types compared with Type 316 stainless steel (from 20°C to T) ...................................................5–28
Figure 5-12 Corrosion in non-aerated sulphuric acid-chloride solutions - 0.1mm/yr (4mpy) isocorrosion curves ........5–28
Figure 5-13 Critical crevice and pitting corrosion temperatures for stainless steels and nickel alloys ...........................5–29
Figure 5-14 Critical pitting and crevice corrosion temperatures for austenitic stainless steel related to PRE number....5–29
Figure 5-15 Effect of pH and Cl ions on the localised attack of Type 316L stainless steel
in SO2 scrubber environments......................................................................................................................5–30
in SO2 scrubber environments ......................................................................................................................5–31
Figure 5-17 Approximate service limits for stainless steels and nickel-base alloys in flue gas condensates
and acid brines at moderate temperatures [60-80°C](140-176°F) ..............................................................5–32
Figure 6-1 Adiabatic saturation curve showing H2SO4 concentration for various temperatures and
operating conditions in FGD plant. ................................................................................................................6–5
Figure 6-2 Tensile properties of annealed plate C276 ........................................................................................................6–5
Figure 8-1 Schematic tensile rupture strength in 1000 hours ...........................................................................................8–12
Figure 8-2 Schematic Creep Curve ....................................................................................................................................8–12
Figure 8-3 Short time tensile strengths...............................................................................................................................8–13
Figure 8-4 Stress-rupture curves for several annealed stainless steels - 10,000hrs ..........................................................8–14
Figure 8-5 Stress rupture curves for several stainless steels - 100,000hrs .......................................................................8–14
Figure 8-6 Creep-rate curves for several stainless steels - 1% in 10,000hrs.....................................................................8–15
Figure 8-7 Creep-rate curves for several stainless steels - 1% in 100,000hrs ...................................................................8–15
Figure 8-8 Stress vs rupture-time and creep-rate curves for annealed Type 304 stainless steel........................................8–16
Figure 8-9 Stress vs rupture time and creep-rate curves for annealed Type 309 stainless steel........................................8–16
Figure 8-10 Stress vs rupture time and creep-rate curves for annealed Type 310 stainless steel......................................8–17
Figure 8-12 Stress vs rupture time and creep-rate curves for annealed Type 321 stainless steel.....................................8–18
Figure 8-15 Linear thermal expansion of stainless steels ..................................................................................................8–19
Figure 8-16 Thermal conductivity of stainless steels..........................................................................................................8–20
Figure 8-17 Tensile modulus for ferritic steels (alloy and stainless) .................................................................................8–20
Figure 8-18 Tensile modulus for austenitic stainless steels................................................................................................8–21
Figure 8-19 Comparative scaling behaviour of various steels during 1000-hr exposures in air
at temperatures from 1100 to 1700°F (595 tp 925°C) ..................................................................................8–21
Figure 8-20 Corrosion rates for stainless steel in various gases .......................................................................................8–22
Figure 8-21 Effect of nickel on scaling resistance..............................................................................................................8–22
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CICIND Metallic Materials Manual - E page 1–1
1. BACKGROUND
1.1 General
The Manual has been developed by the CICIND Metallic Materials Committee in order to meet a perceived need for ready
reference to the properties and characteristics of metallic materials for use in all aspects of chimney design. Information is
well documented but found in diverse locations. In order to facilitate access to information, material data sheets are
included in Section 12. Where relevant, sources are referenced in the text, together with a bibliography for further reading.
Material specifications are listed with full international designations where applicable, as well as national equivalents
wherever possible.
Great care was exercised in reproducing the information provided in this Manual to minimise errors. However, it is
inevitable that occasional slips may occur and the user is cautioned to exercise care and judgement to interpret the data
correctly. Please notify CICIND immediately if you become aware of any errors or omissions so that they may be corrected
promptly. Also, we would be pleased to hear of additional sources of information or of additional subjects that may be
usefully included in future revisions to the Manual.
1.2 Acknowledgements
The assistance of the Metallic Materials Producers in providing data and directly supporting the work of the Committee and
of the Committee members with the encouragement of the CICIND Governing Body is gratefully acknowledged.
The Committee Chairman particularly wishes to acknowledge the support of the Nickel Development Institute (NiDI) for
whom he acts as a consultant.
The Committee comprised:

Chairman: W. Plant
Members: M. Atkins, M. Beaumont, G. Berger, A. Bhomik, J. Bouten, J. DeMartino,
F. Henseler, J. Lettner, W. Mathay, D. Peacock, G. Di Poi, S. Reid, D.T. Smith,
J. Sowizal, J. Turner, H. van Koten, R. Warren, T. Warren
In preparing this document, great reliance has been placed on published information from a number of sources. The
organisations involved include CICIND members, material producers and trade organisations. All such contributions are
gratefully acknowledged below.
1.3 Layout of Manual

This Metallic Materials Manual has been prepared in loose format because it is expected that it will be a ‘live’ document
and will be updated as more information becomes available. Sections may be individually updated, or new sections, added
without having to reprint the entire document.
The sections are largely self-contained and, wherever possible, all the information necessary to understand the particular
subject is contained within the sections. Figures and Tables for each section are generally included at the end of the
section, although occasionally one is included in the main body of the section to facilitate understanding. All Figures and
Tables are number sequentially and are listed in the Tables of Content, Tables and Figures at the front of the Manual.
Additional supporting data are available in Section 12 from material provided by a selection of manufacturers. These
additional data were current at the time of assembly but will, over time, become less up-to-date. Users of this manual are
strongly encouraged to seek the most recent data from manufacturers before making final decisions as to material choice.
1.4 Units conversion

To be added
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1.5 Commonly Used Chemical Elements

The elements most commonly encountered in connection with metallic materials, their application and fabrication are given
in Table 1-1 below.
Name Symbol
Aluminium Al
Argon A
Barium Ba
Boron B
Bromine Br
Cadmium Cd
Calcium Ca
Carbon C
Chlorine Cl
Chromium Cr
Cobalt Co
Copper Cu
Fluorine F
Helium He
Hydrogen H
Iron Fe
Lead Pb
Magnesium Mg
Manganese Mn
Molybdenum Mo
Nickel Ni
Niobium [Columbium] Nb [Cb]
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Palladium Pd
Phosphorus P
Potassium K
Ruthenium Ru
Silicon Si
Sodium Na
Sulphur S
Tin Sn
Titanium Ti
Tungsten W
Vanadium V
Zinc Zn
Table 1-1 Commonly Used Elements
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2. INTRODUCTION
Many gaseous products of combustion combined with water vapour form corrosive acids when condensed. Avoidance of
condensation, permitting the use of inexpensive materials for containment of flue gases in ducts, flues or chimneys, may be
achieved by maintaining high temperatures at the expense of low efficiency of fuel utilisation.
Internal surface corrosion problems are magnified when system efficiencies demand lower gas discharge temperatures or
flue gas treatment is required such as Flue Gas Desulphurisation or other wet scrubbing process.
The external environment may also play a part in causing condensation to the exterior of a chimney. The use, therefore, of
the lowest cost metallic material may not be the correct choice.
Resisting corrosion is of increasing concern to the chimney designer.
2.1 Acid Dewpoint Corrosion

Dewpoint corrosion can occur when a gas is cooled below the saturation temperature associated with the concentration of
condensable corrosive compounds it contains and the formation of acid with water vapour.
The recommendation to avoid condensation in a system is to ensure the gas temperature is higher than that of the
determined dewpoint temperature by a minimum of about 20°C. This is not always possible, so selection of a material to
resist dewpoint corrosion must be considered. The use of corrosion resisting alloys (CRAs) may increase the first cost of
the chimney. However, the overall cost of ownership will be significantly reduced by the longer chimney life, reduced
maintenance and improved reliability and safety. Methods to establish a chimney’s life cycle cost are available.
2.1.1 Dewpoint
Typical atmospheric water vapour levels are between 0.5% and 1%, resulting in a water dewpoint temperature of 0 - 10°C.
In comparison, the water dewpoint in a combustion atmosphere containing about 10% moisture is approximately 40°C.
Flue gases discharged by wet scrubbers are saturated. The dewpoint temperature is influenced by the presence of other
condensable constituents such as sulphur trioxide, hydrogen chloride, traces of hydrogen fluoride, etc., the acidic
condensate forming at higher temperatures than water vapour alone.
As a flue gas generated by the combustion of a sulphur-

containing fossil fuel is cooled, the first temperature at
which sulphuric acid occurs will depend primarily on
the partial pressures of sulphur trioxide and water
vapour, generally in the range 120-150 °C. At a lower
temperature, however, higher than water dewpoint,
hydrochloric acid will condense, together with other
acid forming compounds with varying acid dewpoint.
In the present context “acid dewpoint” refers to the

sulphuric acid dewpoint temperature as this is the
highest at which acid condensation commences.
From Figure 2-1i at a dewpoint of 150°C., the sulphuric

acid formed from combination of SO3 + H2O may have
a concentration as high as 80%.
Sulphuric acid is hygroscopic so that as the temperature

falls water is absorbed, diluting the acid concentration.
Figure 2-1 Variation of condensed sulphuric acid
Chimney materials subject to acid dewpoint corrosion
concentration with temperature; water vapour content of
must be resistant to a wide range of acid concentrations
gases approximately 8%
at temperature.
i
Dewpoint Corrosion: Mechanisms and Solution, Meadowcroft D.B. & Cox W.M., “Dewpoint corrosion”, 1985, Inst of
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2.1.2 Corrosion
Most corrosion data published concerning the resistance of materials to sulphuric acid solutions were determined by
immersion in bulk acid solutions. These do not relate quantitatively to corrosion resistance in thin film acid environments
found on the inner surface of metallic chimneys or liners.
In some solutions, such as sulphuric or hydrochloric acid at pH<4, metal dissolution rate is limited by hydrogen evolution,
which may prevent access by oxygen (present in most combustion gases where fuels are combusted with excess air).
With carbon steels, the iron oxide is dissolved and sulphate or chloride formed which are soluble, so that direct attack by
acid occurs.
Amongst other factors, temperature is most important as increases cause rapidly increasing corrosion rates, even with
established corrosion-resistant materials where increasing acid concentration has little effect. The presence of molybdenum
and tungsten which form insoluble molybdates and tungstates is significant. For example, with the recommended
specification of alloy C276 (together with other proprietary nickel alloys) optimum resistance to acid dewpoint corrosion is
accomplished.
equivalent to 0.0254 mils/year
Figure 2-2 The resistance of Alloy C276 to sulphuric acid solutions

Cabot Corp. 1980
2.2 Metallic Chimneys and Flues

The majority of industrial chimneys (stacks) and flues are fabricated with plain carbon (mild) steels, which may be
upgraded by direct substitution with corrosion resisting materials such as stainless steels, nickel alloys and titanium
corrosion resisting alloys.
The corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) may offer higher mechanical properties than the carbon steel structural material which
may enable section thickness reduction to be calculated which, together with avoidance of need for corrosion allowance in
many instances, can offset the higher costs of the alloyed material. However, it should be noted that not all current
standards permit this approach and they are not currently allowed by existing CICIND codes. See the recommendations of
Section 6.3.
With intrinsically more expensive higher alloyed CRAs, use of solid material may only be justified in certain
circumstances; for example, with corrosion aggression from both sides at the top of a flue or a chimney. The cost of use of
higher alloyed CRAs may be reduced by use of a thin CRA layer, achieved in the case of clad plate by metallurgically
bonding materials onto a structural steel backing. This form of cladding is proving of considerable importance in resisting
earthquake shock conditions.
Lower costs may also be attained by “wallpapering” or “sheet-lining” of carbon steel flues and shells, with stainless steels
and nickel alloys securely attached by appropriate quality controlled weldingii. Similarly, titanium alloys may be utilised
ii
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Recommended Practice RP0292-98
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employing composite carbon steel backing systemsiii (Ref: Section 6, Titanium). Cost-effectiveness can be achieved with
the pre-fabrication of flue sections on site or in a workshop (Ref: Section 9, Installation & Cost Effectiveness).
Fabrication employing welding is well establishediv with development of electronic control of welding processes permitting
production of high weld quality consistent with good productivity, both in the field and workshop, when linked to
automated systems. Pre-fabrication can permit rapid site erection of flues within windshields, whether top hung or base
supported.
2.2.1 Material Groups

Metallic materials that may be utilised for construction of metallic chimneys and liners are described. Reference to these is
made in appropriate sections of the Metallic Materials Manual to ensure that their properties and characteristics are fully
understood.
Often, where elements of structures are subject to tension resulting from external or three-dimensional stresses, ductility of
a material is of significance. To assist appropriate selection, data concerning yield strength, tensile strength, ductility, creep
and weldability are provided to enable the requirements of CICIND Model Codes to be satisfactorily met.
For convenience, individual sections of the Manual refer to the following forms of metallic material. Within each group
the commonly utilised grade or grades are indicated to facilitate consideration by chimney designers.
• Carbon Structural Steels

ASTM A36, EN 10025-S275, A516-70 (higher temperatures)
also used as a basis for composite materials such as nickel alloy clad plate.
• Weathering Structural Steels
ASTM A242/A588
• Standard Stainless Steels
Austenitic Type 304L, Type 316L, Type 317L
Ferritic Type 409, Type 410, Cromweld 3CR12
Duplex Type 2205
• High-Performance Stainless Steels
Austenitic Type 317LM, 317LMN
6% Mo “super austenitic” stainless steels
• Nickel Alloys
Alloy C276
Proprietary Alloys C22, 59, 686, C2000.
• Titanium
ASTM B265 Grades 2, 7, 16 & 26
2.2.2 Metallic Materials for Chimneys and Flues

Consideration of the best material for construction may be based upon data provided in this Manual and by discussion with
a corrosion specialist and/or materials supplier.
Examples of material supplier data sheets are included in Section 12.
iii
Resista-Clad, Showa-Entetsu, Japan; Electro-Clad,jung Won Engineering, Korea
iv
NACE Recommended Practices RP0292-98 and RP0199-99
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3. GUIDE TO MATERIAL SELECTION

In order to facilitate decision making, the following guide to users of the Metallic Materials Manual is included, to
demonstrate how to determine the parameters which lead to the selection of a suitable material solution. This section is still
under development but the information below may be helpful.
3.1 Criteria
In general, the criteria which determine the material selection for a stack or liner include:
1. Flue gas temperature 8. Design life

2. Operating conditions 9. Cost factors
3. Flue gas conditions 10. Human factor
4. Water content 11. Indigenous factors (fabrication, etc.)
5. Dust content 12. Design considerations (earthquake, wind, etc.)
6. Acid content (HCl / SO2 / SO3 /HF) 13. Transport
7. Water and acid dewpoints 14. Erection
When specifying the use of a metallic structure in variance to brick, glass reinforced plastic (GRP), either as an
independent self-supporting flue or chimney or as a lining of other material such as a structural steel, a range of metallic
material options are available to meet the criteria established above.
These metallic materials include:-
1. Carbon structural steels

2. Weathering steels (eg. Cor-Ten™)
3. Heat resistant structural steels
4. Stainless steels
5. Nickel alloys
6. Titanium
As high alloyed corrosion resisting materials in the form of nickel alloys and titanium are intrinsically expensive, use of
solid material may only be justified in certain circumstances. Therefore, in order to achieve the benefit of the corrosion
resistance of the materials, alternatives in the form of clad plate or wallpapering can be used. These use a thin layer of the
more expensive material which is applied to a structural steel backing.
Based upon the German example incorporated in DIN-Standard 4133 “Steel Stacks”, the following guidance is provided:-
3.1.1 Temperature
The selection of a steel, for example, is dependent on the permissible temperature range for the material (Table 3.3). This
table does not, however, consider the chemical loadings.
In addition to the above, for ease of reference the following tables indicate the chemical loadings for rust-resistant steels,
which may facilitate the material selection, together with information provided in material producer data sheets (Section
12) and for nickel alloys and titanium (Section 6 and Section 7).
3.1.2 Chemical Loadings

The information obtained from examination of the flue gas data and design criteria, etc. determines the chemical loading
which must be considered in the design life of the installation. Structural and stainless steels are not totally resistant to
chemical loadings. Therefore, a corrosion allowance must be added to the calculated wall thickness for the structure when
considering the chemical loading and design life.
3.1.3 Corrosion Allowance

Structural and stainless steels are not totally resistant to chemical loadings. Therefore, a corrosion allowance must be added
to the calculated wall thickness for the structure when considering the chemical loading and design life.
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For structural steels – structural, weathering and heat resistant steels the corrosion allowance is given in Table 3-1 and for
stainless steels in Table 3-2.
Corrosion allowance in mm for a design

Anticipated service life of
Corrosion Attack
10 years 20 years
Moderate 2 3
Average 3 5
Strong 4 -
Table 3-1 Corrosion allowance for the sheet steel thickness for general
structural steels and for creep-resistant steels
Additional corrosion
Design Service Life
allowance
<= 20 years 0.5mm
> 20 years 1.0mm
Table 3-2 Addition to sheet steel thickness when using rust-resistant steels
subject to aggressive condensates
(Refer to CICIND Code)
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Table 3-3 Steel yield strength values (fy,k) at temperature from prEN13084-7:2001
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4. METALLIC MATERIALS
STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS
4.1 Structural Steels

