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Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Quarter 2: Module 5: Addressing Social Inequalities
MELC: Suggest ways to address social inequalities (local, national, and global).

“Do not banish reason for inequality; but let your reason serve to make the truth appear where it seems hid
and hide the false seems true.” - William Shakespeare
SOCIAL INEQUALITY: refers to relational processes in society that have the effect of limiting or harming a group’s
social status, social class, and social circle.

Social inequality is characterized by three factors: wealth, power, and prestige. Wealth refers to the amount of
material resources a person has access to. Power refers to the ability of a person to make others follow him/her. Lastly
prestige person’s influence and status in a society. Social inequality also exists in many areas, these are: gender, sex, race
age. Ethnicity, religion, and kinship.

The SOCIOLOGY OF INEQUALITY

by Ashley Crossman Jan. 28, 2020
https://www.thoughtco.com/sociology-of-social-inequality-3026287

Social inequality results from a society organized by hierarchies of class, race, and gender that
unequally distributes access to resources and rights.
It can manifest in a variety of ways, like income and wealth inequality, unequal access to education
and cultural resources, and differential treatment by the police and judicial system, among others. Social
inequality goes hand in hand with social stratification.
Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different
social positions or statuses within a group or society. It contains structured and recurrent patterns of unequal
distributions of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and punishments.
Racism, for example, is understood to be a phenomenon whereby access to rights and resources is
unfairly distributed across racial lines. In the context of the United States, people of color typically experience
racism, which benefits white people by conferring on them white privilege, which allows them greater access
to rights and resources than other Americans.

There are two main ways to measure social inequality:

• Inequality of conditions
• Inequality of opportunities

Inequality of conditions refers to the unequal distribution of income, wealth, and material goods.
Housing, for example, is inequality of conditions with the homeless and those living in housing projects sitting
at the bottom of the hierarchy while those living in multi-million-dollar mansions sit at the top.
Another example is at the level of whole communities, where some are poor, unstable, and plagued by
violence, while others are invested in by businesses and government so that they thrive and provide safe,
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secure, and happy conditions for their inhabitants.

Inequality of opportunities refers to the unequal distribution of life chances across individuals. This is
reflected in measures such as level of education, health status, and treatment by the criminal justice system.

2 Main Theories
There are two main views of social inequality within sociology. One view aligns with the
functionalist theory, and the other aligns with conflict theory.

1. Functionalist theorists believe that inequality is inevitable and desirable and plays an important
function in society. Important positions in society require more training and thus should receive
more rewards. Social inequality and social stratification, according to this view, lead to a
meritocracy based on ability.

2. Conflict theorists, on the other hand, view inequality as resulting from groups with power
dominating less powerful groups. They believe that social inequality prevents and hinders societal
progress as those in power repress the powerless people to maintain the status quo. In today's
world, this work of domination is achieved primarily through the power of ideology, our thoughts,
values, beliefs, worldviews, norms, and expectations, through a process known as cultural
hegemony.

GLOBAL INEQUALITY
“Inequality and hierarchy are natural, but that doesn't mean they are right, that doesn't mean there isn’t a productive
tension between those forces and the forces of equality.” - Chris Hayes

Inequality and discrimination exist in societies across the

globe. The discriminatory practices in these communities can
cause significant alarm in a global scale. According to a study
conducted by the United Nations University (2006), the richest
one percent owns 39.9% of the world’s household wealth, little
is left for the poor. We can see that there is a huge gap between
the rich and the poor. Wealth is far from equally distributed.

3 categories of states and how non-state actors interact

(National Intelligence Council-Eurasia group Seminars:

1. Weak State - usually former colonies that failed to convert

into a possible non-state. Countries like these usually have
terrorist groups (non-state actors) challenging the established
e
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l-inequalit
/ government and have NGOs handle the issues of development;
1 y health and nutrition; and civil, political, and human rights, which
are issues supposed to be addressed by the government.

2.“Modernizing States” - these states comprise 80% of the world’s population.

- characterized by the NIC-Eurasia group as “Firmly Sovereign”.
- Nationalism is a tool of the state and minorities that cause trouble are often subdued.
- Modernized states tend to be democratic or autocratic and are “centralized and highly bureaucratic, with the national
government involved in management of the economy.”
- states include Brazil, Russia, India, and China. Generally, modernizing states are the least friendly place for non-state
actors.

3. Developed/post-industrial states. This classification of state makes the distinction between domestic and foreign
affairs disappear, so that mutual interference and surveillance among states becomes the norm.

There are four areas highlighted in the „unequal life chances‟: health, hunger, education and child labor. Each
case presents both the overall global picture and the inequalities between the rich and poor. Underlying such unequal life
chances is the basic comparison between life in the relatively rich, industrialized countries and that in the relatively poor,
developing world.

