ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH

2020, VOL. 25, NO. 12, 1311–1328

https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2020.1853578

Destination brand identity and emerging market tourists’ perceptions

Chang-Hua Yena, Hsiu-Yu Tenga and Sue-Ting Changb
a
Department of Leisure and Recreation Management, National Taichung University of Science and Technology, Taichung,
Taiwan, ROC.; bDepartment of Business Administration, National Taichung University of Science and Technology, Taichung,
Taiwan, ROC.

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The trend of destination branding is prominent in contemporary tourism. However, Destination branding;
little research has investigated the relationships between tourist perceptions of identity; perceived value;
destination brand identity and value, satisfaction, and behavioral intention, satisfaction; behavioral
intention
particularly with reference to tourists from emerging markets. Using structural
equation modeling, survey data from 620 tourists who visited Taiwan indicate that
destination image, quality, personality, and awareness positively affect perceived
value and satisfaction; satisfaction positively affects behavioral intention; and
perceived value positively affects satisfaction. Furthermore, the perceived value–
behavioral intention relationship is mediated by satisfaction. These findings can be
referenced by managers hoping to develop effective marketing strategies.

Introduction
For more than a decade, Taiwan has promoted
tourism with the slogan “Taiwan, Touch Your Heart,”
which has fostered perceptions of Taiwan as a friendly
and hospitable location. The number of visits made by
international tourists increased by 198% from 3.72
million in 2007–11.07 million in 2018 (Taiwan
Tourism Bureau, 2019). The Taiwanese government
has since decided that its strategy for the next
decade should be to continue strengthening
Taiwan’s international image; specifically, the govern-
ment plans to transform Taiwan into the “star tourist
destination in Asia” with a destination brand encapsu-
lated by the slogan “Taiwan, the Heart of Asia.” By
adopting this approach, the government aims to
increase Taiwan’s value for tourism and improve
Taiwan’s tourism competitiveness worldwide.
Successful establishment of a destination brand is
a central topic in the tourism industry, attracting the
attention of industries, governments, and scholars
(Chen et al., 2018b; Zenker et al., 2017). Destination
brand identity comprises the unique traits associated
with a destination that enable stakeholders or tourists
to easily distinguish a target destination brand from
other brands (Tsaur et al., 2016). Numerous studies
have discussed the value of tourists’ brand percep-
tions of a given destination (e.g. Kotsi et al., 2018;
Pike & Bianchi, 2016). The brand image, awareness,
and quality of a destination were discovered by Boo
et al. (2009) to positively influence destination brand
value, thereby affecting tourists’ destination brand
loyalty. Furthermore, Martín et al. (2019) demon-
strated that destination image, awareness, and per-
ceived quality have positive correlations with tourist
satisfaction, which affects tourist loyalty. Therefore,
tourists’ perceptions of destination brand identity cri-
tically influence tourists’ perceived value, satisfaction,
and behavioral intentions.
In recent years, Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) countries have experienced an econ-
omic boom that has transformed the region into a
hotspot of the global economy. In emerging
markets, most consumers prefer foreign brands
because of their positive associations with certain
countries (Melnyk et al., 2012). The brand image that
consumers in emerging countries have in relation to
foreign brands can increase their perceived brand
quality (Essoussi & Merunka, 2007). The functional,

CONTACT Hsiu-Yu Teng serenateng2013@gmail.com Department of Leisure and Recreation Management, National Taichung Uni-
versity of Science and Technology, No. 129, Sanmin Road, Sec. 3, Taichung 404, Taiwan, ROC
© 2020 Asia Pacific Tourism Association
1312 C.-H. YEN ET AL.
social, and hedonic values of global brands can
increase customer satisfaction in emerging markets
(Alden et al., 2013). Morgeson et al. (2015) found
that compared with consumers in developed
countries, perceived value had a greater influence
on customer satisfaction among consumers in emer-
ging countries. However, the influence of satisfaction
on customer loyalty was lower in emerging countries.
Therefore, different from previous studies (Boo et al.,
2009; Martín et al., 2019), in our study it was
suggested that the relationships between destination
brand identity, value, satisfaction, and behavioral
intention may be different for tourists from emerging
markets. Furthermore, in the field of tourism, much of
the understanding of consumer behavior is based on
empirical research conducted from a western vantage
point or in western generating markets (Winter, 2009).
Cohen et al. (2014) and de la Hoz-Correa and Muñoz-
Leiva (2019) suggested that scholars should investi-
gate cross-cultural matters concerning tourism consu-
mer behaviors in emerging markets.
Therefore, the following research questions were
explored in this study. (1) For tourists from emerging
markets, does destination brand identity affect tour-
ists’ perceived value and satisfaction? (2) What are
the relationships between perceived value, satisfac-
tion, and behavioral intention for tourists from emer-
ging markets? To answer these questions, the
present study assessed the influence of destination
brand identity on perceived value and satisfaction of
tourists from emerging markets visiting Taiwan. Fur-
thermore, this research sought to clarify the relation-
ships among perceived value, satisfaction, and
behavioral intention. The study has two key contri-
butions to related theory. First, this study responded
to recommendations made by Tsaur et al. (2016) and
Taecharungroj (2019) by identifying possible expla-
nations for the relationship between destination
brand identity and relevant variables among tourists
from emerging markets. Second, current knowledge
of marketing and brand management is mostly from
a Western perspective (Sheth, 2011), and limited
research has been conducted on destination branding
for tourists from emerging markets. Using the research
basis of previous scholars (Taecharungroj, 2019; Tsaur
et al., 2016), this study expanded theoretical knowl-
edge regarding the relationship between destination
brand identity and the perceptions of tourists from
emerging markets. The findings will be useful for refer-
ence by destination managers developing effective
strategies for international tourism marketing.
Literature review
Destination brand identity
The development of a destination brand is a strategic
approach now adopted by various countries and
tourist destinations (Brito & Pratas, 2015). Kaplanidou
and Vogt (2003) asserted that destination branding
involves identifying the unique attributes of a destina-
tion, integrating local elements sharing such attri-
butes into a tourist set, and presenting a unique
identity or character and creating a positive destina-
tion image. They developed a model that reflects
their view of destination brand identity as founded
on unique brand associations that implicitly suggest
a promise made by an organization to its customers.
Five tenets are defined within this framework for the
management of destination brand identity: the
brand’s personality, image, essence, culture, and char-
acter. Similarly, Risitano (2005) developed a model for
destination branding and proposed that six elements
form the foundation of destination brand identity: a
brand’s character, culture, personality, logos, name,
and slogan. Tsaur et al. (2016) developed a scale for
measuring destination brand identity. The scale
measures the following constructs: a destination’s
quality, image, personality, culture, and awareness.
These constructs help tourists recognize and dis-
tinguish one destination brand from all others. Tae-
charungroj (2019) used user-generated content to
construct place brand identities for two popular
metro areas in Bangkok, Thailand – Khaosan Road
and Yaowarat – based on three pillars: place physics,
place practices, and place personality.
Perceived value
Perceived value refers to the value that consumers
ascribe to a product or service after evaluating the
costs versus the benefits (Lovelock, 2001). Therefore,
this study defines perceived value as tourists’ cumu-
lative assessment of their gains and losses in the
exchange for destination products and services (Yen
et al., 2018), in which “destination products and ser-
vices” refers to all Taiwanese tourism products and
services received by tourists, either visiting on a
group tour or individually, during their current trip
to Taiwan. Petrick (2004) indicated that perceived
value of the tourism industry enables understanding
of the consumption behaviors of tourists. Frías-Jami-
lena et al. (2019) argued that tourist motivations