Structural steels used for the construction of steel chimneys (CICIND Model Code for Steel Chimneys) and for flues
within concrete or steel chimneys (CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys Part C - Steel Linersv) are specified in
accordance with appropriate national standards, defining mechanical properties and composition.
375
The most commonly used grades of steel are to EN 25-72
0.50 - 0.60% C 0.20 - 0.30% C Grades Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510. Grade Fe 360 has similar
0.50 - 0.80% MN 1.30 - 1.70% MN properties to ASTM A36. Properties of these steels are
350
detailed in Appendix 4.1
0.15 - 0.25% C
1.30 - 1.70% MN Figure 4-1, to the left, shows schematically the effect of
325
increasing amounts of carbon and manganese on typical
yield stress values. The yield stress values (0.2% proof
stress) of structural steels can be influenced by adjustment of
300
the levels of inexpensive ‘alloying’ elements, such as carbon
0.35 - 0.45% C and manganese.
0.60 - 1.00% MN
MPa
275
It may be seen from the diagram that in order to achieve
increased properties in a structural steel utilising carbon
250
content increase alone, high levels are required which can
0.25 - 0.35% C result in problems with welding, perhaps demanding pre-heat
0.60 - 1.00% MN or post-weld heat treatment of welds to prevent
225
embrittlement. A more satisfactory method to increase
mechanical properties is to introduce both carbon and
manganese. Manganese permits the achievement of high
200
strength levels with lower carbon content, minimising the
0.15 - 0.25% C
potential embrittlement of welds. However, care must be
0.40 - 0.90% MN exercised in certain circumstances so that expert help should
175
be sought.
Figure 4-1 Effect of Carbon and Manganese

on typical yield stress values
4.2 Weathering Steels

Weathering and other modified structural steels have good resistance to atmospheric corrosion, except in a marine
environment or where chlorides are present. These steels also show some corrosion improvement over carbon steel when
in contact with flue gases where condensation of sulphurous or sulphuric acids (but not hydrochloric acid condensation) is
infrequent, e.g. during shutdowns of a stack in intermittent service with metal temperature normally above acid dew point.
When the metal temperature is below acid dew point for prolonged periods, the performance of weathering steels in contact
with flue gases is similar to that of carbon steel (Appendix 4.2).
Structural steels require protection where chemical loading is anticipated (Ref. CICIND Model Code for Concrete
Chimneys, Part C, Steel Liners) and usefully provide a substrate to cost-effectively support appropriate corrosion resisting
metallic materials. The corrosion resisting material may form a simple protective layer, for example with a lining applied
by the “wallpapering” techniquevi or can contribute to structural strength with metallurgically bonded material, explosively
or roll-cladvii, (Section Error! Reference source not found.).
v
“Liner” refers to the gas conduit within the chimney windshield. The “lining” is a metallic layer or non-metallic coating
applied as a protective barrier on steel structures
vi
NACE Recommended Practice, Installation of stainless chromium nickel steel and nickel alloy roll-bonded and
explosion-bonded clad plate in air pollution control equipment, RP0199-99
vii
NACE Recommended Practice, Installation of thin metallic wallpaper lining in air pollution control and other process
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4.3 Stainless Steels, Nickel Base Alloys and Titanium

Corrosion and heat resistance may be provided by the use of stainless steels, nickel base alloys and titanium. These
materials are considerably more costly than the structural steels described in Section 4.1 and 4.2 which require careful
consideration and selection in order to provide an appropriate degree of corrosion and heat resistance to meet operating and
environmental conditions. Cost-effective use of the materials may be achieved by the use of well established and proven
methods of application and fabrication.
It is considered most important that specialist advice should be sought in order to optimise selection and ensure satisfactory
fabrication methods are specified to maximise the performance of these materials. The materials producer should be
consulted, together with advisory bodiesviii.
4.3.1 Stainless Steels

The term “stainless steel” applies to an extensive range of materials with differing metallurgical characteristics, corrosion
and heat resistance, dependent primarily upon careful combination of amount of alloying elements to cost-effectively
modify and enhance performance (Section 5).
Conventionalix stainless steels (including the higher molybdenum stainless steel grade Type 316L) have poor corrosion
resistance in the presence of condensing sulphuric or other acids in the range of concentrations and temperatures normally
found within chimneys. These materials are, therefore, not recommended in chimneys handling gaseous combustion
products from fuels or wastes containing elements such as sulphur resulting in conditions of “medium” or “high” chemical
load (see §4.4).
Conventional stainless steels are not suitable for use in contact with flue gases containing alkalis.
The most widely utilised types of stainless steel for chimney applications are the austenitic grades, where the metallurgical
structure is a single phase, austenite, in which various alloying elements are in solution, providing required corrosion and
heat resisting characteristics to a steel. The choice of alloy combination and content to meet the conditions to which
chimney structures are exposed requires care. In general, when metal temperatures exceed 400°C, consideration should be
given to the use of high temperature structural steel grades or appropriate grades of stainless steel, nickel alloys or titanium,
which provide heat as well as corrosion resistance.
Particular care must be exercised concerning anticipated operating conditions, for example the effects of oxidation when
the material is close to its temperature limit. This is especially so with gas turbine exhausts, where levels of excess air can
be greater than those normally experienced. This problem may not be solved solely by an increase in corrosion allowance
as the environment may be polluted by the corrosion product, particularly if the unit experiences marine atmospheres and is
involved with “stand-by” operations.
When metal temperatures are expected to be less than 65°C and the concentration of sulphuric acid less than 5%, the
corrosion rates with the higher (nominally 2%) molybdenum conventional stainless steels, such as ASTM type 316L, may
be acceptable.
The conditions downstream of a flue gas scrubber or the presence of chlorides in the condensate will radically increase the
corrosion rate; possibly rendering these stainless steels unsuitable for these applications (refer to Section 5, Figure 5-3).
Expert advice should be sought on the choice of suitable material.
4.3.2 Nickel Alloys and Titanium

In cases where it is not possible to avoid high chemical load on the internal face of the structural shell the use of a non-
metallic protective coating may be considered. However, a metallic liner (flue), possibly of high nickel alloy or titanium,
or a carbon steel liner (flue), in turn protected by the application of high nickel alloy or titanium by well established
“wallpapering” or sheet lining methods (see Section 9) may be used.
Where stainless steel, nickel alloy or titanium components are joined to carbon steel, bolted connections are preferred. To
avoid accelerated corrosion due to galvanic action connections should include insulating gaskets. Welded connections are
permitted, provided special metallurgical control is exercised with regard to weld procedures, electrode selection, etc.
viii
For example, Nickel Development Institute (NiDI), Titanium Information Group, International Molybdenum
Association, National and International Stainless Steel Development Associations
ix
“Conventional” in this context refers to the stainless steel grades widely employed for architectural purposes – eg for
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Care should be taken to use the correct coefficient of expansion for the temperature range and grade of material involved.
4.4 Chemical effects

Limited exposure to acidic condensation corrosion conditions can be permitted with due consideration to provision of an
adequate corrosion allowance in chimneys which, with normal operating conditions, are safe from chemical attack.
Providing the flue gas does not contain significant concentrations of halogens, (see Table 4-2, notes 4 & 5 below), the
degree of chemical load is defined in the notes to Table 4-1.
Operating hours per year when the

temperature of the surface in contact with
Degree of exposure
flue gases is below the estimated dewpoint
+ 10°C
low < 25
medium 25 - 100
high > 100
Table 4-1 Limits of exposure to acidic condensation

Notes to Table 4-1:
1) The operating hours in Table 4-1 are valid for an SO3 content of 15 ppm. For different values of SO3 content,
the hours stated vary inversely with SO3 content. When the SO3 content is not known, chimney design should
be based upon a minimum SO3 content equivalent to 2% of the SO2 content in the flue gas.
2) In assessing the number of hours during which a chimney is subject to chemical load, account should be taken
of start-up and shut-down periods when the flue gas temperature is below its acid dew point.
3) While a steel chimney may generally be at a temperature above acid dew point, care should be taken to prevent
small areas being subject to local cooling and therefore being at risk to localised acid corrosion. Local cooling
may be due to:
• air leaks
• “cold spots” developed by flanges, spoilers or other attachments such as cladding supports
• cooling through support points
• downdraft effects at the top of the chimney
4) The presence of chlorides or fluorides in the flue gas condensate can radically increase corrosion rates.
Estimation of the corrosion rate in these circumstances depends upon a number of complex factors and would
require the advice of a corrosion expert in each individual case. However, in the absence of such advice,
provided the concentrations of HCl < 30mg/m3 or HF < 5mg/m3 and if the operating time below acid dew point
does not exceed 25 hours per year, the degree of chemical load may be regarded as “low”. See Figure 4-2.
5) Regardless of temperatures, chemical load shall be considered “high” if halogen concentrations exceed the
following limits:
• Hydrogen fluoride: 0.025% by weight (1300mg/m3 at 20 °C and 1 bar pressure).
• Elementary chlorine: 0.1% by weight (1300 mg/m3 at 20 °C and 1 bar pressure).
• Hydrogen chloride: 0.1% by weight (1300 mg/m3 at 20 °C and 1 bar pressure).
6) Saturated or condensing flue gas conditions downstream of a flue gas desulphurisation system shall always be
considered as causing “high” chemical load.
4.5 Allowance for Corrosion

The allowances listed in Table 4-2 and Table 4-3 are for a 20 year lifetime of the chimney. For longer planned lifetimes,
the corrosion allowances should be increased proportionally. For temporary chimneys, expected to be in service for less
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than one year, values of CE and CI = 0x are permissible, except in conditions of high chemical load, when a corrosion
allowance of 3mm is required.
For a free-standing chimney with steel liner(s), the internal corrosion allowance only applies to the internal face of the
liner(s). The internal face of the outer shell requires no corrosion allowance, provided a weather-tight cover is fitted over
the airspace(s) between the liner(s) and the outer shell.
(0.51 mm per yr)
Figure 4-2 Sulphuric acid saturation curve
Painted carbon steel 0mm

Painted carbon steel under insulation/cladding 1mm
Unprotected carbon steel 3mm
Unprotected stainless steel 0mm
Table 4-2 External corrosion allowance (CE)
Note: The external corrosion allowances quoted in Table 4-2 are suitable for a normal environment. When a chimney is
sited in an aggressive environment, caused by industrial pollution, nearby chimneys or close proximity to the sea,
consideration should be given to increasing these allowances.
x
CE = external corrosion allowance, CI = internal corrosion allowance
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Usual temperature of metal in Chemical load Internal Corrosion Allowance

contact with flue gas per Table 3.1
< 65°C low N/A - chemical load always high

medium N/A - chemical load always high
high Corrosion allowance inappropriate, use
other material
65°C - 345°C low 1mm

medium 4mm
other material
> 345°C low 1mm

medium 2mm
other material
Table 4-3 Internal corrosion allowance (CI)

See notes below
Notes to Table 4-3:
1) Provided acid concentration in the condensate is less than 5% and chloride concentration does not exceed 30mg/m3,
high molybdenum stainless steel (such as ASTM Type 316L) is suitable within this temperature limit, using a
corrosion allowance of 3mm for a 20 year life. These conditions are, however, unlikely to be met in a chimney
downstream of a flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) system, generating condensing gases. In these circumstances
great care is required in the protection of the gas face of the chimney or its liner, eg. by cladding with a suitable high
nickel alloy or titanium or by the application of a suitable organic coating. For further guidance, see the CICIND
Chimney Coatings Manual.
2) In conditions of low chemical load, “Cor-TenTM” steel shows some improvement of corrosion resistance over carbon
steel, especially when in contact with condensing acids (SO2/SO3) is intermittent or of short duration (eg. during
repeated shut-downs).
3) In these circumstances, ordinary stainless steels (including high molybdenum stainless steel) have little better
corrosion resistance than carbon steel and are, therefore, not recommended. If carbon steel is used in chimneys
subject to high chemical load, it will require protection by an appropriate coating. For further guidance, see the
CICIND Chimney Coatings Manual.
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APPENDIX 4.1
STRUCTURAL STEELS
GUIDANCE ON PROPERTIES FOR FLAT AND LONG PRODUCTS
Tensile strength,
0.2% proof stress, N/mm2
N/mm2
Nominal thickness,
mm < 16 16-40 40-63 63-80 80-100 <3 3-100
Designation
S235 xi 235 225 215 215 215 360-510 340-470
S275 xii 275 265 255 245 235 430-580 410-560
S335 355 345 335 325 315 510-680 490-630
Table 4-4 Minimum strengths inN/mm2
Temp. (°C) Minimum Energy (J)
20 27
0 27
-20 27
Table 4-5 Impact values for nominal thickness 10-150mm
Plain carbon structural steels 400°C

Cromweld 3CR12 500°C
Table 4-6 Indication of maximum temperatures commonly used for structural steels
AISI Intermittent Service Continuous Service

Type Deg C Deg F Deg C Deg F
304 870 1600 925 1700
309 980 1800 1095 2000
310 1035 1900 1150 2100
316 870 1600 925 1700
317 870 1600 925 1700
321 870 1600 925 1700
347 870 1600 925 1700
410 815 1500 705 1300
Table 4-7 Suggested maximum service temperatures in air for stainless steels
For further information refer to Section 5 “Stainless Steels” and Section 8 “Elevated Temperatures”
xi
There may be limited availability
xii
Similar to ASTM A36 @seismicisolation
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APPENDIX 4.2
WEATHERING STEELS
The weathering steels or enhanced corrosion resistant structural steels utilise elements such as copper (Cu) which imparts
up to 4 times the atmospheric corrosion resistance of carbon steel with copper contents of 0.2% or more, plus phosphorus
(P), silicon (Si), nickel (Ni) and chromium (Cr). Increased yield strength is a further benefit derived from low levels of
additions of these and other elements. For example, ASTM A242 Type 1 (Cor-TenTM) contains Cr, Si, Ni and P to between
2% and 3%.
Weathering steels have found wide application in a number of structures such as bridges, buildings, etc., where cost
advantages range from 10% - 20% over painted conventional structural steels. This is a cost-effective choice wherever the
environment is appropriate for it.
With chimney applications this consideration will be appropriate to the external surfaces of the structure, provided they are
not washed by condensate formed by contact with the gas plume on discharge from the chimney, when acidic components
are present in the flue gas.
The limitation imposed on the use of weathering steels concerns what is considered to be an acceptable rate of corrosion of
the inner surface of the flue or chimney associated with condensation of acids.
Sulphuric Acid
In the combustion process and because of catalytic activity of refractory and iron oxides, 1% (or more) of the sulphur
dioxide (SO2) in the exhaust gas is oxidised to sulphur trioxide (SO3). The presence of SO3 and water vapour produces
sulphuric acid, which increases the dew point of the gas to 150 °F (66 °C) or more, depending on SO3 concentration.
Further, it is found that carbon deposits in exhaust systems typically promote the onset of acid condensation at temperatures
about 50 °F (33°C) higher than theoretical dew point curves such as that in Figure 4-2 predict. As shown in the figure, the
corrosion rate of carbon steel is drastically increased with the onset of the condensation of sulphuric acid.
Although the high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) and low-alloy steels are no more resistant to general corrosion than carbon
steel when immersed in CO2-, H2S-, or SO2 -containing solutions, under certain conditions A242 Type 1 HSLA steel can be
more corrosion-resistant than carbon steel to acid condensates formed by SO2 and/or SO3 and water vapour. The degree of
increased resistance ranges from very slight under continuous acid-condensing conditions to rather substantial under
conditions of alternate wetting with the condensate and drying, as shown in Table 4-8 below.
Average Corrosion Rate mpy*

Exposure environment xiii
A242 type 1
Carbon Steel
HSLA Steel
Continuous condensation at 80°F xiv 30 26
viii
Cyclic between 80°F and 400°F 38 21
Cyclic between 80°F and 600°F viii 50 20
xv
Cyclic between 80°F and 400°F 50 32
Table 4-8 Summary of data on corrosion resistance of carbon steel and

A242 Type 1 HSLA steel in natural gas combustion products
* Conversion Factor 1 mpy = 1 mil per year = 25.4 µm per year.
This difference has been exploited for a number of years in rotary air preheaters where A242 Type 1 HSLA steel is used for
heat transfer elements and is one application where HSLA steel has better corrosion resistance than certain stainless steels.
When halogen gases (Cl2, F2, HCl, HF) are dissolved in water or contain small quantities of moisture, the resulting
environment is highly corrosive to carbon steel because acids are formed. There are, therefore, significant limitations for
the use of weathering steels for applications handling flue gas, for example from incinerators, where temperatures approach
dewpoint.
xiii
Flue gas composition (volume by percent on dry basis): 8.5 CO2, 5.1 O2, 86.4 N2, 0.0 CO. Noted sulphur (as SO2)
metered to burner. Total exposure time for all tests was 500 - 600 hours. Cyclic exposure time was 26mins at 80°F.
xiv
Sulphur content- 25 grains per 100 standard cubic feet of gas
xv
Sulphur content – 50 grains per 100 standard cubic feet of gas
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Figure 4-3 High temperature oxidation tests in air
Figure 4-4 Comparison of corrosion rates under exposure to fuel-oil combustion-product gas
Dew point of gas is 270°F (132°C)
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5. STAINLESS STEELS
5.1 Introduction
Stainless steels are iron-base alloys containing 10.5% or more of chromium, used extensively for industrial applications.
Currently, there are numerous grades recognised internationally as standard steels (designated as “Types” by the American
Iron and Steel Institute), together with commercially available proprietary stainless steels with special characteristics.
This section of the Manual provides a readily accessible source of information on the characteristics of these useful
materials to meet the needs of chimney designers.
5.2 Guidelines for Selection

Stainless steels are engineering materials with good corrosion resistance, strength and fabrication characteristics, which can
meet a wide range of design requirements for mechanical load, service life and low maintenance.
The following form the basis for general consideration:
• Carbon Structural Steels

ASTM A36, EN 10025-S275, A516-70 (higher temperatures)
also used as a basis for composite materials such as nickel alloy clad plate.
• Weathering Structural Steels
ASTM A242/A588
• Standard Stainless Steels
Austenitic Type 304L, Type 316L, Type 317L
Ferritic Type 409, Type 410, Cromweld 3CR12
Duplex Type 2205
• High-Performance Stainless Steels
Austenitic Type 317LM, 317LMN
6% Mo “super austenitic” stainless steels
5.3 Basic Grades of Stainless Steels

5.3.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels
The basic grades of austenitic stainless steels with about 18% chromium and 8% nickel contents are familiar for many
domestic applications and use in locations with heavy pedestrian traffic such as escalators and street furniture. More highly
alloyed grades are developed, Figure 5-2 and Table 5-1, by increasing alloying elements such as molybdenum, chromium,
nickel and nitrogen.
Type 304L xvi serves a wide range of applications. It withstands ordinary rusting in architecture, resists nitric acid
well and sulphuric acids at moderate temperature and concentrations.
Type 316Lxvi contains slightly more nickel than Type 304L, and 2 - 3% molybdenum, giving it better resistance to
corrosion than Type 304L, especially in chloride environments that tend to cause pitting (see Section 5.5), for
example marine atmospheres.
Type 317L xvi contains 3-4% molybdenum and more chromium than Type 316L for even better resistance to pitting.
5.3.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels

With a minimum chromium content of about 10.5%, ferritic stainless steels exhibit a useful combination of mechanical
properties with adequate corrosion resistance for many applications where improved life is demanded from conventional
structural steels without undue cost increase.
xvi
“L” denotes low carbon grade. Generally 0.03%@seismicisolation
C. Regular grades may contain 0.08% C.
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The steels, therefore, lie between the enhanced corrosion resisting (weathering) structural steel such as COR-TEN™, and
the basic standard grade of austenitic stainless steel Type 304L. Grades are available corresponding to the European
designation 1.4003 or Type 409/410, however, with proprietary designations such as REMANIT 1.4002 (Krupp-Thyssen
Nirosta) and 3CR12 (Columbus Stainless).
Because of balanced chemical composition and titanium stabilisation, these ferritic steels are characterised by good
weldability with resistance to embrittlement and heat resistance at temperatures up to 700 °C.
Data is provided for Type 410 and for 3CR12 in the material data sheets of Section 12.
The ferritic grades have the lowest alloy content of the general-purpose stainless steels, for example Type 410 is selected
for highly stressed parts needing the combination of strength and corrosion resistance, such as fasteners. Type 410 resists
corrosion in mild atmospheres, steam and many mild chemical environments.
5.3.3 Duplex Stainless Steels

Table 5-2 lists the relative corrosion resistance of the AISI basic stainless steels in five broad categories of corrosive
environments.
Mechanical properties of representative steels Type 316 (Table 5-3, Table 5-4), Type 317 (Table 5-5) and Type 410 (Table
5-6, Table 5-7), and physical properties of a range of steels are detailed (Table 5-8, Table 5-9, Table 5-10).
5.4 Material Selection

Many variables influence the corrosive environment:- concentration of contaminants, atmospheric conditions, temperature,
time, etc., making it difficult to select the most cost-effective steel to use without knowledge of specific conditions.
In order of importance, the criteria to be considered when selecting appropriate grades of stainless steel are:-
• Corrosion or Heat Resistance - Knowledge of the environment and degree of corrosion and/or heat resistance
required. (Ref. Sections 5.5 and 5.6).
• Mechanical Properties - Strength required at service temperatures. Generally, combination of corrosion
resistance and strength is the basis for selection. (Ref. Sections 5.6 and 5.7).
• Fabrication - Welding considerations. (Ref. Section Error! Reference source not found.).
• Total Cost - Value analysis should consider not only material and fabrication costs but also maintenance-free
benefits for long service life. Often the stainless steels retain value at the end of their service life. (Ref.
Section Error! Reference source not found.).
General guidance is provided in Table 5-11.
5.5 Corrosion Resistance

Chromium is the alloying element that imparts to stainless steels their corrosion-resistance by combining with oxygen to
form a thin, transparent chromium-oxide protective film on the surface. Because the passive film is such an important
factor, there are precautions which must be observed in designing stainless steel equipment, in fabrication and use of the
equipment, to avoid destroying or disturbing the film.
In the event that the protective (passive) film is disturbed or even destroyed, in the presence of oxygen in the environment it
will be renewed and will continue to give maximum protection.
The film is stable and protective in normal atmospheric or mild aqueous environments, but can be improved by increasing
chromium, nickel, molybdenum and other alloying elements. Additional chromium improves film stability, molybdenum
and chromium increase resistance to chloride penetration and nickel improves film resistance in strong acid environments
(Section 5.6)xvii.
Stainless steels resist corrosion in a broad range of conditions, but they are not immune to every environment. For
example, stainless steels perform poorly in reducing environments such as 50% sulphuric and hydrochloric acids at
elevated temperatures. The corrosive attack experienced is the result of a breakdown of the protective film over the entire
metal surface.
xvii
High performance stainless steels, NiDI Reference @seismicisolation
Book 11021
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The types of attack which are more likely to be of concern are pitting, crevice attack, stress-corrosion cracking and
intergranular corrosion.
• Pitting
occurs when the protective film breaks down in small isolated spots, such as when halide salts contact the surface.
Once started, the attack may accelerate because of differences in electrical potential between the large area of passive
surface and the active pit. Pitting is avoided in many environments by using Types 316L and 317L which contain
molybdenum. Candidate materials for more severe pitting conditions are the high performance stainless steels and
nickel alloys. (Ref. Section 5.5)xvii.
• Crevice Corrosion
results from local differences in oxygen concentration associated with solid deposits on the metal surface, gaskets, lap
joints or crevices under bolt heads where small amounts of liquid can collect, become stagnant so the chromium oxide
protective film is not renewed.
The material responsible for the formation of a crevice need not be metallic. Wood, plastics, rubber, concrete, and
living organisms have all been reported to cause crevice corrosion. Once attack begins within the crevice, its progress
is very rapid, frequently more intense in chloride environments. The high performance stainless steels and nickel alloys
containing molybdenum are used to minimise the problem. The best solution to crevice corrosion, however, is a design
that eliminates crevices.
• Stress-Corrosion
is caused by the combined effects of tensile stress and corrosion. Many alloy systems have been known to experience
stress-corrosion cracking, for example, brass in ammonia. Stainless steels can be susceptible to stress-corrosion
cracking in chloride environments.
Austenitic steels resist a wide range of chloride environments and remain completely free from this form of corrosion.
Failure in stainless steels is mainly confined to transgranular cracking in highly stressed components and takes place
because of a unique set of metallurgical and chemical circumstances; temperature, concentration, pH, stress level, etc.
Type 317LM has good resistance and has been shown to perform well in the flue gas desulphurisation environment.
Several proprietary “super” austenitic stainless steels also resist stress cracking in hot chloride environments.
• Intergranular Corrosion.
The results of early research work and improved steelmaking practices in the last decade have ensured that this form of
corrosion does not occur except when the grade of steel is incorrectly selected.
This classical and specific form of corrosion, although rare today, occurs usually with the austenitic stainless steels. It
is caused by production of grain boundary sensitised regions by incorrect heat treatment, prolonged welding times or
service in the temperature range 450-850 °C when a compositional change may occur. If a sensitised material is then
subjected to a corrosive environment, some intergranular attack may be experienced.
Sensitisation may result from slow cooling from annealing temperatures, stress-relieving in the sensitisation range, or
welding. The short time at temperature characteristic of welding can result in sensitisation of a band, usually 3mm to
6mm wide, adjacent to, but slightly removed from, the weld. This region is known as the heat-affected-zone or HAZ.
Prevention is achieved by:
1. Use of stainless steel in the annealed condition.

2. Selection of the low-carbon (0.030% maximum) stainless steels for weld fabrication. Low-carbon grades are
Types 304L, 316L and 317L. The less carbon available to combine with the chromium, the less likely is carbide
precipitation to occur.
3. Selection of a stabilised grade such as Type 321 (titanium stabilised) or Type 347 (niobium stabilised) for
service in the 800-1650 °F (427-899 °C) range. The protection obtained with these grades is based upon the
greater affinity of titanium and niobium for carbon.
4. Avoiding use of oxy-fuel gas cutting methods.
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5.6 High-Temperature Corrosion Resistance

Stainless steels have been widely used for elevated-temperature service, so fundamental and practical data concerning their
resistance to corrosion are provided.
When stainless steels are exposed at elevated temperatures, changes can occur to the surface film. For example, at mildly
elevated temperatures in an oxidising gas, a protective oxide film is formed. In an environment containing sulphur-bearing
gases, the film will be in the form of sulphides which may also be protective.
In more aggressive environments, such as gas turbine ducts and stacks, with temperatures above 1600°F (871°C), the
surface film may break down with sudden increase in scaling. Depending on alloy content and environment, the film may
be self-healing for a period of time, followed by another breakdown.
Under extreme conditions of high temperature and corrosion, the surface film may not be protective at all. Therefore,
information provided should serve only as a starting point for material selection, not as a substitute for service tests. (Table
5-11).
• Oxidation
In non-fluctuating-temperature service the oxidation resistance (or scaling resistance) of stainless steels depends
primarily on the chromium content. Steels with less than 18% chromium (ferritic grades primarily) are limited to
temperatures below 1500 °F (816 °C). Those containing 18-20% chromium are useful to temperatures of 1800 °F (982
°C), while adequate resistance to scaling at temperatures up to 2000°F (1093°C) requires a chromium content of about
25%, with selection of steels such as Types 309 and 310.
• Effect of Atmosphere
Developments with power generation associated with gas turbines and incineration stimulates interest in oxidation in
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water vapour environments. Exposure to mild conditions in these environments
leads to the formation of the protective oxide film described earlier, but when conditions become too severe film
breakdown can occur. The onset of this transition is unpredictable, influenced by alloy composition.
• Sulphidation
Sulphur in various forms and even in relatively small quantities accelerates corrosion in many environments. Sulphur
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and sulphur vapour are among the most corrosive forms. Sulphur vapour and hydrogen
sulphide are considerably more aggressive than sulphur dioxide.
Sulphur attack, although closely related to oxidation, is more severe. Metal sulphides melt at lower temperatures than
comparable oxides, and they may fuse to metal surfaces. Also, sulphides are less likely to form tenacious, continuous,
protective films. Fusion and lack of adherence result in accelerated corrosion.
The resistance of stainless steels to sulphidation depends on chromium content.
• Flue Gas
The corrosivity of flue gas containing sulphur dioxide or hydrogen sulphide is similar to that of most sulphur-bearing
gases. Accordingly, the corrosion resistance of stainless steels in flue gas environments is improved by increased
chromium content, as shown in Table 5-12. Figure 5-3 indicates the effect of chromium content on corrosion in flue
gases produced by various fuels.
[Note: Corrosion rates of 1 to 2mm per year have been reported for Types 304 and 316 in the temperature range 1200-
1400 °F (649-760 °C).]
For reducing flue-gas environments, satisfactory material selection requires service tests.
Details of elevated temperature properties are to be found in Section 8 of this Manual.
5.7 High Performance Grades

Increase of alloy content or addition of further alloying elements to the basic grades provides stainless steels with
characteristics and properties enhanced for specific requirements or “fitness for purpose”.
Optimisation of selection for cost-effectiveness should be discussed with materials specialists or producers.
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The “high performance” stainless steelsxviii have superior corrosion resistance in a wide variety of aggressive environments
when compared with the basic stainless steel grades such as Type 316L. Their superiority in chloride-containing
environments results from increasing levels of chromium, nickel, molybdenum and nitrogen for corrosion resistance, and
very low carbon contents.
There are three grades of high performance stainless steels - austenitic, ferritic and duplex (austenitic-ferritic). The higher
nickel austenitic grades are generally preferred for severe acid service and for resistance to chloride pitting, crevice and
stress corrosion cracking in flue gas cleaning equipment ducts and chimneys handling acid condensates. Duplex grades can
be selected where higher strength is an advantage and where stress-corrosion cracking could be a problem.
Where site fabrication is an important consideration, the austenitic grades are favoured because of their relative ease of
welding.
The high performance stainless steels with improved corrosion resistance are more technically demanding than Type 316L
with regard to fabrication requirements.
5.7.1 Austenitic High Performance Stainless Steels

A list of wrought austenitic stainless steels is given in Table 5-12, identified by grade and UNSxix number. The grades in
Table 5-12 are arranged in the order of increasing molybdenum, chromium and nitrogen content, or increasing PRExx
number.
Type 317LMN, for example in sub-group A-2 (Table 5-12), provides improved localised corrosion resistance to Types
316L and 317L, with higher molybdenum and nitrogen contents. Nitrogen, while improving corrosion resistance, also
stabilises the austenite so the nickel can be limited for optimum economy. Type 317LMN has been widely used in flue gas
desulphurisation (FGD) equipment operating under moderately aggressive pitting conditions.
The 6% Mo grades, frequently called the “super” stainless steels, include AL-6XN, 1925hMo, 25-6MO and 254 SMO in
sub-group A-4, were designed originally to resist localised corrosion in seawater at near-ambient temperatures by the use of
relatively high levels of nitrogen, chromium and molybdenum to give a PRE number in the range of 40 to 44. They have
been widely used in a variety of power plant applications.
Higher strength is obtained with high nitrogen alloys such as 4565S.
The highest level of performance combining high strength with outstanding localised corrosion resistance, good chloride
stress corrosion cracking and acid resistance are provided in sub-group A-6. Significantly, they approach the nickel base
alloys with respect to localised corrosion resistance, while providing much higher strength. These newer grades have an
excellent potential for solving crevice corrosion problems in gasketed joints.
5.7.2 Duplex High Performance Stainless Steels

Duplex stainless steels, detailed despite limited application in FGD systems, ducts and chimneys, have a microstructure of
approximately equal portions of austenite and ferrite with properties that take advantage of the better attributes of each of
the two phases. These grades offer very high strength along with useful ductility and toughness. However, duplex
stainless steels require careful fabrication to maintain the optimum structure, so are more demanding than the austenitic
stainless steels, the probable reason why they find less application in FGD and chimneys. Table 5-13 lists wrought high
performance duplex stainless steels. It should be borne in mind that duplex stainless steels can be subject to “885°F
(474°C) embrittlement”.
The 25Cr duplex grades, sub-group D-3, such as Ferralium 255, use higher levels of chromium to produce better localised
corrosion resistance. The chromium provides very good resistance to oxidising acids. They require higher nickel to
balance the higher chromium, which improves resistance to reducing acids as well.
xviii
For completeness, a wide range of materials are referenced in order to facilitate choice and availability
xix
Metals and alloys in the Unified Numbering System. Society of Automobile Engineers, USA.
xx
The PRE was developed from “Pitting Index” value obtained from ambient temperature seawater tests. If the “Pitting
Index” based on chromium and molybdenum contents gave a value greater than 32, the alloy was resistant to pitting. If the
value was greater than 36 the alloy was resistant to crevice corrosion in seawater. The inclusion of nitrogen in the
calculation led to PRE and its use for FGD material selection. The PRE number (pitting resistance equivalent) is
determined from PRE = %CR + 3.3 x %Mo + 16 x %N. A higher PRE number indicates a greater resistance to localised
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Sub-group D-4 is the most highly alloyed sub-group of the duplex family. The high chromium, molybdenum, nickel and
nitrogen content produces the best corrosion resistance of any of the duplex grades and higher strength than is obtainable in
any high performance stainless steel. For this reason, these alloys are sometimes called “super duplex” stainless steels.
5.7.3 Mechanical Properties

The nitrogen-containing austenitic grades, together with duplex steels, have properties well above standard grades,
permitting use of thinner sections to offset the increased cost of higher alloy contents.
5.7.3.1. Austenitic Stainless Steels.

The austenitic grades provide an excellent combination of strength, ductility and toughness over a broad temperature range.
Most of the alloying elements used to improve corrosion resistance strengthen the steel,
Figure 5-4. The effect of nitrogen on strength is shown in Figure 5-5, where a near 50% yield strength increase over Type
304 stainless steel is indicated for a nitrogen content of 0.20%.
The minimum ambient temperature mechanical property requirements for these grades as defined by the ASTM Standard
Specification for plate, sheet and strip (A240) are provided in Table 5-14. Mechanical properties also improve with
increased alloy and nitrogen contents, illustrated in Figure 5-6, where grades with increasing alloy content are compared
with values for Type 316L. The ASME Code allowable design stress values given in Table 5-15 confirm this with values
for some high performance grades more than twice those of Type 316L.
The high performance austenitic grades also retain their advantage over the standard grades at elevated temperatures.
Typical short-term elevated temperature data compared with Type 316L are given in Figure 5-7. These grades can provide
useful performance at considerably higher temperatures than the ferritic and duplex grades.
5.7.3.2. Duplex Stainless Steels.

Strength of the duplex grades increases and ductility decreases as the level of alloying increases, especially nitrogen
content. Minimum yield strengths for sheet and plate are as high as 550 MPa (80 ksi). Table 5-16.
The elevated temperature properties, Figure 5-8, and ASME Code design stresses are given in Table 5-17.
5.7.4 Physical Properties

Ambient temperature physical properties for austenitic and duplex steels are given in Table 5-18 & Table 5-19. Elevated
temperature values are detailed in Section 8, Table 8-8 & Table 8-9. Data are included for one or more standard grades to
provide a basis for comparison, based primarily upon manufacturers’ data.
Young’s Modulus for the ferritic grades is about 200 GPa (29.0 x 103 ksi), and about 185 GPa (27.0 x 103 ksi), for the high-
nickel austenitic grades. Figure 5-9.
Among the austenitic grades, increased nickel contents lower thermal conductivity and expansivity. Thermal conductivity
and coefficients of thermal expansion are shown as a function of temperature in Figure 5-10 & Figure 5-11.
5.7.5 Corrosion Resistance of High Performance Stainless Steels in Flue Gas Environments.
The outstanding corrosion resistance of the high performance stainless steels is due not only to their high alloy content, but
also to the interaction of high chromium levels with other alloying elements. For example, molybdenum becomes more
effective for chloride pitting resistance as chromium content increases.
5.7.5.1. Resistance to Inorganic Acids.

The presence of chlorides or other halides can lead to pitting when a stainless steel would otherwise be expected to display
stable passive behaviour, for example when considering performance in sulphuric acid solutions.
Higher molybdenum austenitic grades can give better resistance. This is illustrated in Figure 5-12, which shows corrosion
data for acid solutions containing 200 and 2,000 ppm chloride ion. The performance of the grades in sub-groups A-4 to A-
6 under these conditions makes them candidates for handling combustion product acid condensates, which often contain
chloride, at moderate temperatures.
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5.7.5.2. Sulphurous Acid.

Sulphurous acid is a relatively weak acid that is normally encountered as condensate in flue gases containing sulphur
dioxide. It will cause pitting in Type 304, but can usually be handled with Type 316 provided it is not accompanied by
sulphuric acid and chloride or fluoride ions. However, many flue gases can be very acidic and contain halide ions. In these
instances, the high performance stainless steels and nickel alloys will offer substantially better corrosion resistance than
Type 316L.
5.7.5.3. Chloride - and Other Halide Ion-Containing Aqueous Environments.