5 major explanations being offered for Newly Industrializing Countries’ their rapid success:
1. Many of these countries had foundations laid by the experience of colonialism.
2. There was a long period of world economic growth between the 1950s and the 1970s from which these countries
benefited.
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3. Generous economic assistance was provided by the United States during the height of the Cold War.
4. Some commentators suggest that the shared cultural tradition of Confucianism helped promote economic
advancement in Japan and East Asia.
5. Strong interventionist policies on the part of many governments were a major boost to economic growth.

Global inequality takes us back hundreds of years, and as far around the world as data allow, to show that
inequality moves in cycles, fueled by war and disease, technological disruption, access to education and
redistribution. The recent surge of inequality in the West has been driven by the revolution in technology, just
as the Industrial Revolution drove inequality 150 years ago. But even as inequality has soared within nations,
it has fallen dramatically among nations, as middle-class incomes in China and India have drawn closer to the
stagnating incomes of the middle classes in the developed world. A more open migration policy would reduce
global inequality even further. (Branko Milanovic)

The effect of global inequality is greater in poorer countries. Technology can help reduce and slow down climate
change, but it can also have its environmental effects due to solid wastes.

Although the use of high technology can be a parameter for a progressive country, the poorer countries who try
to upgrade themselves with the progressive countries suffer the consequences of inequality. For instance, cars that have
low qualities can be sent to poorer countries who just accept the “dumped automobiles”, medicines are dumped to poorer
countries in Africa; shipped bulks of used clothes called “wagwag to Asia”, or exportations of cargos of wastes from
Canada to Philippines.

Addressing Inequality
Nine Strategies to Reduce Inequality
by Fernando Bonilla N0v. 28, 2016

The United Nations declared the 17th of October as the day for the eradication of poverty. This year the topic
was “ending poverty in all its forms”, as it is stated in the Sustainable Development Goal #1, from the agenda 2030 for
Sustainable Development.

The following are some examples of how inequality can be reduced by implementing institutional arrangements
on the field of fiscal, social, and economic policy:

1.Pro-poor fiscal policy.

Income redistribution is achieved by fiscal policy mainly, but it does not limit itself to income transfers from the
rich to the poor. In informal markets, fiscal incentives for poorer entrepreneurs can encourage them to enter the formal
sector, provide social security for them, and they make easier to pay taxes according to status and profits. On the other
hand, fiscal incentives for banks can encourage them to lend money to poor people, providing guarantees of payment and
creating funding programs targeted to the poorest deciles.

2.Better targeting of social programs.

Targeting helps to reduce income inequality and inequalities related to education and health. Income transfers
programs can have a greater and longer-term impact if better targeting is used, ensuring people with wider gaps in access
and income inequality are participants of the programs.

This can be done using geographic targeting (selecting the regions with a higher prevalence of poverty) or using
surveys to estimate if a potential beneficiary is poor or how poor she is. There is also the possibility of participatory
targeting, where people from the community identify and validate the selection of beneficiaries.

Finally, having a national or state level list of social beneficiaries is also useful for preventing the programs to
duplicate efforts.

3. Participatory decision-making.
This strategy focuses on increasing the voice of the poor. Poor people often face an inequality of participation in
policy making. Designing participatory methodologies to include their perspective in public policy can help reduce the
gaps of power to decide over policies, which affect them and their communities. Participation does not limit to decision
making, it can include monitoring and evaluating results and impact of social policies too.

4.Revision of legislative frameworks that foster inequality.

This strategy can help to identify discriminatory laws or laws that generate inequalities among people or regions.
Laws that do not recognize domestic labor as productive; or social security systems that do not provide universal access.

The frameworks supporting these legislations might be discriminating towards informal poor workers; for
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example, agricultural laborers without access to social security (and therefore, pensions). Hence, these laws might change
so they can include these sectors of population.

5.Promotive action.
Discrimination against certain groups of population might isolate them and limit their access to opportunities for
a better wellbeing. Media campaigns and advocacy efforts, which identify this kind of discrimination and promote the
participation of these sectors, can make people with disabilities, migrants, religions groups and indigenous groups more
confident about their inclusion in the State.

Affirmative action can help to reduce the impact of ancient discrimination towards social groups, like indigenous
groups. Quotas for political participation can also improve their voice on public policy.

6. Addressing regional inequality.

Improving access to roads, communications and markets can have a great impact on reducing poverty and
opening opportunities for marginalized groups. Moreover, decentralization of public services, offices and industries can
promote shared prosperity among regions by preventing regional poverty pockets.

7. Differentiated poverty reduction policies

Extreme poverty is usually associated to systemic inequality and chronic poverty. Meanwhile, transient poverty
is more related to the effect of shocks and a higher social mobility rate. Different policies are needed to address each case
of poverty: a temporary employment program might work for transient poverty but it may be inefficient for chronic
poverty related, for example, to a disability or to address poverty experienced by refugees. Understanding the dynamics
of poverty can work to design more efficient policies and having a bigger impact on chronic poverty.