and self-congruity are key factors that influence tour-
ists’ perceived destination value. Chen and Chen
(2010) found that experience quality in heritage desti-
nation is positively correlated with both satisfaction
and perceived value. Additionally, because the value
perceived by tourists is the overall evaluative
measure applied to tourist products and services, per-
ceived value is a critical factor affecting satisfaction
(Kim & Thapa, 2018a; Prebensen & Xie, 2017). Yen
et al. (2018) determined that the high degree of per-
ceived value that tourists obtain from tourist experi-
ences positively influences their behavioral
intentions. Cardona et al. (2017) revealed that tourists’
perceived value regarding local brands at a destina-
tion positively affects their willingness to revisit. Luo
et al. (2018) discovered that within perceived destina-
tion brand value, emotional, social, and epistemic
value have positive effects on destination loyalty.
Thus, enhancing the perceived value of various
tourism-related products and services has become
essential.
Tourist satisfaction
Tourist satisfaction is defined as the overall subjective
judgment that a tourist makes regarding destination
products and services through comparison of expec-
tations before the trip with actual experiences on
the trip (Cheng et al., 2017). Expectancy disconfirma-
tion theory holds that an individual assesses their sat-
isfaction through comparison of their expectations
with service performance (Oliver, 1981). Customer dis-
satisfaction is the consequence of service perform-
ance not meeting the customer’s expectations.
Conversely, customer satisfaction results when
service performance surpasses the customer’s expec-
tations (Liu & Jang, 2009). Tourist satisfaction with
travel services is complex and evaluable at different
levels (Huang et al., 2010). The current research inves-
tigated tourists’ satisfaction after traveling on the
basis of their understanding of the expectation–per-
ception difference regarding the performance of
tourism products. Truong et al. (2018) revealed that
destination distinctiveness positively affect tourist sat-
isfaction and tourist behavior. Furthermore, Eid et al.
(2019) demonstrated that destination attributes (e.g.
local attractions, facilities, local quality of life, infor-
mation, and services) positively affect destination
image, thereby influencing tourist satisfaction. Moon
and Han (2019) revealed that perceived value and per-
ceived price reasonableness positively affect tourist
ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 1313
satisfaction, increasing tourists’ destination loyalty.
These findings demonstrate that tourist satisfaction
plays a key role in the relationship between destina-
tion brand identity and tourist attitudes.
Behavioral intentions
Behavioral intentions are defined as tourists’ subjec-
tive judgments regarding the probability of engaging
in a given behavior and reflect tourists’ willingness to
dedicate effort to that behavior (Lee et al., 2007). In
the tourism sector, behavioral intention refers to the
likelihood of a tourist exhibiting a specific behavior,
such as making repeated visits or recommendations
(Yen et al., 2018). After using a product or service,
tourists evaluate their experience and decide
whether they liked or disliked the product or
service. The evaluative result indirectly affects tourist
satisfaction (Chan et al., 2015). Souiden et al. (2017)
found that destination image and destination attri-
butes positively affect tourists’ attitudes toward a des-
tination, affecting their behavioral intentions. Chen
et al. (2018b) discovered that tourists’ experiences
with destination brands, including emotional and
behavioral experiences, can positively affect tourists’
behavioral intentions. Chen et al. (2020) also identified
a positive correlation between tourists’ destination
brand self-congruence and willingness to revisit.
Because behavioral intentions are one of the key com-
ponents shaping an individual’s attitude and can be
used to predict actual behaviors, they serve as an
optimal tool for predicting behaviors from the per-
spective of the theory of reasoned action (Dean &
Suhartanto, 2019).
Hypotheses
This study investigated the relationship between des-
tination brand identity and tourists’ perceptions from
a tourist perspective; this is a different approach to
those of many related scholars (Saraniemi & Komp-
pula, 2019), although numerous scholars have exam-
ined the influences of relevant variables on tourist
attitudes and behaviors related to destination
brand identity (Boo et al., 2009; Martín et al., 2019).
Consumers from emerging markets, because of
their unfamiliarity with product attributes and per-
ceived benefits of foreign brands, will use the
brand as a proxy for product quality. Accordingly,
brand image is a key element in influencing consu-
mers’ perceptions (Essoussi & Merunka, 2007).
1314 C.-H. YEN ET AL.
Furthermore, satisfaction for consumers from emer-
ging countries are mainly influenced by perceived
value of the product or service received and not by
perceived performance of the actual product (Morge-
son et al., 2015), demonstrating that perceived value
plays an even more critical role in the relationship
between destination brand identity and tourist atti-
tudes. This indicates that the relationship between
these variables for tourists from emerging countries
may yield different research findings and warrant
further investigation. Therefore, a framework describ-
ing the casual relationship of tourist-based destina-
tion brand identity was proposed in this study, as
presented in Figure 1. The hypotheses for the
relationship between each variable are summarized
separately below.
Destination brand identity, perceived value,
and satisfaction
Excellent destination image is a critical foundation
for the creation of tourist benefits and enhancement
of value perception; as such, numerous studies have
identified that tourists’ destination image and per-
ceived value are positively related (Chen & Tsai,
2007; Chiu et al., 2014). This indicates that the
value that tourists perceive through traveling is
Figure 1. Hypothetical model.
enhanced by a positive destination image. Further-
more, a destination’s image was discovered by
Stylos et al. (2016) to significantly affect tourist satis-
faction. Likewise, Zhang et al. (2018) discovered that
an excellent destination image provides tourists with
memorable tourism experiences, which in turn
affects their degree of satisfaction (Kim, 2018). Desti-
nation image is a crucial factor that influences tour-
ists’ levels of perceived value and satisfaction. In
recent years, various scholars in tourism fields have
explored the relationship between tourists and
specific destination brands based on self-image con-
gruity theory (Chen et al., 2020; Frías-Jamilena et al.,
2019); on the basis of this theory, when a tourist per-
ceives that a destination brand image is in accord-
ance with their self-image, they exhibit positive
attitudes and behaviors (Beerli et al., 2007). Kim
and Thapa (2018b) also found that tourists’ self-
image congruity with a destination positively
affected their perceived value and tourist satisfac-
tion. According to self-image congruity theory, tour-
ists who perceive more positive destination images
in accordance with their self-concept are likely to
exhibit higher perceived value and satisfaction.
Therefore, it is theorized that a destination’s image
has a positive effect on the perceived value and sat-
isfaction of tourists from emerging markets.