The pitting and crevice corrosion of stainless steels are similar, but differ in their initiation, occurring by a local breakdown
of the passive chromium oxide film. There is then the localised development of an anodic corrosion site surrounded by a
cathodic area that remains passive. Crevice corrosion occurs in the presence of a solid deposit, gasket, or some other
crevice former to initiate corrosion. Otherwise, the two forms of corrosion are essentially identical, with resistance to
crevice corrosion usually less than to pitting. Because most structures will contain crevices, crevice corrosion is more
important from an engineering standpoint. Precautions that should be followed during fabrication are well documented.
Post-weld removal of surface oxide (heat-tint)xxi is an essential requirement for obtaining satisfactory stainless steel weld
corrosion performance in high chloride-containing acid environments. The general environmental effects which promote
crevice corrosion in stainless steels include high chloride concentrations, high acidity (low pH), high temperature, high
dissolved oxygen content, and any environmental constituent which raises the corrosion potential such as oxidising metallic
ions and dissolved chlorine gas. All these factors must be considered in relation to whether any grade of stainless steel will
be suitable for a given situation or whether a nickel base alloy should be considered. Again, it is emphasised that materials
producers should be consulted.
5.7.5.4. Ranking of Individual Grades

The evaluation of any grade of stainless steel for its “localised corrosion resistance” is often difficult because of the many
variables involved. A comparative test to ASTM Standard Test Method G 48 uses ferric chloride to produce results that
define a “critical pitting temperature” or a “critical crevice corrosion temperature”. Care must be taken when interpreting
data as the ferric chloride test environment is very aggressive and does not provide results that translate directly to practical
environments.
Data for representative grades evaluated in 10% ferric chloride are given in Figure 5-13. It shows that some critical
temperatures are much lower than the temperatures to which standard stainless steels are often exposed in service,
illustrating the severity of the test. For this reason it cannot be used as a basis for establishing service temperature limits,
but has found use as a quality control methodxxii.
The high performance austenitic stainless steels far out-perform the standard Type 316L grade in this test as Figure 5-13
shows, approaching that of nickel base alloys. Performance of the different grades varies with chromium, molybdenum,
and nitrogen alloying contents. Various formulae have been developed to relate composition to critical corrosion
temperatures. The most commonly used expression gives a pitting resistance equivalent (PRE) number, for example,
PRE = %Cr + 3.3%Mo + 16%N.
Some typical correlations of the PRE number with several critical temperature indices, Figure 5-14, show the strong
alloying effect of nitrogen, molybdenum and chromium, in that order.
5.7.5.5. Acidic Environments Containing Halides - Flue Gas Condensates.

Mildly acid aqueous environments containing halides (but not strong oxidants) can be handled by many of the high
performance stainless steels, provided the temperature and halide concentrations remain relatively low. The likelihood of
pitting and crevice corrosion increases with acidity, temperature, halide content and, especially, with reducing conditions
which could lead to general corrosion, conditions frequently found in flue gas cleaning equipment, ducts and chimneys.
Fuels that contain sulphur or chlorine produce the most corrosive combustion products, the most common examples being
high sulphur coals, fuel oils and municipal waste.
Condensate (and scrubbing liquor) will become acidic with the SO2 and reducing with the SO3 and HCl in flue gases. The
design and method of operation of the gas-handling system will also contribute greatly to the severity of corrosive
conditions that may develop. In general, raw gas condensate and gas recycling together will produce the most corrosive
xxi
NiDI Publication reference 10068
xxii
Quality control systems for the installation of a Hastelloy chimney lining using the wallpapering technique,
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conditions. The “generic FGD system” illustrated in Figure 5-1 below defines various locations within the Flue Gas
Desulphurisation system in terms of relative potential for corrosion. Zones having different degrees of corrosivity are
indicated A - H. Each zone is defined in terms of both qualitative and quantitative severity in Figure 5-1. From the
standpoint of metallic corrosion, the most severe zones all involve ductwork and stacks or wet/dry conditions where the pH
can be <0.1 and temperatures can be as high as 182 °C (360 °F). Locations that are washed or that handle absorbent are
mild or moderately corrosive.
Qualitative description of scrubber operating zones

Mechanical
Code Chemistry Temperature
Environment
A Mild corrosive (vapour) Mild Mild
B Moderate (immersion) Mild Mild
C Moderate Moderate Mild
D Moderate Severe Mild
E Severe Mild Moderate
F Severe Mild Severe
G Severe Severe Severe
H Moderate Severe Moderate
Figure 5-1 Operating zones in a generic FGD system as defined in ASTM STP 837
The generic FGD system does not account for chloride and fluoride levels, or any operating variables such as deposit
buildup, so further information is needed to assist materials selection. Stainless steels Type 316L and 317L exposed in a
large number of commercial SO2 scrubbing environments, Figure 5-15 & Figure 5-16 indicated the detrimental effect of
high cloride and acidity, increasing the tendency for localised pitting or crevice corrosion. However, experience has shown
that the more highly alloyed stainless steels are needed with even moderate increase of chloride plus fluoride levels and that
nickel base alloys are necessary for locations handling raw gas condensate at high temperature.
The approximate behaviour of representative grades is shown in Figure 5-17 indicating that a wide range in performance
and cost-effectiveness is available. The localised corrosion predictions as a function of chloride and pH in Figure 5-15 and
Figure 5-16 should not be used to estimate performance for the very severe condition of raw acid condensate that may
occur in ducting and stacks. When the pH begins to fall below about 1.0, the corrosion mode for most stainless steels,
including the high performance grades, begins to shift toward general attack. Corrosion data for acid solutions are more
applicable for these conditions. General experience has indicated that only the most highly alloyed nickel base alloys will
be useful in ducting or stacks where raw acid condensate is likely to form. An exception may be the newest sub-group A-6,
the austenitic high performance stainless steels which have outstanding resistance to strong acids containing chloride.
The disadvantage of titanium in strong fluoride-containing acids was also confirmed by these tests.
5.8 Corrosion Acceptance Tests

The concept of using corrosion tests to verify a given particular property of a stainless steel is well established as a useful
tool for the evaluation of mill products and for evaluating equipment after fabrication. In most cases, the test demonstrates
the absence of a particular problem such as grain boundary carbides or intermetallic phases.
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ASTM G48, which measures pitting and crevice corrosion resistance, differs from these tests because it describes only the
laboratory procedures without defining the acceptance criteria. Fortunately, G48, in its focus on chloride-induced localised
corrosion, is directed toward the corrosion quality criterion of most importance to the high performance stainless steels.
The test method is also extremely sensitive to the effects of intermetallic phases and is applicable to all alloy types –
austenitic, ferritic and duplex. Therefore, producers and users often use it as a corrosion acceptance test for these alloys
when localised corrosion is a consideration. It is important to recognise that G48 does not define acceptance criteria for
given alloys because any criterion will depend on factors such as the application, method of fabrication, etc., and mutual
agreement among parties involvedxxii, for example, as the basis for routine quality assurance test which is rapid and simple.
5.9 Potential substitution of super-austenitic stainless steel for nickel base alloys
The super-austenitic stainless steels are well known and widely utilized, being described in Section 5.7. Essentially, they
are represented by numerous proprietary grades of differing alloy content and corrosion resistance based upon the notional
6% Molybdenum, 20% Chromium, 18-25% Nickel, 0.15-0.25% Nitrogen and 0.75-1.0% Copper compositions.
The higher mechanical properties of these super-austenitic stainless steels may permit lighter structures in design to be
considered in comparison with, for example, Type 316L.
There are no simple solutions for dew-point corrosion problems, so that careful attention must be given to actual operating
conditions which influence the corrosion environment to achieve economic materials selection. Of significance is the
potential use for chimney linings of the recently developed super-austenitic stainless steels of higher alloy content claimed
to offer improved corrosion resistance comparable to nickel base alloys, such as Alloys 625 and C276, with potential cost
benefits.
Reference: “The cost effective use of nickel alloys and stainless steels for chimneys (stacks) in air pollution control
systems”, Stainless Steel World, October 2000, pp47-58.
The above paper is reproduced in Appendix 6.1 by kind permission of KCI Publishing B.V., publishers of Stainless Steel
World.
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Chemical composition % (max unless otherwise noted)

Type
C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Mo Other
304L 0.03 2.0 0.045 0.03 1.00 18.0/20.0 8.0/12.0

309 0.20 2.0 0.045 0.03 1.00 22.0/24.0 12.0/15.0
310 0.25 2.0 0.045 0.03 1.50 24.0/26.0 19.0/22.0
316L 0.03 2.0 0.045 0.03 1.00 16.0/18.0 10.0/14.0 2.0/3.0
317L 0.03 2.0 0.045 0.03 1.00 18.0/20.0 11.0/15.0 3.0/4.0
321 0.08 2.0 0.045 0.03 1.00 17.0/19.0 9.0/12.0 5xC Ti (min)
347 0.08 2.0 0.045 0.03 1.00 17.0/19.0 9.0/13.0 10xC Nb-Ti (min)
Table 5-1 Austenitic Stainless Steels
Atmospheric Chemical environment

Type Number UNS Number
Industrial Marine Mild Oxidising Reducing
304L S30403 X X X X
309 S30900 X X X X
310 S31000 X X X X
316L S31603 X X X X X
317L S31703 X X X X
321 S32100 X X X X
347 S34700 X X X X
410 S41000 X
Table 5-2 Guideline to relative corrosion resistance of basic stainless steels

Notes:
The “X” notations indicate that a specific stainless steel type may be considered as resistant to the corrosive
environment.
This list is suggested as a guideline only and does not suggest or imply a warranty on the part of the American Iron and
Steel Institute.
When selecting a stainless steel for any corrosive environment, it is always best to consult with a corrosion engineer
and, if possible, conduct tests in the environment involved under actual operating conditions.
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Type 316
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, %
(maximum unless noted otherwise)
C Mn P S Si Cr Ni N Mo Ti Al Cb + Ta
0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 16.00/ 10.00/ 2.00/
18.00 14.00 3.00
REPRESENTATIVE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(annealed sheet unless noted otherwise)
Yield strength Elongation Reduction of Hardness
Test Temperature Tensile strength
0.2% offset in 2” (50.8mm) Area Rockwell
°F °C ksi MPa ksi MPa % % B
80 27 42 290 84 579 50 79
300 149 29.2 201 75 517 53 77
500 260 25 172 73 503 49 75
700 371 23 159 72.5 500 47 69
900 482 21.5 148 70.2 484 47 69
1100 593 20.3 140 65.5 452 44 63
1300 704 19 131 50 345 43 58
1500 816 16 110 27 186 42 55
1700 927 11.6 80 67 60
1900 1038 5.6 39 60 47
2000 1093 4 28 75 55
REPRESENTATIVE CREEP AND RUPTURE PROPERTIES
Stress for a Creep rate of Stress for a rupture in
Test temperature 0.0001% per hour 0.00001% per hour
1,000 hours 10,000 hours
(1% in 10,000 hrs) (1% in 100,000 hrs)
°F °C ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa
1000 538 35.5 245 20.1 139 50 345 43 296
1100 593 22.5 155 12.4 85 34 234 26.5 183
1200 649 14.2 98 7.9 54 23 159 16.2 112
1300 704 8.9 61 4.8 33 15.4 106 9.9 68
1400 760 5.6 39 3 21 10.3 71 6 41
1500 816 3.6 25 1.9 13 6.7 46 3.7 26
EFFECT OF PROLONGEDEXPOSURE AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
Representative mechanical properties at room temperature
10,000 hours (without stress) Yield strength Elongation in Reduction
Tensile strength
Exposure temp. 0.2% offset 2” (50.8mm) of area
°F °C ksi MPa ksi MPa % %
900 482 45 310 91.9 634 60 73
1050 566 41.8 288 97.2 670 49 65
1200 649 50.5 348 113 779 31 49
Table 5-3 Type 316 S31600 Steel Properties
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Type 316
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
Thermal conductivity
Btu/hr/sq ft/ft/°F W/m.K
212°F (100°C) 9.4 0.113
932°F (500°C) 12.4 0.149
Mean coefficient of thermal expansion per °F (°C) (x106)

32 to 212°F (0 to 100°C) 8.9 (15.9)
32 to 600°F (0 to 315°C) 9.0 (16.2)
32 to 1000°F (0 to 538°C) 9.7 (17.5)
32 to 1200°F (0 to 649°C) 10.3 (18.6)
32 to 1500°F (0 to 815°C) 11.1 (20.0)
Modulus of elasticity
Temperature Modulus psi (x106) GPa
80 27 Tension 28.0 193
200 93 Tension 28.1 194
Shear 11.0 76
300 149 Tension 27.5 190
Shear 10.6 73
400 204 Tension 26.9 185
Shear 10.3 71
500 260 Tension 26.3 181
Shear 10.0 69
600 316 Tension 25.6 177
Shear 9.7 67
700 371 Tension 24.9 172
Shear 9.4 65
800 427 Tension 24.2 167
Shear 9.1 63
900 482 Tension 23.5 162
Shear 8.8 61
1000 538 Tension 22.8 157
Shear 8.5 59
1100 593 Tension 22.2 153
Shear 8.3 57
1200 649 Tension 21.5 148
Shear 8.1 56
1300 704 Tension 20.8 143
Shear 7.9 54
1400 760 Tension 20.0 138
Shear 7.7 53
1500 816 Tension 19.1 132
Shear 7.5 52
Table 5-4 Type 316 S31600 Steel Properties
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Type 317
C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Mo Fe
0.061 2.00 0.04 0.03 1.00 19.18 14.19 3.57 BAL
Yield strength
0.2% offset
°F °C ksi MPa ksi MPa
80 27 36.4 251 81 558
300 149 32 221 71.5 493
500 260 30 207 69 475
700 371 26 179 69 475
900 482 21 145 68 469
1100 593 20 138 58 400
1300 704 12.4 85 40 276
1500 816 10.4 72 25 172
REPRESENTATIVE CREEP AND RUPTURE PROPERTIESxxiii
(1% in 10,000 hrs) (1% in 100,000 hrs)
1000 538 24 165 16 110 - - - -
1100 593 17.3 119 14.7 101 34 234 28 193
1200 649 12.7 88 8.7 60 24 165 13.3 92
1300 704 7.3 50 4.7 32 16.7 115 10.7 74
1400 760 4.3 30 2.3 16 10.3 71 6.7 46
1500 816 2.7 19 2.0 14 6.7 46 3.3 23
Table 5-5 Type 317 Stainless Steel (S31700) Properties
Fy = 30 ksi at room temperature – ASTM
E = 28 x 106 psi at room temperature decreasing linearly to 20 x 106 psi at 1300°F
xxiii
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1987
Type 410
0.15 1.00 0.04 0.03 1.00 11.50/
13.50
80 27 45 310 70 483 25 80
300 149 36 248 74 510 36 79
400 204 135* 931 150* 1034
500 260 33 228 70.5 486 33 79
600 316 125* 862 145* 1000
700 371 30 207 62.5 431 33 77
800 427 115* 793 130* 896
900 482 26.7 184 52.5 362 41 83
1000 538 95* 655 100* 689
1100 593 23 159 33 228 57 95
1200 649 40* 276 45* 310
1300 704 9.5 66 15.2 105 73 98
1400 760 14* 97 18* 124
1500 816 9 62 80 97
1600 871 10* 69 15* 103 * = heat treated
(1% in 10,000 hrs) (1% in 100,000 hrs)
900 482 24 165 13.6 94 34 234 22 152
1000 538 9 62 7.4 51 19.4 134 13 90
1100 593 4.2 29 3.6 25 10 69 6.8 47
1200 649 2 14 1.7 12 4.8 33 2.8 19
1300 704 0.8 6 0.6 4 2.5 17 1.2 8
1400 760 1.2 8 0.6 4
Tensile strength
900 482 42.0 290 78.4 541 30 66
1050 566 40.1 276 74.5 514 33 68
1200 649 37.8 261 69.4 478 35 69
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Type 410
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Btu/hr/sq ft/ft/°F W/m.K
212°F (100°C) 14.4 0.174
932°F (500°C) 16.6 0.201
Mean coefficient of thermal expansion per °F (°C) (x106)

32 to 212°F (0 to 100°C) 5.5 (9.9)
32 to 600°F (0 to 315°C) 6.3 (11.4)
32 to 1000°F (0 to 538°C) 6.4 (11.6)
32 to 1200°F (0 to 649°C) 6.5 (11.7)
Temperature Modulus psi (x106) GPa
80°F 27°C Tension 29.0 200
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Temp Modulus of Elasticity (Tension), 104 psi ; 103 kg/mm2

°F °C Type 302 Type 304 Type 309 Type 310 Type 316 Type 321 Type 347
75 24 29.0 20.3 28.3 19.9 28.1 19.8 29.0 20.3 28.3 19.9 28.9 20.3 28.9 20.3
200 90 27.9 19.6 27.9 19.6 28.2 19.8 28.1 19.8 28.0 19.7 28.2 19.8
300 150 27.3 19.2 27.1 19.1 27.5 19.3 27.5 19.3 27.3 19.2 27.5 19.3
400 200 26.7 18.8 26.6 18.7 26.8 18.8 26.9 18.9 26.5 18.6 26.8 18.8
500 260 26.0 18.3 26.0 18.3 26.2 18.4 26.3 18.5 25.8 18.1 26.1 18.4
600 320 35.4 17.9 25.6 18.0 25.5 17.9 25.6 18.0 25.3 17.8 25.4 17.9
700 370 24.8 17.4 24.7 17.4 24.9 17.5 24.9 17.5 24.5 17.2 24.8 17.4
800 430 24.2 17.0 24.1 16.9 23.1 16.2 24.2 17.0 24.2 17.0 23.8 16.7 24.1 16.9
900 480 23.6 16.6 23.2 16.3 23.6 16.6 23.5 16.5 23.2 16.3 23.4 16.5
1000 540 23.0 16.2 22.5 15.8 22.6 15.8 23.0 16.2 22.8 16.0 22.5 15.8 22.8 16.0
1100 590 22.3 15.7 21.8 15.3 22.4 15.8 22.2 15.6 21.9 15.4 22.0 15.5
1200 650 21.8 15.3 21.1 14.8 21.8 15.3 21.8 15.3 21.5 15.1 21.2 14.9 21.4 15.0
1300 700 21.2 14.9 20.4 14.3 21.2 14.9 21.2 14.9 20.8 14.6 20.4 14.3 20.7 14.6
1400 760 20.6 14.5 19.4 13.6 20.5 14.4 20.0 14.0 19.7 13.9 20.0 14.1
1500 820 20.0 14.1 18.1 12.7 19.8 13.9 19.0 13.4 19.1 13.4 19.1 13.4 19.4 13.6
1600 870 19.2 13.5 19.2 13.5 18.7 13.2
Table 5-8 Modulus of elasticity at various temperatures
Temp Modulus of Rigidity (Shear), 104 psi ; 103 kg/mm2