8. Measuring other inequalities, rather than just income inequality.

An example of this kind of inequalities can be seen in more time spent on non-paid activities by women; higher
poverty levels by indigenous groups; more difficulties to start business activities by poorest entrepreneurs; inequalities in
school attendance by women and several others; limited access to markets (both labor and goods).
Other inequalities, not related to an unequal distribution of income, tend to affect a particular group for a long
period of time in a systematic way. Gender inequality, for example, is not new or randomly generated, and it can prevent
women´s poverty to decline for generations.

Discrimination against indigenous groups may not be a problem today, but the effects derived from the past might
endure unless affirmative action is taken. Most inequalities are systematic and perpetuated by institutions, from habits,
tradition to legal, economic and political systems that restrict participation by and for the poor not in a transient way, but
with a long-term effect. Making these inequalities visible might influence policy makers to design more effective policies
to address them.

9. Program Monitoring and Evaluation

Sound public expenditure evaluation can determine if a social program is being efficient on reducing inequality
or poverty. Design, performance, and impact evaluation can also increase public support for social programs by
demonstrating they are effective.

Ways to Reduce Global Inequality

(By Nick Galasso and Marjorie Wood)
Extreme economic inequality is corrosive to our societies. It makes poverty reduction harder, hurts our
economies, and drives conflict and violence. Reversing this trend presents a significant challenge, but one where we’ve
seen some progress.

1. Stop Illicit Outflows.

In developing countries, inadequate resourcing for health, education, sanitation, and investment in the poorest
citizens drives extreme inequality. One reason is tax avoidance and other illicit outflows of cash. According to
Global Financial Integrity, developing countries lost $6.6 trillion in illicit financial flows from 2003 through
2012, with illicit outflows increasing at an average rate of 9.4 percent per year. That’s $6.6 trillion that could
reduce poverty and inequality through investments in human capital, infrastructure, and economic growth.

2. Progressive Income Tax

After falling for much of the 20th century, inequality is worsening in rich countries today. The top one percent is
not only capturing larger shares of national income, but tax rates on the highest incomes have also dropped. How
much should the highest income earners be taxed? This is obviously a question to be decided domestically by
citizens, and opinions differ. For instance, economist Tony Addison suggests a top rate of 65 percent rate on the
top 1 percent of incomes.

3. A Global Wealth Tax

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In Capital in the Twenty-first Century, Thomas Piketty recommends an international agreement establishing a
wealth tax. Under his plan, countries would agree to tax personal assets of all kinds at graduated rates. The
skeptics do have a point about whether this plan is practical, but we shouldn’t give up on the idea. Because
wealth tends to accumulate over generations, fair and well-designed wealth taxes would go a long way towards
combating extreme inequality.

4. Enforce a Living Wage

Governments should establish and enforce a national living wage, and corporations should also prioritize a living
wage for their workers and with the suppliers, buyers, and others with whom they do business. Low and
unlivable wages are a result of worker disempowerment and concentration of wealth at the top—hallmarks of
unequal societies. As human beings with basic needs, all workers should earn enough to support themselves and
their families. Governments and corporations should be responsible for protecting the right to a living wage,
corporations should commit to responsible behavior that respects the dignity of all workers.

5.Workers’ Right to Organize

The right of workers to organize has always been a cornerstone of more equal societies and should be prioritized
and protected wherever this basic right is violated. Extreme inequality requires the disempowerment of workers.
Therefore, the right of workers to organize and bargain collectively for better pay and conditions is a global
human rights priority. Despite Article 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights— which declares the
right to organize as a fundamental human right—workers worldwide, including in the United States, still face
intimidation, fear, and retribution for attempting to organize collectively. Where unions are strong, wages are
higher, and inequality is lower.

6. Stop Other labor Abuses

Companies worldwide are also replacing what was once permanent and stable employment with temporary and
contingent labor. Often called “contingent” or “precarious” workers, these workers fill a labor need that is
permanent while being denied the status of employment. In the United States, this trend is called
“misclassification,” in which employers misclassify workers as “independent contractors” when they are
employees. Contingent labor also occurs through outsourcing, subcontracting, and use of employment agencies.

7. Open and Democratic Trade Policy

Negotiating international trade agreements behind closed doors with only bureaucrats and corporate lobbyists
present must end. These old-style trade agreements are fundamentally undemocratic and put corporate profits
above workers, the environment, health, and the public interest. We need a new, transparent trade policy that is
open, transparent, and accountable to the people.

8. A new Economics?
Economists are often imagined as stuffy academics who value arcane economic theory above humanitarian
values. The field’s clinging to parsimonious theories gave us such winners as the Washington Consensus and a
global financial system that imploded in 2008. As they acknowledge, we clearly need a new economics that
works to improve the lives of everyone, not just those already well off. For instance, what could be more radical
than a Buddhist economics?

This is the path promoted by economist and Rhodes Scholar E .F. Schumacher, who says humanity needs an
economics that creates wealth for all people, just not money for privileged people and corporations. Economics
should take into account ethics and the environment and treat its claims less like invariable truths.

Source: Diano, Grace P., Addressing Social Inequalities; Understanding Culture, Society and Politics, Grade 12, First Semester,
Quarter 2, Week 7, Deped, Schools Division of Benguet.