H1: Destination image positively influences (a) perceived
value and (b) tourist satisfaction.
Aaker (1991) asserted that perceived quality con-
tributes to noticeable distinctions between the pro-
ducts or services of brands, attracting consumers to
a given brand. The perceived quality of a destination
reflects a tourist’s cumulative assessment of a service’s
quality or of the performance of a destination (Tosun
et al., 2015). Because perceived quality tends to affect
the overall travel experiences and attitudes of tourists,
it positively affects their satisfaction and perceived
value (Hallak et al., 2018). Rajaratnam et al. (2015) con-
ducted a study on rural Malaysian tourist destinations
and discovered that perceived destination quality
affects satisfaction. The value that tourists perceive
of a destination is most strongly affected by their per-
ceptions of the quality of the tourism services and
products. This indicates that tourists who perceive
higher levels of destination quality exhibit higher
levels of perceived value and satisfaction. Therefore,
destination quality is theorized to positively affect
perceived value and satisfaction among tourists
from emerging markets.
H2: Destination quality positively influences (a) perceived
value and (b) tourist satisfaction.
Destination personality refers to “the set of human
characteristics associated with a destination” (Ekinci
& Hosany, 2006). Hankinson (2004) specified that a
clearly defined destination brand can add value to
tourist visits when a destination has an attractive des-
tination personality. Hence, a favorable destination
personality can increase the satisfaction and per-
ceived value of tourists (Chi et al., 2018; Hultman
et al., 2015). Destinations with unique personalities
are distinct from other tourist destinations. According
to self-image congruity theory, higher accordance
between destination attributes and tourists’ self-
image increase tourist satisfactions (Murphy et al.,
2007). Pool et al. (2018) revealed that the congruence
between destination personality and self-concept is
positively associated with tourists’ perceptions of an
experience. Therefore, destination personality aids
the formation of a strong emotional bond between
tourists and a destination, thereby enhancing the des-
tination’s perceived value and tourist satisfaction
(Chen & Phou, 2013). Additionally, destination person-
ality influences tourists’ attitudes (Murphy et al., 2007)
and destination satisfaction (Chi et al., 2018; Kumar,
2016). The literature indicates that a well-established
destination personality in accordance with tourist
ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 1315
self-concept, reinforcing the emotional relationship
between tourists and the destination and enhancing
tourists’ perceived value and satisfaction. Therefore,
it is theorized that destination personality positively
affects perceived value and satisfaction among tour-
ists from emerging markets.
H3: Destination personality positively influences (a) per-
ceived value and (b) tourist satisfaction.
Destination awareness is a tourist’s understanding of
the services and products available at a destination
(Tsaur et al., 2016). This awareness helps tourists dis-
tinguish a destination brand from numerous other
brands; hence, destination awareness is critical to
tourist decision-making because awareness involves
creating and enhancing the brand value of a destina-
tion (Gartner & Ruzzier, 2011). Kim and Qu (2017) dis-
covered that destination awareness positively affects
destination value. Furthermore, Chen (2010) revealed
that a destination’s image and perceived quality is
positively affected by destination awareness and
that this positive effect subsequently influences satis-
faction. Herrero et al. (2017) stated that because
higher levels of destination awareness enhance tour-
ists’ associations with a destination, destination
awareness positively influences perceptions of desti-
nation quality. The findings of the aforementioned
studies suggest that high levels of destination aware-
ness can lead tourists to develop favorable percep-
tions regarding a destination’s quality and
positioning. Therefore, destination awareness
reduces the perceived risks and enhances perceived
value and satisfaction. Thus, it can be theorized that
destination awareness positively affects perceived
value and satisfaction among tourists from emerging
markets.
H4: Destination awareness positively influences (a) per-
ceived value and (b) tourist satisfaction.
Both the tangible assets (such as museums, scenery,
relics, or historical sites) and intangible assets (such
as traditions, customs, knowledge, or spiritual prac-
tices) of a destination represent the culture of a desti-
nation and are essential to attracting tourists (Truong
& King, 2009). A destination’s culture is a key construct
of brand identity because it represents the desti-
nation’s core values and enhances its attractiveness
and competitiveness (Arzeni, 2009); culture also differ-
entiates a destination from its competitors in terms of
its value. Zeng (2017) indicated that the perceived cul-
tural attributes of a destination positively affect
1316 C.-H. YEN ET AL.
satisfaction. Furthermore, tourists’ cultural contact
and memorable cultural experiences positively
influence their satisfaction and perceived value
(Altunel & Erkurt, 2015; Wu & Li, 2017). A distinctive
destination culture can help forge strong ties
between culture and a tourist destination and thus
help destinations become more competitive and
attractive (Kladou & Kehagias, 2014) while enhancing
tourists’ perceived value and satisfaction. Thus, it can
be theorized that a destination’s culture positively
affects perceived value and satisfaction among tour-
ists from emerging markets.
H5: A destination’s culture positively affects (a) perceived
value and (b) tourist satisfaction.
Perceived value, satisfaction, and behavioral
intentions
Parasuraman and Grewal (2000) posited that consu-
mers tend to assess the incurred costs and derived
benefits afforded by a service or product and that
such an overall assessment determines the perceived
value of the service or product. In reference to the
tourism sector, Bajs (2015) determined that custo-
mers’ loyalty, satisfaction, and perceived value funda-
mentally shape the profits of modern businesses;
moreover, the study results indicated that perceived
value is central in determining tourist satisfaction.
Because perceived value reflects tourists’ overall
assessments of a tourist product or service, studies
have reported its positive correlation with tourist sat-
isfaction (Kim & Thapa, 2018a; Prebensen & Xie, 2017).
Perceived value was reported by Morgeson et al.
(2015) to more strongly influence customer satisfac-
tion for tourists from emerging economies than for
those from developed economies. In emerging econ-
omies, lower disposable incomes cause tourists to
focus more heavily on the costs of tourism products
or experiences. Value is thus particularly crucial for
these tourists. Furthermore, the satisfaction levels of
tourists from countries with emerging economies
are mainly influenced by perceived value. This study
correspondingly hypothesized that the perceived
value of tourists from emerging markets has a positive
influence on their satisfaction.
H6: Tourists’ perceived value positively influences their
satisfaction.
Furthermore, considerable research has revealed per-
ceived value as an antecedent of customers’
behavioral intention (Back & Lee, 2009; Clemes et al.,
2011). Petrick (2004) confirmed that tourists’ per-
ceived value after traveling to a destination or partici-
pating in a certain tourism activity strongly affects
their intention to revisit the location or participate
in similar activities. Other scholars have identified
that tourists’ perceived value is positively related to
their behavioral intention (Yen et al., 2018; Yen &
Teng, 2015). The aforementioned literature indicates
that tourists who acquire more perceived value after
visiting a destination have greater willingness to
return or suggest the destination to their family and
friends. Therefore, this study hypothesized that the
value perceived by tourists from emerging markets
positively affects their behavioral intention.
H7: Tourists’ perceived value positively influences their
behavioral intention.
Numerous tourism studies have explored the relation-
ship between the satisfaction and behavioral inten-
tion of tourists from various perspectives (Meng &
Han, 2018; Prayag et al., 2017), and most have con-
cluded that satisfaction is an essential indicator of will-
ingness to revisit and speak positively about their
experience. Prayag et al. (2013) indicated that willing-
ness to revisit a destination and related recommen-
dation behaviors are the positive results of a
satisfying tourist experience. Scholars also agree that
tourist satisfaction critically affects the decision of a
tourist to revisit a destination or recommend it to
others (Ali et al., 2016), with tourists who are more
satisfied being more willing to revisit. This indicates
that tourists’ satisfaction with tourism products and
services influences their behavioral intention. Return-
ing to or recommending a destination to friends and
family is more likely when tourists are satisfied with a
tourism experience. Hence, the current study hypoth-
esized that tourist satisfaction positively affects
behavioral intention among tourists from emerging
markets.
H8: Tourist satisfaction positively influences behavioral
intentions.
Mediating role of tourist satisfaction
The value–satisfaction–intention chain has been the
subject of widespread attention in the field of
tourism (Bajs, 2015; Jin et al., 2015). Relevant studies
on tourism and recreation have reported perceived
value to be a decisive factor influencing customer