°F °C Type 302 Type 304 Type 310 Type 316 Type 321 Type 347
75 24 11.2 7.9 11.4 8.0 11.2 7.9 11.3 7.9 11.2 7.9 11.4 8.0
200 90 10.8 7.6 11.1 7.8 10.9 7.7 11.0 7.7 10.8 7.6 11.0 7.7
300 150 10.4 7.3 10.8 7.6 10.6 7.5 10.6 7.5 10.6 7.5 10.7 7.5
400 200 10.1 7.1 10.5 7.4 10.3 7.2 10.3 7.2 10.3 7.2 10.4 7.3
500 260 9.8 6.9 10.2 7.2 10.0 7.0 10.0 7.0 9.9 7.0 10.1 7.1
600 320 9.5 6.7 9.9 7.0 9.7 6.8 9.7 6.8 9.7 6.8 9.8 6.9
700 370 9.3 6.5 9.7 6.8 9.4 6.6 9.4 6.6 9.4 6.6 9.5 6.7
800 430 9.0 6.3 9.5 6.7 9.1 6.4 9.1 6.4 9.1 6.4 9.2 6.5
900 480 8.8 6.2 9.2 6.5 8.8 6.2 8.8 6.2 8.8 6.2 8.9 6.3
1000 540 8.6 6.0 8.9 6.3 8.5 6.0 8.5 6.0 8.5 6.0 8.6 6.0
1100 590 8.4 5.9 8.6 6.0 8.2 5.8 8.3 5.8 8.2 5.8 8.3 5.8
1200 650 8.2 5.8 8.3 5.8 7.9 5.6 8.1 5.7 7.9 5.6 8.1 5.7
1300 700 7.9 5.6 8.0 5.6 7.6 5.3 7.9 5.6 7.7 5.4 7.8 5.5
1400 760 7.7 5.4 7.7 5.4 7.2 5.0 7.7 5.4 7.4 5.2 7.5 5.3
1500 820 7.5 5.3 7.4 5.2 6.9 4.9 7.5 5.3 7.1 5.0 7.2 5.0
1600 870 6.6 4.6 6.9 4.9
Table 5-9 Modulus of rigidity at various temperatures
Temp Modulus of Rigidity (Shear), 104 psi ; 103 kg/mm2

°F °C Type 304 Type 309 Type 310 Type 316 Type 321 Type 347
300 150 0.28 0.28 0.32 0.26 0.23 0.30
500 260 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.29 0.25 0.31
700 370 0.32 0.30 0.31 0.34 0.27 0.29
900 480 0.28 0.29 0.32 0.30 0.30 0.33
1100 590 0.29 0.27 0.34 0.32 0.29 0.31
1300 700 0.28 0.32 0.34 0.31 0.27 0.35
1500 820 0.25 0.25 0.29 0.24 0.28
Table 5-10 Poisson’s Ratio at various temperatures
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Lining Classification Chemical Environment Thermal Environment

Type
UNS No. (ASTM)
Mild Moderate Severe Mild Moderate Severe
UNS 409 (A240) Stainless steel8 X X X X

UNS 41000 (A240) Stainless steel8 X X X X X
UNS 30403 (A204) Stainless steel9 X X X X X
UNS S31603 (A240) Stainless steel8 X X X X X
UNS S31803 (A240) Stainless steel9 X X X X X X
UNS S32550 (A240) Stainless steel9 X X X X X X
6%Mo (A240, B688) Stainless steel9 X X X X X X
UNS N06625 (B443) Ni-based alloy9 X X XX X X X
UNS R50250 (B265) Titanium9 X X XX X X X
Table 5-11 Suggested suitability of linings for steel stacks to withstand chemical and temperature
environments of flue gas
(XX is indicates greater resistance than X)
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UNS Sub PRE

Name C N Cr Ni Mo Cu Other
Number Group Num
Type 316L4 S31603 0.03 0.10 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 2.0-3.0 - - 23
Type 317L S31703 0.03 0.10 18.0-20.0 11.0-15.0 3.0-4.0 - - 28
(Cb+Ta):
Alloy 20 N08020 0.07 - 19.0-21.0 32.0-38.0 2.0-3.0 3.0-4.0 26
8xC-1.0”
A-1
Al: 0.2 max,
Alloy 825 N08825 0.05 - 19.5-23.5 38.0-46.0 2.5-3.5 1.5-3.5 28
Ti: 0.6-1.2
317LN S31753 0.03 0.1-0.22 18.0-20.0 11.0-15.0 3.0-4.0 - - 30
260 0.03 0.16-0.24 18.5-21.5 13.5-16.5 2.5-3.5 1.0-2.0 - 29
A-2
317LM S31725 0.03 0.1 18.0-20.0 13.2-17.5 4.0-5.0 - - 31
317LMN S31726 0.03 0.1-0.2 17.0-20.0 13.5-17.5 4.0-5.0 - - 32
NAS 204X 0.04 - 25.0 25.0 2.75 - Nb: 10xC 34
310MoLN S31050 0.03 0.1-0.16 24.0-26.0 21.0-23.0 2.0-3.0 - Si: 0.5 max 32
700 N08700 0.04 - 19.0-23.0 24.0-26.0 4.3-5.0 - Nb: 8xC-0.4 33
904L N08904 0.02 - 19.0-23.0 23.0-28.0 4.0-5.0 1.0-2.0 - 32
A-3
904LN 0.02 0.04-0.15 19.9-21.0 24.0-26.0 4.0-5.0 1.0-2.0 - 34
20Mo-4 N08024 0.03 - 22.5-25.0 35.0-40.0 3.5-5.0 0.5-1.5 - 34
20 Mod N08320 0.05 - 21.0-23.0 25.0-27.0 4.0-6.0 - Ti: 4xC min 34
Alloy 28 N08028 0.02 - 26.0-28.0 29.5-32.5 3.0-4.0 0.6-1.4 - 36
20Mo-6 N08026 0.03 0.1-0.16 22.0-26.0 33.0-37.0 5.0-6.7 2.0-4.0 - 40
25-6Mo
N08925 0.02 0.1-0.2 19.0-21.0 24.0-26.0 6.0-7.5 0.8-1.5 - -
1925hMo
254N3 0.03 0.2 23.0 25.0 5.5 - - 41
A-4
25-6Mo
N08926 0.02 0.15-0.25 19.0-21.0 24.0-26.0 6.0-7.0 0.5-1.5 - 41
1925hMo
SB8 N08932 0.02 0.17-0.25 24.0-26.0 24.0-26.0 4.7-5.7 1.0-2.0 - 42
254 SMO S31254 0.02 0.18-0.22 19.5-20.5 17.5-18.5 6.0-6.5 0.5-1.0 - 42
AL-6XN N08367 0.03 0.18-0.25 20.0-22.0 23.5-25.5 6.0-7.0 0.75 - 43
YUS 170 0.03 0.25-0.4 23.0-26.0 12.0-16.0 0.5-1.2 - - 29
A-5
Mn: 5.5-6.5
2419MoN 0.03 0.3-0.5 23.0-25.0 16.0-18.0 3.5-4.5 0.3-1.0 39
Nb: 0.1-0.3
4565S S34565 0.03 0.4-0.6 23.0-25.0 16.0-18.0 3.5-5.0 - Mn: 3.5-6.5 41
W: 1.0-3.0
B66 S31266 0.03 0.35-0.6 23.0-25.0 21.0-24.0 5.0-7.0 0.5-3.0 45
Mn: 2.0-4.0
A-6
3127 hMo N05031 0.02 0.15-0.25 26.0-28.0 30.0-32.0 6.0-7.0 1.0-1.4 - 48
Mn: 2.0-4.0
654 SMO S32654 0.02 0.45-0.55 24.0-26.0 21.0-23.0 7.0-8.0 0.3-0.6
Cu: 0.3-0.6”
1
- taken from ASTM specifications for plate, sheet and strip when available or from company data sheets
2
- maxium, unless range or minimum is indicated
3
- nominal chemistry
4
– standard grade Type 316L shown for comparison
Table 5-12 Chemical Composition1 of wrought high-performance austenitic stainless steels (wt. pct)2
NOTE: There are grades in this table with high PRE numbers which are claimed to offer comparable performance to
nickel alloys in chimney condensate conditions. Material producers should be consulted.
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UNS Sub PRE

Name C N Cr Ni Mo Cu Other
Number Group Num
Type 329 S32900 0.08 - 23.0-28.0 2.5-5.0 1.0-2.0 - - 26
Si: 1.4-2.0,
3RE60 S31500 0.03 0.05-0.10 18.0-19.0 4.25-5.25 2.5-3.0 - 27
Mn: 1.2-2.0
2304 S32304 D-1 0.03 0.05-0.20 21.5-24.5 3.0-5.5 0.05-0.6 - - 22
45M3 0.03 0.15 24.3 5.0 1.5 1.0 - 32
44LN S31200 0.03 0.14-0.20 24.0-26.0 5.5-6.5 1.2-2.0 - - 30
2205 S31803 D-2 0.03 0.08-0.20 21.0-23.0 4.5-6.5 2.5-3.5 - - 31
2205 S32205 0.03 0.14-0.20 22.0-23.0 4.5-6.5 3.0-3.5 - - 34
7-Mo PLUS S32950 0.03 0.15-0.35 26.0-29.0 3.5-5.2 1.0-2.5 - - 32
DP3 S31260 0.03 0.10-0.30 24.0-26.0 5.5-7.5 2.5-3.5 0.2-0.8 W: 0.1-0.5 34
UR47N D-3 0.03 0.14-0.20 24.0-26.0 5.5-7.5 2.5-3.5 - - 34
643 0.03 0.14 25.0 6.40 3.5 - - 39
255 S32550 0.04 0.10-0.25 24.0-27.0 4.5-6.5 2.9-3.9 1.5-2.5 - 35
DP3W S39274 0.03 0.24-0.32 24.0-26.0 6.0-8.0 2.5-3.5 0.2-0.8 W: 1.5-2.5 36
100 S32760 0.03 0.20-0.30 24.0-26.0 6.0-8.0 3.0-4.0 0.5-1.0 W: 0.5-1.0 37
2507 S32750 D-4 0.03 0.24-0.32 24.0-26.0 6.0-8.0 3.0-5.0 0.5 - 38
52N+ S32520 0.03 0.20-0.35 24.0-26.0 5.5-8.0 3.0-5.0 0.5-3.0 - 37
1
- taken from ASTM specifications for plate, sheet and strip when available or from company data sheets
2
- maxium, unless range or minimum is indicated
3
- nominal chemistry
Table 5-13 Chemical Composition1 of wrought high-performance duplex stainless steels (wt. pct)2
Name UNS ASTM Tensile strength Yield strength Elong. Hardness

Number Specification (minimum) (minimum) (minimum) (maximum)
ksi MPa ksi MPa % Brinell HRB
Type 316L S31603 A240 70 485 25 170 40 217 96
Type 317L S31703 A240 75 515 30 205 40 217 96
Alloy 20 N08020 B463 80 551 35 241 30 217 96
Alloy 825 N08825 B424 85 586 35 241 30 - -
317LN S31753 A240 80 550 35 240 40 217 96
260 - - 80 550 40 275 35 217 -
317LM S31725 A240 75 515 30 205 40 217 96
317LMN S31726 A240 80 550 35 240 40 223 97
204X - - 73 500 30 210 35 187 90
310MoLN S31050 A240 80 550 35 240 30 217 96
700 N08700 B599 80 550 35 240 30 - 90
904L N08904 B625 71 490 31 220 35 - -
20Mo-4 N08024 B C70463 80 551 35 241 30 217 96
20Mod N08320 B620 75 517 28 193 35 - 95
Alloy 28 N08028 B709 73 500 31 214 40 - -
20Mo-6 N08026 B463 80 551 35 251 30 217 96
25-6Mo N08925
B625 94 650 43 295 35 - -
1925 hMo N08926
254N - - 94 650 43 300 35 217 96
SB8 - - 79 550 37 250 35 - -
254 SMO S31254 A240 94 650 44 300 35 223 97
AL-6XN N08367 B688 100 690 45 310 30 240 -
YUS 170 - - 100 690 43 300 35 217 97
2419 MoN - - 120 820 67 460 30 - -
4565S S34565 - 115 800 61 420 35 - -
3127 hMo N08031 B625 94 650 40 276 40 - -
654 SMO S32654 A240 109 740 62 425 35 250 -
Table 5-14 Minimum mechanical properties in basic ASTM specifications for high performance austenitic stainless steels
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Name UNS ASME 38°C 93°C 149°C 204°C 260°C 316°C 371°C 427°C
Number Spec. (100°F) (200°F) (300°F) (400°F) (500°F) (600°F) (700°F) (800°F)
Type 316L S31603 SA-240 16.7 14.2 12.7 11.7 10.9 10.4 10.0 9.6
Type 317L S31703 SA-240 20.0 17.0 15.2 14.0 13.1 12.5 12.0 11.5
Alloy 20 N08020 SB-463 22.9 20.6 19.7 18.9 18.2 17.7 17.4 16.8
Alloy 825 N08825 SB-424 23.3 21.4 20.3 19.4 18.5 17.8 17.3 17.0
317LM S31725 SA-240 20.0 16.9 15.2 14.0 - - - -
317LMN S31726 A240 20.5 18.9 16.7 15.6 15.1 - - -
310MoLN S31050 SA-240 22.9 19.9 18.1 16.8 15.9 15.1 - -
700 N08700 SB-599 22.9 21.0 19.0 17.7 17.1 16.5 - -
904L N08904 SB-625 20.3 16.7 15.1 13.8 12.7 11.9 11.4 -
20Mo-4 N08024 SB-463 22.9 20.6 19.2 18.1 17.0 16.0 15.2 14.6
20 Mod N08320 SB-620 18.7 17.3 16.3 15.4 14.5 13.8 13.2 12.7
Alloy 28 N08028 SB-709 20.7 18.9 17.7 16.5 15.4 14.4 13.6 12.8
20Mo-6 N08026 SB-463 22.9 20.7 19.0 17.5 16.3 15.3 14.5 13.9
25-6MO N08925 SB-625 24.9 23.2 21.3 19.8 18.3 17.3 16.9 16.9
1925 hMo N08925 SB-625 24.9 23.5 21.3 19.8 18.3 17.3 16.9 16.9
254 SMO S31254 SA-240 23.9 23.5 21.4 19.8 18.6 17.9 17.4 -
AL-6XN N08367 SB-688 27.1 26.2 23.8 21.9 20.5 19.4 18.6 18.0
654 SMO S32654 SA-240 31.1 31.1 30.3 28.5 27.3 26.6 26.3 25.9
3127 hMo N08031 B625 23.5 22.0 19.7 18.3 17.2 16.4 15.7 15.2
Standard grade Type 316L for comparison
Table 5-15 High performance austenitic stainless steels ASME allowable design stress values (ksi)
Boiler Pressure Vessel Code. Section VIII. Division I. 1999 Addenda (lowest values for sheet, plate or tube)
Name UNS Tensile strength Yield strength Elong. Hardness

Number (minimum) (minimum) (minimum) (maximum)
ksi MPa ksi MPa % Brinell HRB
Type 329 S32900 90 620 70 485 15 269 28
3RE60 S31500 92 630 64 440 30 290 30.5
2304 S32304 87 600 58 400 25 290 32
45M - 85 588 57 392 40 277 29
44LN S31200 100 690 65 450 25 293 -
2205 S31803 90 620 65 450 25 293 31
7-Mo PLUS S32950 100 690 70 485 15 293 32
DP3 S31260 100 690 70 485 20 290 -
UR 47N - 100 690 72 500 25 - -
64 - 90 620 65 450 18 302 32
255 S32550 110 760 80 550 15 302 32
DP3W S39274 116 800 80 550 25 - 32
100 S32760 108 750 80 550 25 270 -
2507 S32750 116 795 80 550 15 310 32
Grade 2304 for comparison
Table 5-16 Minimum mechanical properties in basic ASTM specifications for
high performance duplex stainless steels
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UNS ASME 38°C 93°C 149°C 204°C 260°C 316°C 343°C

Name
Number Spec. (100°F) (200°F) (300°F) (400°F) (500°F) (600°F) (650°F)
Type 329 S32900 SA-240 25.7 25.7 24.8 24.3 24.3 - -
SA-789
3RE60 S31500 19.6 18.9 18.1 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0
SA-790
2304 S32304 SA-240 24.9 24.0 22.5 21.7 21.3 21.0 -
44LN S31200 SA-240 28.6 28.6 27.1 26.3 26.1 26.1 -
2205 S31803 SA-240 25.7 25.7 24.8 23.9 23.3 23.1 -
7-Mo PLUS S32950 SA-240 28.6 28.5 27.0 26.4 26.4 26.4 -
DP3 S31260 SA-240 28.6 28.5 27.1 26.4 26.3 26.3 26.3
255 S32550 SA-240 31.4 31.3 29.5 28.6 28.2 - -
SA-789
DP3W S39274 33.1 33.1 31.6 31.4 31.4 31.4 -
SA-790
100 S32760 SA-240 33.1 31.0 29.4 29.0 29.0 29.0 -
SA-789
2507 S32750 33.1 33.0 31.2 30.1 29.6 29.4 -
SA-790
Standard grade Type 2304 for comparison
Table 5-17 High performance duplex stainless steels ASME allowable design stress values (ksi)
Boiler Pressure Vessel Code. Section VIII. Division I. 1999 Addenda (lowest values for sheet, plate or tube)
Electrical Magnetic Young’s