satisfaction and behavioral intention (Meng & Han,
2018; Prebensen & Xie, 2017). Scholars have revealed
that satisfaction crucially mediates the perceived
value–behavioral intention relationship (Chen & Tsai,
2007; Song et al., 2011). Moreover, Chen and Tsai
(2007) reported a positive effect of perceived value
on tourist satisfaction that subsequently elicits posi-
tive behavioral intention in tourists. Song et al.
(2011) stated that through satisfaction, perceived
value has an indirect influence on destination
loyalty. The aforementioned literature indicates that
enhanced perceived value results in higher satisfac-
tion and thus positively affects tourists’ behavioral
intention. Hence, the following is hypothesized:
H9: The positive relationship between perceived value
and behavioral intentions is mediated by tourist
satisfaction.
Methodology
Sample and procedures
Statistics from Taiwan’s Tourism Bureau indicate that
2.43 million visits to Taiwan were made by individuals
from Southeast Asian countries in 2018, marking a
70.5% increase from the 1.425 million visits made in
2015. Under the New Southbound Policy (NSP), Malay-
sia, Thailand, and Vietnam are the primary ASEAN
markets being targeted by the Tourism Bureau of
Taiwan. The NSP serves as a key component of the
trade and economic strategies of Taiwan; its aim is
to identify new directions and driving forces as
Taiwan enters a new stage of economic development
while increasing the number of visits paid by tourists
from ASEAN countries (Chen et al., 2018a). Therefore,
the questionnaire developed in this study was admi-
nistered to tourists from Malaysia, Thailand, and
Vietnam.
In 2018, 526,129 individuals from Malaysia, 320,008
from Thailand, and 491,774 from Vietnam visited
Taiwan (Taiwan Tourism Bureau, 2019), of whom
378,371 (71.9%), 215,725 (67.1%), and 193,793
(39.5%), respectively, traveled to Taiwan for tourism
purposes. In line with this study’s research questions
and objectives, the sample population comprised
group and individual tourists visiting Taiwan from
these three countries. A purposive sampling method
was employed for data collection. Statistics from
Taiwan’s Tourism Bureau indicate that Taiwan has
134 consolidated travel agencies (Taiwan Tourism
Bureau, 2019). First, the contact information for
ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 1317
these consolidated travel agencies was collected,
and then these agencies were contacted by tele-
phone and provided with a description of the
research objectives. Next, managers’ consent for
survey participation was obtained, after which the
questionnaire was issued by post or in person to
tour guides, who were requested to administer the
survey at the conclusion of a tour group’s stay. A
total of 24 travel agencies agreed to participate in
the survey. Because some tourists prefer to travel
independently, the survey was also administered to
visitors departing from Taiwan’s international airports.
The same sampling and data collection procedures
were employed to survey 50 tourists from ASEAN
countries who had visited Taiwan in tour groups as
part of a pilot test to confirm the validity of the ques-
tionnaire and identify any potential problems regard-
ing its content. After the pilot test, the questionnaire
wording was modified. The formal survey period
was January 2018 to March 2018. Before the tour
guides received a tour group, they were provided
with the questionnaires and a return envelope by
their managers and instructed to ask tourists to com-
plete the survey before leaving Taiwan. The tour
guides then mailed the recovered questionnaires to
the authors. Taoyuan International Airport and Kaoh-
siung International Airport were selected as sites for
surveying independent tourists. Purposive sampling
and a field questionnaire were employed for this
study; they were directly distributed to tourists from
Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam and retrieved on-
site. Overall, 750 surveys were distributed; 645 were
returned, of which 25 were invalid due to missing
data. In total, 620 of the questionnaires administered
to and then collected from tourists were valid.
Measures
The destination brand identity scale developed by
Tsaur et al. (2016) was adopted for the survey to
measure how Taiwan’s destination brand identity is
perceived by tourists from ASEAN countries. The
scale contains 11 items for destination image, 9
items for destination quality, 3 items for destination
personality, 4 items for destination awareness, and 5
items for destination culture, totaling 32 items. The
destination brand identity scale used by Tsaur et al.
(2016) was primarily developed from scales by Aaker
(1997), Konecnik and Gartner (2007), and Zhang and
Zhao (2009). These three scales’ reliability and validity
were verified in the original studies, and subsequent
1318 C.-H. YEN ET AL.
research has ubiquitously adopted these scales. More-
over, the destination personality measurement items
in Tsaur et al. (2016) were selected from the 42 per-
sonality traits in the brand personality scale devel-
oped by Aaker (1997); 108 interviewees chose
friendly, reliable, and glamorous as the three items
that most accurately describe Taiwan’s destination
personality. The scale designed by Song et al. (2013)
was used for measuring perceived value among tour-
ists from ASEAN countries and comprises three items.
The scale of Jin et al. (2015) was employed for measur-
ing tourist satisfaction among tourists from ASEAN
countries and also comprises three items. Three ques-
tions from scales developed by Chen and Tsai (2007)
were adapted to assess the behavioral intentions of
ASEAN tourists after their Taiwan visit.
The aforementioned scales were measured using a
5-point Likert scale (1–5 indicating “strongly disagree”
to “strongly agree”). A higher score revealed stronger
agreement with the item in question. The initial ques-
tionnaire was in English, and it was translated into
Malayan, Thai, and Vietnamese by the researchers,
two native English speakers, and two native speakers
each of Malayan, Thai, and Vietnamese working in
tourism. For ensuring the quality of the translations,
back-translation was employed to confirm that the
translated text was accurate in accordance with the rec-
ommendation of Van de Vijver and Hambleton (1996).
Data analyses
This study employed descriptive analysis, exploratory
factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA), the Sobel test, and structural equation modeling
(SEM). The calculated descriptive statistics included
means and standard deviations. AMOS 23.0 and SPSS
23.0 statistical analysis software was employed to
conduct CFA and EFA and evaluate the validity of the
evaluation tools. Furthermore, SEM and the Sobel test
were used for verification of the research hypotheses
and the hypothesis regarding the mediating relation-
ship, respectively (Preacher et al., 2007).
SEM was used to effectively assess the measurement
model and structural paths, in particular the multiple
variables within the structural model (Hair et al.,
2010). Although SEM is straightforward to use and has
provided crucial contributions, scholars have high-
lighted its shortcomings (Ali et al., 2018; Hair et al.,
2012). Typical SEM shortcomings are issues related to
the use of nonnormal data, unexplained variances,
and model fit (Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Therefore, to
obtain valid results, related requirements and interpret-
ations should also be appropriately analyzed using SEM.
Results
Sample demographics
Of the questionnaires collected, 620 were valid. The
sample data are presented in Table 1. Regarding the
195 Malaysian tourists, most were female (56.9%) and
married (53.3%); the most common age group was
31−40 years of age (29.7%), and the most common
education level was senior or business high school
(38%). The most common income was US$661−US
$990 per month (28.2%), and the vast majority of
respondents were visiting Taiwan for the first time
(86.2%). Of the 228 Thai tourists, most were again
female (53.1%) and married (52.6%); 31−40 years of
age was the most common age group (32.9%). More-
over, 42.5% were senior or business high school gradu-
ates, 28.5% earned US$331−US$660 per month, and
the vast majority were visiting Taiwan for the first
time (90.8%). Of the 197 Vietnamese tourists, most
were female (54.8%) and married (82.8%); 31−40
years of age was again the most common age group
(34.5%). Nearly half were senior or business high
school graduates (48.2%), and 31.5% earned US$330
or less per month. The majority were visiting Taiwan
for the first time (78.2%). According to statistics
reported by the Taiwan Tourism Bureau (2019) regard-
ing inbound visitors in 2018, the majority of visitors
from Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam were female
(53.5%, 58.8%, and 54.4%, respectively), and 21–40
years old was the most common age group (47.3%,
53.6%, and 63%, respectively). This indicates that the
demographic profile captured in this study is mostly
representative and consistent with that of the actual
population.
Measurement properties
The normality assumption was evaluated using skew-
ness–kurtosis tests. The absolute values of both
skewness (from −0.84–0.92) and kurtosis (from
−1.09–1.37) were less than 2 (Kim, 2013). Thus,
these data did not violate the normality assumption.
Single-factor models were generated on the basis of
principal components and varimax rotation methods
through EFA regarding the constructs of this study.
One item from destination image and one item
from destination quality had factor loadings of less
 ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 1319