Density Specific Heat
UNS resistivity Permeability Modulus
Name
Number Oerst ksi
g/cm3 lb/in3 J/kg°K Btu/lb/°F µΩ-m µΩ-in GPa
(mu 200H) x1000
Type 316L S31603 7.95 0.287 469 0.112 0.74 445 1.004 200 29.0
Type 317L S31703 7.95 0.287 - - 0.79 475 - - -
Alloy 20 N08020 8.08 0.292 502 0.120 1.08 651 1.002 193 28.0
Alloy 825 N08825 8.14 0.294 - - 1.12 678 1.005 - 28.3
20Mo-6 N08026 8.13 0.294 461 0.110 1.08 651 1.006 186 27.0
317LMN S31726 8.02 0.290 502 0.112 0.85 512 - 200 29.0
310MoLN S31050 - - - - - - - - -
700 N08700 8.03 0.290 - - - - - - -
904L N08904 7.95 0.287 461 0.110 0.95 572 <1.02 190 28.0
20Mo-4 N08024 8.11 0.293 456 0.109 1.06 635 - 186 27.0
20 Mod N08320 - - - - - - - - -
Alloy 28 N08028 8.03 0.290 448 0.107 0.99 468 - 200 29.0
SB8 N08932 - - - - - - - - -
254 SMO S31254 7.95 0.287 498 0.119 - - 1.003 200 29.0
25-6MO N08925
8.15 0.294 461 0.110 0.88 528 <1.01 192 27.8
1925 hMo N08926
AL-6XN N08367 8.06 0.291 461 0.110 - - 1.003 195 28.2
YUS 170 - 7.98 0.288 - - 0.86 518 - 192 27.8
4565S S34565 8.00 0.290 510 0.122 0.92 554 - 190 28.0
3127 hMo N08031 8.03 0.290 440 0.105 1.00 602 - 195 28.3
654 SMO S32654 8.00 0.290 510 0.122 0.78 470 - 188 27.6
Type 316L for comparison
Table 5-18 Ambient temperature physical properties of high performance austenitic stainless steels
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Electrical Young’s
Density Specific Heat
UNS resistivity Modulus
Name
Number ksi
g/cm3 lb/in3 J/kg°K Btu/lb/°F µΩ-m µΩ-in GPa
x1000
Type 329 S32900 7.70 0.280 460 0.110 - - 200 29.0
3RE60 S31500 7.75 0.280 482 0.115 - - 200 29.0
2304 S32304 7.75 0.280 482 0.115 - - 200 29.0
2205 S31803 7.85 0.285 482 0.115 0.80 481 200 29.0
7-Mo Plus S32950 7.74 0.280 477 0.114 0.78 466 200 29.0
DP3 S31260 7.80 0.281 502 0.120 - - 200 29.0
UR 47N 7.85 0.285 480 0.114 0.80 481 205 29.7
255 S32550 7.81 0.282 488 0.116 0.84 505 210 30.5
100 S32760 7.84 0.281 - - 0.85 510 190 27.6
2507 S32750 7.79 0.280 485 0.115 - - 200 29.0
Grade 2304 for comparison
Table 5-19 Ambient temperature physical properties of high perfromance duplex stainless steels
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304L
lower C, better
corrosion resistance
when welded
321 316L 309
Ti added to prevent Mo added to increase Cr & Ni increased for

carbide precipitation corrosion resistance high temperature
resistance
347 317L 310
Nb added to prevent Cr & Mo added to Further increase of

carbide precipitation increase corrosion Ni for increased H.T.
resistance resistance
Duplex and super Super austenitic steels

duplex steels increased Mo, etc.
High corrosion
resistance
Figure 5-2 Commonly used grades of stainless steel
Notes:
C = Carbon
Cr = Chromium
Mo = Molybdenum
Nb = Niobium (Columbium Cb)
Ni = Nickel
Ti = Titanium
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Figure 5-3 Corrosion rates for stainless steels in various gases
Figure 5-4 Solid solution strengthening effects by alloying in austenitic stainless steels
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Figure 5-5 Effect of nitrogen on the strength and ductility of Type 304 stainless steel
Figure 5-6 Strengthening effect of nitrogen in high performance austenitic stainless steels
as manifested in ASTM A240 minimum strength requirements
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Figure 5-7 High temperature strength of austenitic stainless steels
Figure 5-8 High temperature strength of duplex high performance stainless steels
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Figure 5-9 Young's Modulus for a selection of standard and high performance stainless steels
using four different techniques
Figure 5-10 Thermal conductivity of high performance stainless steel structure types
compared with Type 316 stainless steel
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Figure 5-11 Mean coefficient of thermal expansivity for different high performance stainless steel
structure types compared with Type 316 stainless steel (from 20°C to T)
Figure 5-12 Corrosion in non-aerated sulphuric acid-chloride solutions

- 0.1mm/yr (4mpy) isocorrosion curves
(laboratory tests using reagent grade sulphuric acid)
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Figure 5-13 Critical crevice and pitting corrosion temperatures for stainless steels and nickel alloys
Evaluated in 10% ferric chloride per ASTM G48
Figure 5-14 Critical pitting and crevice corrosion temperatures for austenitic stainless steel related to PRE number
Critical temperatures evaluated in 6% ferric chloride per ASTM G48
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in SO2 scrubber environments
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in SO2 scrubber environments
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Figure 5-17 Approximate service limits for stainless steels and nickel-base alloys in
flue gas condensates and acid brines at moderate temperatures [60-80°C](140-176°F)
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6. NICKEL ALLOYS
6.1 Effects of Alloying in Stainless Steels and Nickel Alloys
In order to achieve the critical service demands made of metallic materials in most aggressive conditions experienced with
pollution control systems and chimneys, excellent corrosion resistance is required. Molybdenum is very effective in
stabilising the passive metal oxide film characteristic of the stainless steels and nickel base alloys provided by chromium,
together with nickel and nitrogen to impart structural stability and facilitate fabrication.
Even the high alloy-content “super” austenitic stainless steels may have inadequate performance in the very severe
corrosion conditions encountered in environmental protection equipment, ducts and chimneys, so the use of higher
molybdenum-content nickel base alloys is necessary.
A most significant factor is that the nickel base alloys can accommodate larger amounts of alloying elements such as
chromium, molybdenum and tungsten in solid solution than the iron base austenitic stainless steels. chromium plays an
important part in imparting improved resistance to oxidising media, whilst higher molybdenum content substantially
improves resistance to non-oxidising acids and also improves the pitting and crevice corrosion resistance of the nickel base
alloys. These readily available alloys are most important in modern industry because of their ability to withstand a wide
range of most severe operating conditions. With care, they are readily formed and welded, enabling them to be used easily
and cost-effectively.
The enhanced performance of the high molybdenum-containing nickel base alloys which exhibit very high resistance to
pitting in oxidising chloride media is important in pollution control equipment and chimneys.
6.2 Selection and Performance of Materials

Corrosive environments are frequently very complex. For example, the combustion products from the incineration of
wastes containing plastic materials may generate aggressive acid mixtures contaminated with fluorides and chlorides.
Generally, the higher the molybdenum and chromium content, the better the performance of the alloys in such acid
mixtures.
A practical comparison of potential performance of molybdenum-containing stainless steels and nickel base alloys is
possible by using, as an indication, an index known as the Pitting Resistance Equivalent calculated in accordance with
accepted formulae (See Appendix 6.1). Commonly adopted are:
PREN = %Cr + 3.3 x %Mo + 16 x %N
or when tungsten is also present in nickel base alloys:
PRENW = %Cr + 3.3 x %Mo + 1.65 x %W + 16 x %N
A list of materials (Table 6-1) which may be utilised for pollution control and process equipment, is shown in ascending
order of PRENW. From Table 6-2, increase in PRENW values with increasing alloy content is clearly demonstrated. In
the case of the nickel base alloys, significant increase in value is obtained in comparison with the “super” austenitic
stainless steels.
High concentrations of contaminated sulphuric acid may be condensed on flue surfaces (Figure 6-1) at elevated
temperatures requiring the specification of nickel base alloys to achieve adequate resistance to attack with long service life.
For cost-effectiveness, protecting carbon steel structures with thin molybdenum-containing nickel alloy by “wallpapering”
(typically 1.6mm or 1/16th inch thick) or utilising clad plate (where nickel/molybdenum/chromium alloys are explosive or
roll bonded to carbon steel substrate) are options considered for ducts and flues and other critical areas to minimise the cost
of construction. The nickel/molybdenum-containing steels and alloys are noteworthy for their ready fabrication and
welding with conventional procedures (Section Error! Reference source not found.).
The “generic” nickel base alloy C276, produced and used on a world-wide basis, has been employed extensively in solid,
clad plate or wallpapered form in many chimney applications. The properties and characteristics of the alloy are provided
in (Table 6-3 to Table 6-6 and Figure 6-2). This alloy is produced by a number of alloy manufacturers world-wide and
proprietary alloys have been developed with enhanced properties. Corrosion data and mechanical properties may vary,
reference data are provided as an example of the “generic” material. Contact should be established with the materials
producers to supplement information provided in the Appendices.
Guidelines for material selection in different operating environments are presented in Table 6-7 and Table 6-8.
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UNS Number
Cr Ni Mo Fe W Cr C Other
(Material Designation*1)
6%Mo stainless steels 20 18-25 6 BAL 0.75-1.0 0.02 0.15-0.25N
S31266 (Alloy B66*2) 24.5 22 5.6 BAL 2 1.5 0.02 0.45N
S32654 (Alloy 654SMO*3) 24 22 7.3 BAL 0.5 0.015 0.50N
N06625 (Alloy 625) 21.5 61 9 4 0.05 3.65Cb + Ta

N10276 (Alloy C276) 16 57 16 5 3.8 0.01
N06022 (Alloy C22*4)
22 59 13 3 3.0 0.01
(Alloy 622*5)
N06059 (Alloy 59*6) 23 59 16 1 0.01

N60200 (Alloy C2000*4) 23 57 16 3 1.6 0.01
N06686 (Alloy 686*5) 20.5 57 16.3 1 4.0 0.005
Table 6-1 Selection of nickel alloys in ascending order of PRENW

*1 From “Metals and Alloys in the Unified Numbering System”, Society of Automobile Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA
*2 Alloy B66 is a trademark of Creusot-Loire Industrie
*3 Alloy 654SMO is a trademark of Avesta-Sheffield
*4 Alloy C22 and Alloy C2000 are trademarks of Haynes International
*5 Alloy 622 and Alloy 686 are trademarks of Inco Alloys International
*6 Alloy 59 is a trademark of Krupp-VDM
UNS Number
PRENW=%Cr +3.3x%Mo + 1.65x%W + 16x%N
(Material Designation*1)
6%Mo stainless steels 44
N06625 (Alloy 625) 51
S31266 (Alloy B66*2) 54
S32654 (Alloy 654SMO*3) 56
N06022 (Alloy C22*4, 622*5) 70

N10276 (Alloy C276) 75
N06059 (Alloy 59*6) 76
N06686 (Alloy 686*5) 81
Table 6-2 PRENW values for increasing alloy content
*1 From “Metals and Alloys in the Unified Numbering System”, Society of Automobile Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA
C276
Nickel Remainder Manganese 1.0 max
Molybdenum 15.0 – 17.0 Carbon 0.01 max
Chromium 14.5 – 16.5 Vanadium 0.35 max
Iron 4.0 – 7.0 Phosphorus 0.04 max
Tungsten 3.0 – 4.5 Sulphur 0.03 max
Cobalt 2.5 max Silicon 0.08 max
Table 6-3 Limiting chemical composition for C276
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C276
Temperature Coefficient of expansion Electrical resistivity Young’s Modulus
°F 10-6 in / in.°F Ω . cmil / ft 106 psi
77 - 739.2 29.8
200 6.8 743.8 29.5
400 7.0 749.3 28.6
600 7.2 757.7 27.8
800 7.4 760.3 26.7
1000 7.5 772.5 25.7
1200 7.7 781.5 24.8
1400 8.1 773.9 23.5
1600 8.5 768.3 22.0
1800 - 766.2 20.6
2000 - 757.7 19.1
°C µm / m.°C µΩ . cm / ft GPa
25 - 122.9 205
100 12.2 123.7 203
200 12.4 124.5 198
300 12.9 125.7 192
400 13.2 126.0 186
500 13.5 127.7 180
600 13.6 129.9 178
700 14.1 129.7 167
800 14.8 128.2 159
900 - 127.4 150
1000 - 127.1 141
Table 6-4 Physical properties of C276 at high temperatures
C276
lb/in3 0.321
Density
3
g/cm 8.89
106 psi 29.8
Young’s Modulus
GPa 205
106 psi 11.4
Shear modulus
GPa 79
Poisson’s ratio 0.307
Permeability at
1.0002
200 oersteds (15.9 kA/m)
°F 2415 – 2500
Melting range
°C 1325 – 1370
2
BTU.in/ft .h.°F 67.9
W/m.°C 9.8
BTU/lb.°F 0.102
Specific heat
J/kg.°C 427
Table 6-5 Physical properties for C276

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C276
Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation
Product Form
1000 psi MPa 1000 psi MPa %
Tubing 105.4 727 45.4 313 70
Plate 107.4 741 50.3 347 67
Bar 110.0 758 52.6 363 62
Sheet 115.5 796 54.6 376 60
Table 6-6 Typical room temperature tensile properties of annealed C276 material
Chloride MILD MODERATE SEVERE VERY SEVERE

ppm 100 500 1,000 5,000 10,000 30,000 50,000 100,000 200,000
MILD Nickel
pH 6.5 alloy
Type 316L Super 625 etc
Stainless Steel Austenitic
Type 317LMN Stainless
MODERATE pH 4.5
Stainless Steel Steel
Super Duplex Nickel alloy
Duplex Stainless Steel 6/7Mo C276 etc
Type 317LM
SEVERE pH 2.0 Stainless
Stainless Steel
Steel
Nickel
VERY Type 317LMN Super Austenitic
pH 1.0 alloy
SEVERE Stainless Steel Stainless Steel 6/7Mo
625 etc
Table 6-7 Guidelines for the selection of stainless steel and nickel alloy for FGD equipment*
Chloride and Fluoride Concentration ppm
Chloride <1,000 <5,000 <10,000 <50,000 <100,000 <200,000
Fluoride <400 <1,000 <400 <1,000 <400 <1,000 <400 <1,000 <400 <1,000 <400 <1,000
Type Type 317LMN Type 317LMN Super

6
316L or Duplex or Super Duplex Austenitic
Type 317LMN
4 Super Duplex
or Duplex
Nickel Alloy
pH
Super Aust C276, etc
2 or Super Austenitic
Super Duplex
Super Nickel Alloy

1
Aust C276, etc
Table 6-8 Guidelines for material selection for FGD equipment - Temperature 50-65°C*
*
With care, guidelines are applicable to ducts, flues and chimneys (stacks) following consultation with material producers.
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(0.51 mm per year)
Figure 6-1 Adiabatic saturation curve showing H2SO4 concentration for various
temperatures and operating conditions in FGD plant.
Figure 6-2 Tensile properties of annealed plate C276
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Appendix 6.1
Copy of a paper entitled
“The cost effective use of nickel alloys and stainless steels for chimneys (stacks) in air pollution control systems”
by W.H.D. Plant (consultant to the Nickel Development Institute)
reproduced by kind permission of KCI Publishing BV
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7. TITANIUM
GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION OF TITANIUM GRADES FOR
USE IN FGD PLANT, INCLUDING DUCTS AND CHIMNEY FLUES,
AT VARIOUS CONDITIONS OF pH, TEMPERATURE AND CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION
7.1 Titanium Linings

Titanium linings have been installed in various zones of FGD plants and have withstood the normal environments without
evidence of damage. Operating experience has been gained with major titanium lining installations, over extended periods
under conditions which vary from the handling of raw flue gas to mixed raw/clean gas and wholly unscrubbed gas.
7.2 Definition of the Operating Environment

Operational experience has shown that highly corrosive conditions develop, often in an apparently haphazard manner and
in unpredictable locations. The inlet and outlet ductwork and flues are at greatest risk from attack. The aggressive
conditions experienced include wet/dry interfaces; hot oxidising acidic condensates; and flyash-laden deposits enriched in
chloride and fluoride species.
7.3 Resistance of Titanium to hot concentrated reducing acids

Titanium is susceptible to sulphuric acid dewpoint corrosion, but will regain its normal passivity in the overall oxidising
environment of the duct once the attack by condensed concentrated acid ceases. Above 90 °C, the resistance of
commercially pure titanium to corrosion in acidic chloride environments is progressively reduced, and there is rapidly
diminishing benefit from iron and other oxidising ions which, at lower temperatures, contribute to maintaining passivity.
Under deposit and crevice corrosion of titanium in acid environments is a possibility at temperatures down to 70 °C, but in
these cases there is usually a sufficient supply of iron and aluminium to provide protection. In areas which alternately see
hot/dry to cold/wet conditions, occasional transient light underdeposit or general corrosion may occur on Grade 2 titanium.
However, the titanium oxide film immediately reheals with no further attack taking place once the conditions change. Such
minor and limited scattered damage normally poses no threat to the integrity of liners. Where regular or long term attack is
indicated, titanium alloy ASTM Grade 16 must be specified.
7.4 Resistance of Titanium to fluoride species

Fluorides are normally present, the level of concentration varying according to the fuel burnt and the operating system and
characteristics of any particular plant. titanium must not be used for plant lining where conditions permit active,
uncomplexed fluorides to persist in flue gas or condensates. Tests in situ have shown clearly that fluorides, present in
some cases at levels of about 1%, in deposits covering titanium linings and test plates have failed to generate any
significant attack on the titanium. The resistance of titanium to acidic fluoride-bearing environments results from the
abundant presence of metal ions, particularly aluminium and iron in condensates, liquors and sludges. These ions
chemically complex the active fluorides and thus render them inert to titanium. The role of aluminium in particular as an
inhibitor is effective even at very low levels of pH.
The release of active fluorides from other parts of, for example, the FGD system to act alone or synergistically with other
reducing acids may cause corrosion of titanium in certain circumstances. Selection and evaluation of cementaceous or
polymeric materials must establish their long term stability. It is also important that during application or curing there
should be no release of acid fluorides which may attack and compromise the life of adjacent titanium linings.
7.5 Selection
The standard specification for flue linings is ASTM Grade 2 (Table 7-1). Where corrosive conditions are more severe and
include the possibility of under deposit attack, alloys with suitably enhanced corrosion resistance, such as Grades 16 or 26,
should be chosen. Thus, these alloys which contain palladium and ruthenium respectively have enhanced resistance to
reducing acid environments at elevated temperatures.
Guidelines for the selection of alloy grade for a range of operating conditions are provided in Table 7-2. Consideration is
given to parameters of pH and chloride ion concentration, together with ranges of metal temperature.
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7.6 Design Stresses

Data of the specified strength is provided and this may be used in conjunction with the ASME based design intensity
factors which compensate for increasing temperature (Table 7-3).
7.7 Physical Properties

Data is provided for information only in Table 7-4.
7.8 Product Form

Titanium product forms are widely available. Strip, sheet and plate are specified in ASTM B265 to the Grades indicated.
7.9 Installation
For detailed discussion of installation methods, reference should be made to “Installation & Operation of Titanium Linings
in F.G.D. Ductwork and Stacks” - D.K.Peacock and J.S.Grauman. As titanium cannot be directly welded to steel,
mechanical fastening or welding of carbon steel-backed titanium (such as proprietary systems Resista-Clad™ or Electro-
Clad™) are appropriate methods of attachment. Reference should be made to NACE Recommended Practice Standard
RP0292-98.
7.10 References
“Installation and Operation of Titanium Lining in Flue Gas Desulphurisation Ductwork and Stacks”. D.Peacock and
J.S. Grauman. CICIND Report, Vol. 12, No. 1, 1996.
“Drax Retrospect and Current Review”. D. Peacock. CICIND 1999.
“Application of Titanium Linings in FGD Systems”. R.W.Schutz and M.X.Cerney.6th International Conference on
Titanium, Cannes, France. June 1988.
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Nominal chemical composition
ASTM UNS N C H Fe O Ru Pd
Grade Desig. Max Max Max Max
1 R50250 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.02 0.18 - -

2 R50400 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 - -
7 R52400 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 - 0.12-0.25
11 R52250 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.18 - 0.12-0.25
16 R52402 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 - 0.04-0.08
17 R52252 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.18 - 0.04-0.08
26 R52404 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.30 0.25 0.08-0.14 -
27 R52254 0.03 0.08 0.015 0.20 0.18 0.08-0.14 -
Table 7-1 Composition of commonly used titanium alloys
Chlorine concentration ppm
<5,000 <10,000 <50,000 <100,000 <200,000
Temp <80 80 - 120 - <80 80 - 120 - <80 80 - 120 - <80 80 - 120 - <80 80 - 120 -
°C 120 160 120 160 120 160 120 160 120 160
pH 3.0 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
pH 2.5 A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
pH 2.0 A A A A A A A A A A A A A B B
pH 1.5 A A A A A A A A A A B B B B B
pH 1.0 A A A A A A A B B B B B B B C
pH 0.5 A A A A B B B B B B B B B C C
pH 0.0 A B B B B B B B B B C C C C C
Table 7-2 Suitability of titanium alloys for different operating conditions

A = Commercially pure titanium Grade 2 or Grade 1
B = Titanium 0.05% Palladium Alloys ASTM Grade 16 or 17
0.1% Ruthenium Alloys ASTM Grade 26 or 27
C = Titanium 0.15% Palladium Alloy ASTM Grade 7 or 11
Note 1. ASTM Grade 2 represents the optimum combination of strength and fabricability and availability for the major
ductwork and chimney flues applications. Grade 1 may be used as an alternative and/or where greater
fabricability is required at the expense of strength. The mechanical properties of Grades 16, 26 and 7 are
comparable to those of Grade 2, and the mechanical properties of Grades 17, 27 and 11 are comparable to those
of Grade 1.
Note 2. Fluorides frequently up to high concentrations are present in the flue gas and ash, but there is no record of
significant or sustained attack on titanium by hydrofluoric acid or acidic fluorides from these sources. Early in
the FGD process cycle fluoride species, potentially corrosive to titanium if active, are spontaneously complexed
by aluminium, iron, silicon and calcium - all normally present in the FGD environment. Despite this entirely
satisfactory record, the titanium industry continues to insist on a review of all existing and proposed
installations and will not recommend the use of titanium where it can be shown that operating conditions will
permit sustained exposure to active uncomplexed acidic fluorides in flue gas or condensates
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Minimum
ASTM Minimum 0.2% Proof Stress Minimum Tensile Stress
elongation
Grade
ksi MPa ksi MPa %
2, 7, 16, 26 40 275 50 345 20
1, 11, 17, 27 25 170 35 240 24
Metal temp. °C Room Temp 100 150 200 300
Design Intensity
1 0.88 0.73 0.61 0.45
Factor
Typical proof
stress MPa 400 350 290 240 180
Grade 2
Table 7-3 Titanium Alloy Design Stresses
Grades 1, 2, 7, 11, 16, 17, 26, 27
Hardness HV (Rb) 160 - 200 (84 - 94)

Tensile Modulus Gpa (Msi) 103 (14.9)
Density kg/l (lb/in) 4.51 (0.163)
Thermal Expansion 10/°C (10/°F) 8.9 (4.9)
Thermal Conductivity Kcal/m.hr BTU.in/ft.hr 18.6 150
Specific Heat J/kg/°C (BTU/lb°F) 515 (0.123)
Table 7-4 Titanium Alloy Physical Properties
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8. ELEVATED TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES
8.1 Introduction
Developments in pollution control, coal gasification, gas turbines and in industrial processes involving high-temperatures
are causing designers to examine more closely the elevated temperature properties of materials utilised for chimneys.
Stainless steels and nickel alloys are generally selected, firstly, on the basis of their resistance to corrosion and, secondly,
on the basis of their mechanical properties. As the temperatures of operating environments increase, however, elevated
temperature properties become the primary concern. The characteristics that make some of the stainless steels particularly
useful in high temperature environments are described, and typical engineering data are presented.
The data presented is intended as general information; for design purposes, it is recommended that reference be made to
appropriate standards and specifications.
8.2 Elevated Temperature Properties

As the temperatures of operating environments increase, elevated temperature material properties may be of primary
concern. Appropriate grades of heat resisting carbon steels, stainless steels and nickel alloys are able to meet demanding
requirements of high temperature service.
[It is of interest to note that Alloy 625, developed initially as a heat resistant alloy, has become established also as a wet
corrosion resistant alloy in chloride environments.]
8.3 High Temperature Design Factors

1. Service life
2. Allowable deformation
3. Environment
4. Cost
8.3.1 Service Life

For a given type of steel at a specific thickness, the expected service life depends on the maximum temperature to which it
is exposed plus the maximum stresses to which it is subjected, also whether service is at a constant temperature or at an
intermittently high temperature.
For a prolonged service life, such as 20 years, plain carbon steels are usually limited to a maximum operating temperature
of 750 °F (399 °C), and the stainless steels to considerably higher temperatures, depending upon the type specified (Table
8-1). It is important to recognise that for high temperature service, strength is related to time at temperature.
8.3.2 Allowable Deformation

Another factor to consider in designing for high temperature service is the amount of deformation that can be permitted
during the total service life. This factor determines which of two high temperature strength properties should be given
priority; creep or creep-rupture (sometimes called stress rupture). If the component is large and capable of accommodating
deformation, the creep rupture strength is the usual basis for selection. It is useful to know whether or not service at
elevated temperature is cyclic or continuous. Cyclic operation may lead to failure by fatigue or loss of metal due to flaking
of the oxide scale. This may be of concern in connection with ducting and flues for gas turbine generating units.
8.3.3 Environment
Elevated temperatures tend to increase corrosive action, thermal cycling can increase metal wastage through spalling of
protective scale on the metal surface, and metal temperature probably will not be the same as the flue gas to which it is
exposed. Generally, if oxidation or other forms of scaling are expected to be severe, increased thickness of section is
specified. However, generally it is cost-effective to upgrade the material.
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8.3.4 Cost
The consideration of cost in selecting materials for high temperature service must reflect not only the initial cost of the
equipment but the cost of replacement and downtime as well. Designers should not rule out the more highly alloyed, more
costly materials if a premature failure could result in shutting down the entire plant with loss of valuable production.
8.4 Criteria for Selection

For service at elevated temperatures, the first factor to be considered is hot strength, as this is decisive in determining the
deformation over the expected life. Thermal stability is second, since this may set limits to a particular type from the
standpoint of softening or embrittlement. Physical properties may also be significant in certain cases.
8.4.1 Short-Time Tensile Properties

Up to a temperature of about 900 °F (482 °C), the short-time tensile properties are most important. These are values that
can be used where parts are not exposed to high service temperatures for extended periods of time. The data do not reflect
any effect of long-time exposure to high temperatures which requires design information obtained from creep and creep-
rupture tests.
Figure 8-1 illustrates a broad concept of the strength ranges being considered. As shown, the stainless steels have a higher
hot strength than low carbon unalloyed steel, with the austenitic (300 Series) grades displaying considerably higher
strengths than the ferritic (400 Series) grades. Short-time tensile properties are provided for yield and tensile strength
(Figure 8-3).
8.4.2 Creep
Over about 900 °F (482 °C), deformation under stress is plastic rather than elastic, so the yield point as determined by the
short-time tensile test is higher than the creep or stress-rupture strength. Therefore, in structures operating at temperatures
above 900 °F (482 °C), time becomes a major factor in determining safe loading stresses, since the stress which will cause
failure or a maximum permissible elongation decreases directly as the time during which the stress is applied.
The function of the creep test is to determine the creep rate and amount of deformation as a function of applied stress, time
and temperature.
When the change of length taking place in a specimen over a period of time is plotted against the elapsed time, a creep
curve is obtained, such as illustrated in Figure 8-2. When the load is first applied, an initial elongation (A) occurs. Then
the specimen strains gradually, at a decreasing creep rate during the primary stage of creep (B). The creep rate then
becomes essentially constant for a period of time during the secondary or steady-state stage of creep (C). The slope of the
creep curve in this second stage (which is also referred to as minimum creep rate) is the rate commonly used for design
purposes. Finally, if the time is long enough, the creep rate will increase (D), eventually leading to fracture of the
specimen.
At the end of the test period, if fracture has not occurred, the load is removed and elastic contraction (E) occurs,
corresponding approximately to the elastic extension at the start of the test. Thus, it is apparent that metals creeping under
stress at high temperature can and do show both plastic and elastic properties. The amount of permanent deformation is
represented by (F).
8.4.3 Creep-Rupture
The creep-rupture test (sometimes called the stress-rupture test) is identical to the creep test, except generally the stresses,
and consequently the creep rates, are higher and the test is carried to failure of the material. Rupture values are usually
reported as the stress for rupture in 10,000 and 100,000 hours. The 100,000 hour rupture strength is one of the basic
properties used in the establishment of design stresses. It should be noted that creep and creep-rupture tests are seldom
carried out to the times corresponding to the intended service life. The stress, therefore, for a minimum creep rate of 1% in
100,000 hours is generally based on extrapolation of shorter time tests to long time.
Properties for a number of austenitic stainless steels are provided as stress-rupture (Figure 8-4 and Figure 8-5) and creep
rate curves (Figure 8-6 and Figure 8-7). Interpolation to other rupture times, creep rates and stresses can be made (Figure
8-8 to Figure 8-14) for stainless steels at various temperatures.
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8.4.4 Thermal Stability

With time at temperature, changes in metallurgical structure can be expected for almost any steel or alloy. In stainless
steels, the changes can be softening, carbide precipitation, or embrittlement. The latter are minimised by utilising the low
carbon grades of stainless steels designated as Type “L”, where corrosion resistance at temperature is more important than
strength and stabilised grades of stainless steel to which Titanium (Type 321) or Niobium/Columbium (Type 347) are
added. See Table 5-1, Table 5-2, Table 5-8, Table 5-9, Table 5-10 and Figure 5-2.
8.4.5 Physical Properties

Physical properties, such as linear expansion and thermal conductivity, are important. Figure 8-15 shows austenitic
stainless steels to have greater thermal expansion than the ferritic types (and plain carbon steels), which should be
considered in designing equipment for high temperature service and when joining dissimilar typesxxv.
Thermal conductivity also differs (Figure 8-16), a factor to be taken into consideration when welding austenitic materials.
(Section Error! Reference source not found.).
Fluctuating temperatures can lead to thermal fatigue. As a result of their low thermal conductivity and high thermal
expansion, the austenitic stainless steels are more sensitive to thermal fatigue than the ferritic types. Accordingly,
complicated fabricated structures subject to alternate heating and cooling require design techniques incorporating the
following: minimisation of temperature differentials, use of expansion joints and other means of permitting movement
without distortion and avoidance of notches.
8.4.6 Modulus of Elasticity

The tensile modulus of elasticity of the ferritic steels (alloy and stainless) is illustrated in Figure 8-17. The modulus of
elasticity for the austenitic stainless steels is illustrated in Figure 8-18.
Caution should be used in employing elastic moduli for design at elevated temperatures where creep (plastic deformation)
may occur.
8.5 Effect of Atmosphere

Much attention is given to the compatibility of stainless steels with air or oxygen. In non-fluctuating-temperature service
the oxidation resistance (or scaling resistance) of stainless steels depends on chromium content, as indicated in Figure
8-19. Steels with less than 18% chromium (ferritic grades primarily) are limited to temperatures below 1500 °F (816 °C).
Those containing 18-20% chromium are useful to temperatures of 1800 °F (982 °C), while adequate resistance to scaling at
temperatures up to 2000 °F (1093 °C) requires a chromium content of about 25%, with selection of steels such as Types
309 and 310.
The maximum service temperature based on a rate of oxidation of 10 mg. per sq.cm. in 1000 hours is given for several
stainless steels in Table 8-3 for non-fluctuating-temperature. The corrosion resistance of several stainless steels in steam
and oxidising flue gases, compared with their corrosion resistance in air, is shown in Figure 8-20.
In many processes constant temperature conditions are not maintained and process temperatures vary. The temperature
limits with variable conditions are shown in Table 8-3 in the column “Intermittent Service”. Expansion and contraction
differences between the base metal and the protective film (or scale) during heating and cooling cause cracking and spalling
of the protective scale. This allows the oxidising media to attack the exposed metal surface.
The spalling resistance of the austenitic stainless steels is greatly improved at higher nickel levels, as illustrated in Figure
8-21. Nickel reduces the thermal expansion differential between alloy and oxide film, thereby reducing stresses at the
alloy-oxide interface during cooling.
However, trends in the design of steam and other forms of power generation have resulted in a growing interest in
oxidation in such environments as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water vapour. Exposure to mild conditions in
these environments leads to the formation of the protective oxide film described earlier, but when conditions become too
severe, film breakdown can occur. The onset of this transition is unpredictable and sensitive to alloy composition.
Although the reaction mechanisms are probably similar in air, water vapour and carbon dioxide, reaction rates may vary
considerably.
xxv
Ref: ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 124, “The Elevated Temperature Properties of Stainless Steels”, and in a
supplement, ASTM Data Series Publication DS5-S1 and DS5-S2
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An increase in corrosion rates can be expected in the presence of water vapour.
The high chromium austenitic stainless steels with increased nickel contents, Type 309 and Type 310, are recognised heat
resisting steels widely employed in heat treatment equipment. Ducting and flue designs, such as those for gas turbine
exhausts, may benefit from consideration of the properties and characteristics of the steel Types 309 and 310 (Table 8-4 to
Table 8-7).
Elevated temperature physical properties of high performance austenitic and duplex stainless steels are detailed in Table
8-8 and Table 8-9.
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Table 8-1 Steel yield strength values (fy,k) at temperature from prEN13084-7:2001
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ASTM Desig’n %Ni Temperature Range

°F °C
A203 2¼ -90 to +75 -68 to +24
? 3½ -150 to +75 -101 to +24
T304 See data
T316 See data
Table 8-2 Short term tensile properties
Intermittent Service Continuous Service

AISI Type
°C °F °C °F
304 870 1600 925 1700
309 980 1800 1095 2000
310 1035 1900 1150 2100
316 870 1600 925 1700
317 870 1600 925 1700
321 870 1600 925 1700
347 870 1600 925 1700
410 815 1500 705 1300
Table 8-3 Suggested maximum service temperatures in air
Type 309
Thermal Conductivity
BTU/hr/sq W/m.K
ft/ft/°F
212°F (100°C) 9.0 0.108
932°F (500°C) 10.8 0.130
Mean coefficient of thermal expansion per °F (°C) (x 106)

32 to 212 °F (0 to 100°C) 8.3 (15.0)
32 to 600 °F (0 to 315°C) 9.3 (16.6)
32 to 1000 °F (0 to 538°C) 9.6 (17.2)
32 to 1200 °F (0 to 649°C) 10.0 (18.0)
32 to 1800 °F (0 to 981°C) 11.5 (20.6)
Temperature Modulus
6-
°F °C psi (x10 ) GPa
80 27 Tension 29.0 200
800 427 Tension 23.1 159
1000 538 Tension 22.6 156
1200 649 Tension 21.8 150
1300 704 Tension 21.2 146
1500 816 Tension 19.8 137
1600 871 Tension 19.2 132
Table 8-4 Physical properties of Type 309 (S30900)
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Type 309
0.20 2.00 0.045 0.03 1.00 22.0/ 12.0/
24.0 15.0
80 27 45 310 90 621 45 85
300 149 35.2 243 80.3 554 48 70
500 260 33.2 229 77 531 45 67
700 371 30.8 212 74 510 42 64
900 482 27.8 192 69 476 39 57
1100 593 24.8 171 60 414 37 43
1300 704 21.6 149 43 296 36 49
1500 816 18.2 125 27 186 38 42
1700 927 16 110 45 43
1900 1038 8.5 59 58 61
2000 1093 4 28 71 73
(1% in 10,000 hrs) (1% in 100,000 hrs)
800 427 36.5 252 25.5 176
900 482 23 159 16.1 111 60 414 55 379
1000 538 16 110 10.4 72 42 290 36.6 252
1100 593 11 76 7 48 29.2 201 24.5 169
1200 649 7 48 4.2 29 19.2 132 14.3 99
1300 704 4 28 2 14 11 76 7.7 53
1400 760 2 14 1 7 6.8 47 4.3 30
1500 816 1 7 0.4 3 4.1 28 2.3 17
Tensile strength
900 482 34.4 237 83.3 574 62 78
1050 566 36.1 249 86.9 599 57 66
1200 649 34.5 238 87.4 603 53 60
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Type 310
Thermal Conductivity
BTU/hr/sq
W/m.K
ft/ft/°F
212°F (100°C) 8.2 0.099
932°F (500°C) 10.8 0.130
Mean coefficient of thermal expansion per °F (°C) (x 106)