Table 1. Demographic profile of respondents.

Total
Malayan Thai Vietnam respondents
Variable N % N % N % N %
Gender
Male 84 43.1 107 46.9 89 45.2 280 45.2
Female 111 56.9 121 53.1 108 54.8 340 54.8
Age
20 and below 23 11.8 27 11.8 22 11.2 72 11.6
21-30 41 21.0 54 23.7 50 25.4 145 23.4
31-40 58 29.7 75 32.9 68 34.5 201 32.4
41-50 38 19.5 43 18.9 38 19.3 119 19.2
51 and above 35 18.0 29 12.7 19 9.6 83 13.4
Education level
Junior high school and below 25 12.8 28 12.3 30 15.2 83 13.4
Senior/business high school 74 38.0 97 42.5 95 48.2 266 42.9
College 48 24.6 50 21.9 38 19.3 136 21.9
University 33 16.9 41 18.0 27 13.7 101 16.3
Graduate school and above 15 7.7 12 5.3 7 3.6 34 5.5
Marital status
Single 91 46.7 108 47.4 73 37.1 272 43.9
Married 104 53.3 120 52.6 124 62.9 348 56.1
Personal monthly income
US$ 330 and below 36 18.5 58 25.4 62 31.5 156 25.2
US$ 331–660 48 24.6 65 28.5 51 25.9 164 26.4
US$ 661–990 55 28.2 56 24.6 44 22.3 155 25.0
US$ 991-1,320 44 22.5 40 17.5 35 17.8 119 19.2
US$ 1,321 and above 12 6.2 9 4.0 5 2.5 26 4.2
Past experience
First-time visit 168 86.2 207 90.8 154 78.2 529 85.3
Repeated visit 27 13.8 21 9.2 43 21.8 91 14.7

than 0.5 and were thus excluded (Hair et al., 2010). Correlation analysis
The test results concerning the scales’ reliability
Table 3 lists the correlation coefficients between
(Table 2) revealed that the composite reliability
related constructs and descriptive statistics. Destina-
scores were in the range 0.83–0.92 and all exceeded
tion image (r = 0.55), destination quality (r = 0.56), des-
0.6, proving the questionnaire’s reliability (Bagozzi &
tination personality (r = 0.56), destination awareness
Yi, 1988). The measurement model’s goodness-of-fit
(r = 0.52), and destination culture (r = 0.37) were posi-
was tested using CFA. Several fit indices (χ 2 =
tively related to perceived value. Destination image (r
2187.20, df = 640, χ2/df = 3.41, p < 0.001, GFI = 0.93,
= 0.58), destination quality (r = 0.61), destination per-
AGFI = 0.91, CFI = 0.95, NFI = 0.94, NNFI = 0.95, IFI =
sonality (r = 0.53), destination awareness (r = 0.49),
0.95, RFI = 0.91, RMR = 0.05, SRMR = 0.06, RMSEA =
and destination culture (r = 0.43) exhibited positive
0.06) exceeded the standards regarded as acceptable
correlations with tourist satisfaction. Furthermore,
in the literature (Hair et al., 2010), suggesting ade-
positive correlations were determined between per-
quate model fit to the data in the present study.
ceived value and tourist satisfaction (r = 0.67) and
For all variables, the average variance extracted
behavioral intention (r = 0.58). Additionally, tourist
(AVE) was in the range 0.51–0.80, and the threshold
satisfaction and behavioral intention are found to be
of 0.5 was exceeded, demonstrating the convergent
positively correlated (r = 0.69). The correlation analysis
validity of the measurement variables (Bagozzi & Yi,
results revealed relationships between the variables,
1988). Furthermore, for each factor, the square root
and the descriptive statistics can be initially under-
of the AVE exceeded the coefficient of correlation
stood as a basis for further analysis.
between paired constructs, revealing that the scales
had favorable discriminant validity (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981). In summary, the proposed measure-
Hypothesis testing
ment model achieved acceptable goodness-of-fit,
demonstrating its viability for use in structural mod- Relationships were investigated using AMOS (Version
eling analysis. 23.0) to perform SEM in combination with maximum
1320 C.-H. YEN ET AL.

Table 2. Confirmatory factor analysis results.

Factor
Construct loading CR AVE
Destination brand identity
Destination image 0.91 0.51
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there is beautiful scenery in Taiwan. 0.75
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there is diverse cuisine in Taiwan. 0.68
In comparison to other countries I have visited, various fruits are available in Taiwan. 0.64
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there is pleasant weather in Taiwan. 0.60
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there is good nightlife and entertainment in Taiwan. *
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there are good opportunities to engage in recreation activities 0.67
(e.g. amusement parks, bird watching, golfing, etc.) in Taiwan.
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there are interesting historical attractions in Taiwan. 0.75
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there are interesting cultural attractions in Taiwan. 0.80
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there is good public security in Taiwan. 0.75
In comparison to other countries I have visited, people in Taiwan are friendlier. 0.76
In comparison to other countries I have visited, diverse festival activities and events occur in Taiwan. 0.74
Destination quality 0.90 0.52
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there are high-quality accommodations in Taiwan. 0.70
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there is high-quality infrastructure (transportation and public 0.73
facilities) in Taiwan.
In comparison to other countries I have visited, Taiwan offers a cleanly tourist environment. 0.74
In comparison to other countries I have visited, Taiwan offers a safe tourist environment. 0.74
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there is appealing local food in Taiwan. 0.65
In comparison to other countries I have visited, Taiwan offers high-quality reception services. 0.75
In comparison to other countries I have visited, few problems with communication are experienced in Taiwan.*
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there are good shopping facilities in Taiwan. 0.69
In comparison to other countries I have visited, you can get good value for your money in Taiwan. 0.74
Destination personality 0.87 0.69
In comparison to other countries I have visited, Taiwan is friendly. 0.83
In comparison to other countries I have visited, Taiwan is reliable. 0.84
In comparison to other countries I have visited, Taiwan is glamorous. 0.83
Destination awareness 0.84 0.57
In comparison to other countries I have visited, I’ve heard of Taiwan more often. 0.66
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there are representative symbols (totems, landmarks, scenery, 0.77
etc.) of Taiwan.
In comparison to other countries I have visited, promotional materials for Taiwan include impressive slogans. 0.79
In comparison to other countries I have visited, promotional materials for Taiwan include impressive logos. 0.80
Destination culture 0.89 0.61
In comparison to other countries I have visited, Taiwan offers attractive customs and cultural traits. 0.75
In comparison to other countries I have visited, Taiwanese people exhibit a characteristic lifestyle (e.g. dialect, 0.78
cuisine, and entertainment).
In comparison to other countries I have visited, heritage buildings in Taiwan are characteristic. 0.80
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there are various subcultures in Taiwan. 0.81
In comparison to other countries I have visited, there are rich indigenous liberal arts (e.g. opera and handicrafts) 0.77
in Taiwan.
Perceived value 0.83 0.62
I think that the money that I spent to take a tour in Taiwan was well spent. 0.80
I think that the value of the tour that I took in Taiwan exceeds the value of the money I spent. 0.65
Generally, I think that the tourism products and services I experienced in Taiwan provided value for the money 0.88
spent.
Tourist satisfaction 0.91 0.78
All things considered, I feel good about my decision to take at this tour. 0.88
Overall, I am satisfied with the tour. 0.88
Considering my experience of this tour, my choice to take the tour was a wise one. 0.89
Behavioral intentions 0.92 0.80
I would like to return to Taiwan in the future. 0.88
I would recommend visiting Taiwan to my friends or other acquaintances. 0.93
I want to tell other people positive things about Taiwan. 0.87
Note: CR denotes composite reliability.
* This item was omitted from the exploratory factor analysis.