32 to 212 °F (0 to 100°C) 8.8 (15.9)
32 to 600 °F (0 to 315°C) 9.0 (16.2)
32 to 1000 °F (0 to 538°C) 9.4 (17.0)
32 to 1200 °F (0 to 649°C) 9.7 (17.5)
32 to 1800 °F (0 to 981°C) 10.6 (19.1)
Temperature Modulus
6-
°F °C psi (x10 ) GPa
80 27 Tension 29.0 200
Tension 28.2 194
200 93
Shear 10.9 75
Tension 27.5 190
300 149
Shear 10.6 73
Tension 26.8 185
400 204
Shear 10.3 71
Tension 26.2 181
500 260
Shear 10.0 69
Tension 25.5 176
600 316
Shear 9.7 67
Tension 24.9 172
700 371
Shear 9.4 65
Tension 24.2 167
800 427
Shear 9.1 63
Tension 23.6 163
900 482
Shear 8.8 61
Tension 23.0 159
1000 538
Shear 8.5 59
Tension 22.4 154
1100 593
Shear 8.2 57
Tension 21.8 150
1200 649
Shear 7.9 54
Tension 21.2 146
1300 704
Shear 7.6 52
Tension 20.5 141
1400 760
Shear 7.2 50
Tension 19.0 131
1500 816
Shear 6.9 48
Tension 19.2 132
1600 871
Shear 6.6 46
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Type 310
0.25 2.00 0.045 0.03 1.50 24.0/ 19.0/
26.0 22.0
80 27 45 310 95 655 45 85
300 149 34.9 241 82.1 566 38 69
500 260 32.5 224 77.6 535 35 63
700 371 29.6 204 75.5 521 35 57
900 482 26.3 181 69.5 479 35 53
1100 593 22.7 157 61.5 424 38 47
1300 704 19.0 131 45.5 314 31 42
1500 816 15 103 29.5 203 30 38
1700 927 17 117 49 48
1900 1038 11 76 56 46
2000 1093 7 48 57 48
(1% in 10,000 hrs) (1% in 100,000 hrs)
900 482 22.8 157 15 103
1000 538 17.6 121 11.8 81 37.6 259 32.4 223
1100 593 12.8 88 8.8 61 23.6 163 20 138
1200 649 8.4 58 6 41 13.4 92 11 76
1300 704 5 34 3.7 25 8.7 60 6.9 48
1400 760 2.4 17 2 14 6 41 4.5 31
1500 816 1 7 0.8 6 4.5 31 3.3 23
Tensile strength
900 482 37.2 256 90.2 622 54 69
1050 566 42.3 292 93.5 645 46 54
1200 649 58.1 401 117.9 813 4 4
Table 8-7 Physical properties of Type 310
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20°C 100°C 200°C 300°C 400°C 500°C

Name UNS Number
(68°F) (212°F) (392°F) (572°F) (754°F) (932°F)
Elastic modulus in tension GPa (103 ksi)
Type 316L S31603 200 (29.0) 194 (28.1) 185 (26.9) 177 (25.9) 169 (24.5) 160 (23.2)
Alloy 825 N08825 193 (28.0) 190 (27.6) 185 (26.8_ 179 (25.9) 173 (25.1) 167 (24.2)
317LMN S31726 200 (29.0) 194 (28.1) 186 (27.0) 179 (26.0) 171 (24.8) 163 (23.6)
Alloy 28 N08028 200 (29.0) 195 (28.5) 190 (27.5) 180 (26.0) 170 (24.5) 158 (23.0)
1925 hMo N08926 193 (28.0) 186 (27.0) 179 (26.0) 173 (25.1) 168 (24.4) 162 (23.6)
4565S S34565 193 (28.0) 187 (27.1) 180 (26.1) 173 (25.1) 165 (24.0) 157 (22.9)
Mean coefficient of thermal expansion from 20°C (68°F) to T 10-6 cm/cm/°C 10-6 in/in/°F
Type 316L S31603 15.7 (8.72) 16.5 (9.16) 16.9 (9.38) 17.3 (9.61) 17.6 (9.78) 18.0 (10.0)
Alloy 20 N08020 14.7 (8.16) 14.9 (8.27) 15.2 (8.44) 15.5 (8.61) 15.9 (8.83) 16.1 (8.94)
Alloy 825 N08825 13.1 (7.30) 14.2 (7.88) 14.9 (8.30) 15.3 (8.48) 15.6 (8.64) 15.8 (8.80)
20Mo-6 N08026 14.7 (8.16) 14.8 (8.22) 14.9 (8.29) 15.3 (8.52) 15.7 (8.73) 16.0 (8.89)
317LMN S31726 16.1 (8.94) 16.6 (9.22) 17.2 (9.55) 17.8 (9.89) 18.5 (10.3)
904L N08904 15.0 (8.33) 15.3 (8.50) 15.7 (8.72) 16.1 (8.94) 16.5 (9.17) 16.9 (9.39)
20Mo-4 N08024 14.0 (7.78) 14.4 (8.00) 14.9 (8.29) 15.6 (8.66) 16.1 (8.96) 16.5 (9.17)
Alloy 28 N08028 14.6 (8.11) 15.0 (8.33) 15.5 (8.50) 16.0 (9.00) 16.5 (9.50) 17.0 (9.44)
254SMO S31254 16.9 (9.40)
25-6MO N08926 15.1 (8.40)
1925 hMo N08926 14.4 (8.00) 15.0 (8.33) 15.7 (8.72) 16.1 (8.94) 16.4 (9.11) 16.7 (9.28)
AL-6XN N08367 15.3 (8.50) 16.0 (8.90)
4565S S34565 13.7 (7.61) 14.5 (8.00) 15.5 (8.60) 16.3 (9.00) 16.8 (9.30) 17.2 (9.50)
3127 hMo N08031 14.0 (7.78) 14.3 (7.94) 14.7 (8.17) 15.1 (8.39) 15.5 (8.61) 15.9 (8.33)
Thermal conductivity – W/m °C (BTU in/hr ft2 °F)
Type 316L S31603 14.0 (97) 14.9 (103) 16.0 (111) 17.3 (120) 18.6 (129) 19.9 (138)
Alloy 20 N08020 11.6 (81) 13.1 (91) 15.0 (104) 16.6 (115) 18.2 (126) 19.6 (136)
Alloy 825 N08825 11.1 (77) 12.4 (86) 14.1 (96) 15.6 (108) 16.5 (115) 18.2 (126)
20Mo-6 N08026 11.6 (81) 13.1 (91) 15.0 (104) 16.6 (115) 18.2 (126) 19.6 (136)
317LMN S31726 14.0 (97)
904L N08904 11.5 (80) 13.1 (91) 15.1 (105)
20Mo-4 N08024 11.5 (80) 13.1 (91) 14.9 (103) 16.7 (116) 18.3 (127) 19.7 (137)
Alloy 28 N08028 11.4 (79) 12.9 (89) 14.3 (99) 15.6 (108) 16.7 (116) 17.7 (123)
254SMO S31254 14.0 (97)
25-6MO N08926 16.7 (116)
1925 hMo N08926 13.7 (95)
AL-6XN N08367 12.0 (83) 12.9 (89) 14.4 (100) 16.5 (114) 18.5 (128) 20.1 (139)
4565S S34565 14.5 (101) 14.5 (101)
3127 hMo N08031 12.0 (83)
654SMO S32654 8.6 (59) 9.8 (68) 11.3 (78) 12.6 (87) 14.5 (100)
Table 8-8 Elevated temperature physical properties of high-performance austenitic stainless steels
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20°C 100°C 200°C 300°C 400°C 500°C

Name UNS Number
(68°F) (212°F) (392°F) (572°F) (754°F) (932°F)
Elastic modulus in tension GPa (103 ksi)
Type 329 S32900 200 (29.0) 195 (28.0) 185 (27.0)
3RE60 S31500 200 (29.0) 190 (27.6) 180 (26.1) 170 (24.7) 160 (23.2) 150 (21.8)
2304 S32304 200 (29.0) 190 (27.6) 180 (26.1) 170 (24.7) 160 (23.2) 150 (21.8)
2205 S31803 200 (29.0) 190 (27.6) 180 (26.1) 170 (24.7) 160 (23.2) 150 (21.8)
UR 47N - 205 (29.7) 194 (28.1) 181 (26.2) 170 (24.7) - -
255 S32550 210 (30.5) 200 (29.0) 198 (28.7) 192 (27.8) 182 (26.4) 170 (24.7)
2507 S32750 200 (29.0) 190 (27.6) 180 (26.1) 170 (24.7) 160 (23.2) 150 (21.8)
Mean coefficient of thermal expansion from 20°C (68°F) to T 10-6 cm/cm/°C 10-6 in/in/°F
Type 329 S32900 10.9 (6.10) 11.0 (6.30) 11.6 (6.40) 12.1 (6.70) 12.3 (6.80)
3RE60 S31500 12.6 (7.00) 13.0 (7.22) 13.5 (7.50) 14.0 (7.78) 14.5 (8.06) 15.0 (8.33)
2304 S32304 12.6 (7.00) 13.0 (7.22) 13.5 (7.50) 14.0 (7.78) 14.5 (8.06) 15.0 (8.33)
2205 S31803 12.6 (7.00) 13.0 (7.22) 13.5 (7.50) 14.0 (7.78) 14.5 (8.06) 15.0 (8.33)
7-Mo Plus S32950 9.5 (5.27) 10.5 (5.83) 11.5 (6.39) 12.4 (6.89) 13.3 (7.39) 13.9 (7.72)
UR 47N - 12.0 (6.67) 12.5 (6.94) 13.0 (7.22) 13.5 (7.50)
255 S32550 11.7 (6.5) 12.1 (6.72) 12.6 (7.00) 13.0 (7.22) 13.3 (7.39) 13.6 (7.56)
2507 S32750 12.6 (7.00) 13.0 (7.22) 13.5 (7.50) 14.0 (7.78) 14.5 (8.06) 15.0 (8.33)
Thermal conductivity – W/m °C (BTU in/hr ft2 °F)
Type 329 S32900
3RE60 S31500 16.0 (110) 17.0 (118) 19.0 (132) 20.0 (138) 21.0 (147) 22.0 (153)
2304 S32304 16.0 (110) 17.0 (118) 19.0 (132) 20.0 (138) 21.0 (147) 22.0 (153)
2205 S31803 16.0 (110) 17.0 (118) 19.0 (132) 20.0 (138) 21.0 (147) 22.0 (153)
7-Mo Plus S32950 14.1 (97) 16.4 (114) 19.0 (132) 21.5 (149)
UR 47N - 17.0 (118) 18.0 (124) 19.0 (132) 20.0 (138)
255 S32550 13.5 (94) 15.1 (105) 17.2 (119) 19.1 (133) 20.9 (145) 22.5 (156)
2507 S32750 16.0 (110) 17.0 (118) 19.0 (132) 20.0 (138) 21.0 (147) 22.0 (153)
Table 8-9 Elevated temperature physical properties of high-performance duplex stainless steels
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Figure 8-1 Schematic tensile rupture strength in 1000 hours
Figure 8-2 Schematic Creep Curve
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Figure 8-3 Short time tensile strengths
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Figure 8-4 Stress-rupture curves for several annealed stainless steels - 10,000hrs
Figure 8-5 Stress rupture curves for several stainless steels - 100,000hrs
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Figure 8-6 Creep-rate curves for several stainless steels - 1% in 10,000hrs
Figure 8-7 Creep-rate curves for several stainless steels - 1% in 100,000hrs
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Figure 8-8 Stress vs rupture-time and creep-rate curves for annealed Type 304 stainless steel
(averaged data)
Figure 8-9 Stress vs rupture time and creep-rate curves for annealed Type 309 stainless steel
(averaged data)
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(averaged data)
(averaged data)
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(averaged data)
(averaged data)
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(averaged data)
Figure 8-15 Linear thermal expansion of stainless steels
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Figure 8-16 Thermal conductivity of stainless steels
Figure 8-17 Tensile modulus for ferritic steels (alloy and stainless)
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Figure 8-18 Tensile modulus for austenitic stainless steels
Figure 8-19 Comparative scaling behaviour of various steels during 1000-hr exposures in air
at temperatures from 1100 to 1700°F (595 tp 925°C)
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Figure 8-20 Corrosion rates for stainless steel in various gases
Figure 8-21 Effect of nickel on scaling resistance

Scaling resistance of some iron-chromium-nickel alloys in cycling temperature conditions at 1800°F (982°C). Cycle
consisted of 15min in the furnace in air. Sheet specimens 0.031” (0.787mm) thick were exposed on both sides.
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9. LOW TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES
This section will be included
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10.
This section is being held for possible future inclusion
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11.
This section is being held for possible future inclusion
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12. USEFUL INFORMATION

12.1 Material Data Sheets
This section contains material data sheets kindly provided by manufacturers. The list of materials covered is not exhaustive
and inclusion does not in any way represent a recommendation by CICIND of those materials. They provided as a source of
additional material data for designers to identify the properties of different types of material of certain chemical
composition.
The data sheets that follow are:
1) Voestalpine-Division Stahl - Rolled Clad Plates – One Step Ahead, Voestalpine Groblech GmbH
2) Special Metals - Inconel® alloy 686
3) Wallpapering sheet lining with nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys Guidelines – NiDi Reference: Book Series
No 11020
4) Stainless Steel Allegheny Ludlum AL-6XN Alloy – Technical Data Blue Sheet
5) Special Metals - Inconel® alloy C-276
6) Krupp VDM - Cronifer® 1925 hMo-alloy 926 – Material Data sheet No 5002, September 1999 edition
7) Haynes International – Corrosion Resistant Hastelloy, Alloy at a Glance, June 1997 Hastelloy® C-2000® alloy
8) Haynes International – Hastelloy C-22 alloy. A quick reference to the ultimate in corrosion protection
9) Haynes International – Fabrication guidelines for thin-sheet metallic lining of flue gas desulfurization systems.
General guidelines for weldings, pattern layout and structural attachments 1992
10) 3CR12 from Cromwell. Adding advantage to stainless steel. Product information
11) Krupp Thyssen Nirosta – Nirosta® 4565S
12) SPF Corporation of America (article by Mark Philipps) – Resistance welded clad plate for ductwork, chimney
liners and absorbers in FGD units
13) Usinor Industeel - URANUS®B66 a high strength super-austenitic stainless steel with PRENW≥54
14) ThyseenKrup VDM – Nicrofer 3127 hMo – alloy 31
15) ThyssenKrup VDM – Nicrofer 5923 hMo – alloy 59
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CICIND Metallic Materials Manual - E

Copyright CICIND 2002

CICIND METALLIC MATERIALS MANUAL

THE DATA IN TABLES, DIAGRAMS AND DATA

The Committee comprised:

1.3 Layout of Manual

1.4 Units conversion

1.5 Commonly Used Chemical Elements

Resisting corrosion is of increasing concern to the chimney designer.

2.1 Acid Dewpoint Corrosion

As a flue gas generated by the combustion of a sulphur-

In the present context “acid dewpoint” refers to the

From Figure 2-1i at a dewpoint of 150°C., the sulphuric

Sulphuric acid is hygroscopic so that as the temperature

equivalent to 0.0254 mils/year

Figure 2-2 The resistance of Alloy C276 to sulphuric acid solutions

2.2 Metallic Chimneys and Flues

2.2.1 Material Groups

• Carbon Structural Steels

2.2.2 Metallic Materials for Chimneys and Flues

Examples of material supplier data sheets are included in Section 12.

3. GUIDE TO MATERIAL SELECTION

1. Flue gas temperature 8. Design life

These metallic materials include:-

1. Carbon structural steels

3.1.2 Chemical Loadings

3.1.3 Corrosion Allowance

Corrosion allowance in mm for a design

> 20 years 1.0mm

4.1 Structural Steels

Figure 4-1 Effect of Carbon and Manganese

4.2 Weathering Steels

4.3 Stainless Steels, Nickel Base Alloys and Titanium

4.3.1 Stainless Steels

Expert advice should be sought on the choice of suitable material.

4.3.2 Nickel Alloys and Titanium

4.4 Chemical effects

Operating hours per year when the

Table 4-1 Limits of exposure to acidic condensation

4.5 Allowance for Corrosion

(0.51 mm per yr)

Figure 4-2 Sulphuric acid saturation curve

Painted carbon steel 0mm

Table 4-2 External corrosion allowance (CE)

Usual temperature of metal in Chemical load Internal Corrosion Allowance

< 65°C low N/A - chemical load always high

65°C - 345°C low 1mm

> 345°C low 1mm

Table 4-3 Internal corrosion allowance (CI)

Notes to Table 4-3:

Table 4-4 Minimum strengths inN/mm2

Temp. (°C) Minimum Energy (J)

Table 4-5 Impact values for nominal thickness 10-150mm

Plain carbon structural steels 400°C

AISI Intermittent Service Continuous Service

Average Corrosion Rate mpy*

Table 4-8 Summary of data on corrosion resistance of carbon steel and

Figure 4-3 High temperature oxidation tests in air

5.2 Guidelines for Selection

The following form the basis for general consideration:

• Carbon Structural Steels

5.3 Basic Grades of Stainless Steels

5.3.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels

5.3.3 Duplex Stainless Steels

N06022 (Alloy C224, 6225) 70