likelihood estimation. The standardized path coeffi- The goodness-of-fit indices (χ 2 = 2558.28, df = 704,
cients obtained through testing of the proposed χ2/df = 3.63, p < 0.001, GFI = 0.92, AGFI = 0.90, NFI =
structural model are presented in Table 4. 0.95, CFI = 0.96, NNFI = 0.96, RFI = 0.92, IFI = 0.96,
Table 3. Means, standard deviations and correlations for the studied variables.
Destination Destination Destination Destination Destination Perceived Tourist Behavioral
Mean SD image quality personality awareness culture value satisfaction intentions
Destination image 3.88 0.53
Destination quality 3.97 0.54 0.68**
Destination 4.01 0.62 0.59** 0.67**
personality
Destination 3.74 0.63 0.60** 0.59** 0.55**
awareness
Destination culture 3.73 0.65 0.61** 0.55** 0.52** 0.66**
Perceived value 3.92 0.67 0.55** 0.56** 0.56** 0.52** 0.37**
Tourist satisfaction 4.05 0.69 0.58** 0.61** 0.53** 0.49** 0.43** 0.67**
Behavioral 4.14 0.70 0.53** 0.57** 0.60** 0.51** 0.41** 0.58** 0.69**
intentions
Notes: **: p < 0.01.
ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH
1321
1322 C.-H. YEN ET AL.
Table 4. Hypothesis tests and results.
Hypotheses Path relationships
H1a Destination image → Perceived value
H1b Destination image → Tourist satisfaction
H2a Destination quality → Perceived value
H2b Destination quality → Tourist satisfaction
H3a Destination personality → Perceived value
H3b Destination personality → Tourist satisfaction
H4a Destination awareness → Perceived value
H4b Destination awareness → Tourist satisfaction
H5a Destination culture → Perceived value
H5b Destination culture → Tourist satisfaction
H6 Perceived value → Tourist satisfaction
H7 Perceived value → Behavioral intentions
H8 Tourist satisfaction → Behavioral intentions
H9 Perceived value → Tourist satisfaction → Behavioral intentions
Note: All path estimates are standardized.
** p < 0.01.
RMR = 0.02, SRMR = 0.04, RMSEA = 0.08) suggest the
suitability of the structural model. Significant coeffi-
cients were noted for paths running from destination
image, quality, personality, and awareness to per-
ceived value (β = 0.22, p < 0.05; β = 0.43, p < 0.01; β =
0.55, p < 0.01; β = 0.20, p < 0.05, respectively). More-
over, significance was discovered in the coefficients
for paths from destination image, quality, personality,
and awareness to tourist satisfaction (β = 0.21, p <
0.05; β = 0.33, p < 0.01; β = 0.52, p < 0.01; β = 0.19, p
< 0.05, respectively). The findings indicate that desti-
nation quality, image, awareness, and personality
have positive correlations with tourists’ perceived
value and satisfaction, therefore supporting both
parts of H1, H2, H3, and H4. However, the coefficients
are nonsignificant for paths from destination culture
to perceived value and tourist satisfaction. Thus, H5
is not supported.
Furthermore, the coefficients are significant for
the paths from perceived value to tourist satisfaction
(β = 0.51, p < 0.01) and from tourist satisfaction to
behavioral intention (β = 0.61, p < 0.01), indicating a
positive relationship between perceived value and
tourist satisfaction. Furthermore, tourists’ satisfaction
positively affects to their behavioral intention. There-
fore, H6 and H8 are supported. However, the results
reveal nonsignifcance of the perceived value–behav-
ioral intention relationship. Thus, H7 is not
supported.
The mediating role of tourist satisfaction was
examined using the Sobel test (Preacher et al.,
2007), and the results revealed whether perceived
value had an indirect mediating effect on tourists’
behavioral intention. The findings indicate that
tourist satisfaction has a significant mediating effect
Path coefficient Results
0.22* Supported
0.21* Supported
0.43** Supported
0.33** Supported
0.55** Supported
0.52** Supported
0.20* Supported
0.19* Supported
0.06 Not supported
0.05 Not supported
0.51** Supported
0.03 Not supported
0.61** Supported
– Supported
on the perceived value–behavioral intention relation-
ship (z = 3.98 > 1.96, p < 0.01), thus supporting H9.
Discussion and conclusions
The present study involved a survey of tourists from
three countries considered to be the main target
markets of the NSP on tourism. The findings
suggest that destination image, quality, personality,
and awareness have positive effects on tourists’ per-
ceived value and satisfaction. For tourists from
ASEAN countries, a destination’s quality, image,
and personality and their own awareness of the des-
tination can be used as market-segmentation tools
to distinguish Taiwan’s destination brand from
those of competitors. The managers of tourist desti-
nations with environments and conditions similar to
those of tourist destinations in Taiwan can also refer
to the results of this study. However, destination
culture exerts a nonsignificant effect on the value
they perceived and the satisfaction of tourists. The
presence of local ethnic Chinese populations in
Malaysia and Thailand and the fact that 57.15% of
immigrants from ASEAN countries to Taiwan are
from Vietnam (Ministry of Interior, 2019) are possible
explanations for this nonsignificant effect, mainly
because tourists from these three countries are
more likely to be familiar with Taiwanese customs
and culture. Tourist satisfaction also exhibits positive
relationships with perceived value and behavioral
intention and mediates the perceived value–behav-
ioral intention relationship. This result demonstrates
that tourists speak highly of tourism products and
services offered in Taiwan after visiting; this
enhances the tourists’ perceived value and,

through satisfaction’s mediating effect, further
increases their willingness to revisit Taiwan and
engage in related recommendation behaviors.
Because the findings reveal that perceived value is
not significantly related to behavioral intention, this
study concludes that tourists’ perceived value regard-
ing the products and services offered does not reflect
their behavioral intention. By contrast, tourist satisfac-
tion is a key variable that effectively predicts behav-
ioral intention. Because most respondents in the
present study were visiting Taiwan for the first time,
the direct perceived value–behavioral intention
relationship was nonsignificant, corresponding with
the findings reported in a related study (Jin et al.,
2015). Therefore, for tourists from emerging markets,
perceived value strongly affects customer satisfaction
(Morgeson et al., 2015) but does not influence behav-
ioral intention.
Theoretical implications
Several contributions are made to the tourism litera-
ture by the results of the present study. First, as its
main contribution, this study is a response to a call
made by Tsaur et al. (2016) and Taecharungroj
(2019) for further investigation into the destination
brand identity scale to identify unique dimensions
of Taiwan’s destination brand, extending their
research and complementing research on tourism
by discussing the relationships between destination
brand identity and relevant variables. This study
also responded to suggestions by Saraniemi and
Komppula (2019) to explore the influence of destina-
tion brand identity elements on tourists’ perceptions
and behaviors from a demand perspective and from
the perspective of different stakeholders such as
tourists. Second, this study is a response to a call
made by Cohen et al. (2014) and de la Hoz-Correa
and Muñoz-Leiva (2019) to explore the cross-cultural
dimensions of the behavior of tourists. The present
study supports the research findings obtained by
Morgeson et al. (2015) by providing evidence that
perceived value strongly predicts customer satisfac-
tion in emerging markets. However, the current
research findings differ from those reported in
related studies (Clemes et al., 2011; Yen et al.,
2018); the present study focused on tourists from
emerging markets and revealed that perceived
value only affects tourist satisfaction and not behav-
ioral intention. Therefore, on the basis of the nine
research gaps stated by Pike (2009), this study
ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH 1323
contributes to knowledge on destination branding
for tourists from emerging countries. This work
serves as a crucial foundation for further research
and theoretical development regarding destination
brands.
Practical implications
Suggestions for management practices are as
follows. First, for destinations with similar tourism
resources and environments as Taiwan, the results
of this study can provide a snapshot of marketing
strategies for destination brand identity; such
results can be referred to by those helping
develop emerging tourism markets. Tourism-related
agencies can establish differentiated destination
identity systems based on international tourism
markets. For tourists from emerging markets, the
establishment of a brand identity system (e.g.
image, quality, personality, and awareness) for desti-
nations may enhance tourists’ perceived value and
satisfaction, which in turn may enhance their behav-
ioral intention. By using the destination brand iden-
tity system established in the current research,
destination managers can apply these useful guide-
lines to tourists visiting Taiwan from other emerging
countries and expand them to tourists from other
ASEAN countries to achieve the goal of successful
destination brand marketing.
Second, this study shows that tourists from the
three investigated ASEAN countries distinguish Tai-
wanese destinations according to four destination
brand identity constructs, namely destination
quality, image, awareness, and personality. By identi-
fying distinctive brand identity elements of an island
destination such as Taiwan, this study can furnish
destination managers with crucial international mar-
keting tools for destination branding. Because these
constructs can be viewed as segmentation criteria
for ASEAN tourism markets, tourism bureau should
focus on integrating market segmentation into its
branding strategy. Insight into the factors influen-
cing the behaviors of tourists from emerging
markets would help tourism managers formulate
communication and positioning strategies by con-
sidering tourists’ perceptions of destination image,
quality, personality, and awareness to adapt market-
ing campaigns for individual market segments. On
the basis of an understanding of variation in emer-
ging segment preferences and needs, the limited
marketing resources available should be
1324 C.-H. YEN ET AL.
appropriately allocated and customized marketing
programs should be developed. Tourism marketers
can then design appealing marketing activities for
specific market segments.
Third, tourism bureau should adopt diverse and
innovative marketing strategies customized for
each NSP country by setting distinct advertising
themes and promoting specialty tourist products
through various media channels. The tourism unit
raises awareness of Taiwan as a tourism brand in
ASEAN nations through various marketing advertise-
ments or utilizing other media, such as the Internet,
videos, and dramas. Moreover, these international
marketing advertisements should focus on the
service quality of Taiwan’s destination facilities and
the destination personality traits of being friendly,
reliable, and glamorous to bolster Taiwan’s destina-
tion image. For consumer markets in emerging
countries, destination managers should establish a
distinctive brand position to strengthen the brand
and attributes of a destination. Developing a desti-
nation brand image and personality close to that
of the self-concept of potential tourists is crucial.
Fourth, tourism marketers should develop tourist
services and products that enable tourists from
ASEAN countries to have distinctive and memorable
experiences and provide them with the greatest
value. They can redevelop or redesign product port-
folios for tourists to effectively increase tourist satis-
faction. To create suitable products and services for
tourists from emerging markets, tourism marketers
should review the value tourists perceive existing
products and services as having. In addition to
improving the tourist-friendliness of environments
for tourists from different countries, other methods
can be adopted, such as promoting the provision
of tourism information services and development
of environments suitable for individual tourism.
Limitations and future research directions
First, the present research involved a survey of tour-
ists from three countries considered to be the main
markets targeted by the NSP. Consequently, the
findings cannot be applied to all ASEAN and South
Asian countries. Further studies may investigate
tourists from other countries with emerging
markets (e.g. India, Indonesia, and the Philippines).
Furthermore, scholars can verify the generalizability
of this study’s framework by examining destinations
with similar tourist environments and conditions as
Taiwan. Second, because tourists from these three
countries predominantly travel in tour groups, the
pilot study only surveyed 50 members traveling in
such groups; in the future, scholars can include indi-
vidual tourists in their pilot studies. Third, although
this study surveyed both tour group participants
and individual tourists, tourists in group tours con-
stituted the majority of those sampled from Thai-
land and Vietnam (90%) and from Malaysia (70%),
which is largely consistent with the current situ-
ation. However, because of the small sample size
of individual tourists from these three countries,
future research should involve a larger sample of
individual tourists and a comparison with the
present study regarding the relationships between
variables.
Fourth, the items used in this study to measure
perceived value were based on the value of tour ser-
vices provided. This study may not be able to fully
explain the relationships between tourists’ behavioral
intentions regarding Taiwan, such as willingness to
revisit, recommendation behaviors, and positive
word-of-mouth. Therefore, future scholars should
include measurement items for perceived value as
measures of tourists’ perceptions and feelings
toward countries or destinations for investigation.
Fifth, because this study was cross-sectional, the infer-
ence of cause–effect relationships may have also been
limited. Furthermore, problems related to common
method variance may apply because a self-report
scale was used to assess the perceptions of individual
participants. Future researchers can employ a longi-
tudinal design by conducting surveys with the same
group of tourists at different times to more accurately
infer cause–effect relationships, prevent common
method variance, and track the considerable
changes in social discussions regarding overtourism
and sustainability. Finally, future studies can
compare first-time visitors with recurring visitors to
identify differences between these two groups
regarding the aforementioned variables.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by Ministry of Science and Technol-
ogy, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
(Program No: MOST 106-2420-H-025-003).
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Funding
This research was supported by Ministry of Science and Technol-
ogy, Taiwan (R.O.C.) [grant number MOST 106-2420-H-025-003].
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