Ieee 2778-2020

IEEE Guide for Solar Power Plant
STANDARDS
Grounding for Personal Protection
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Developed by the
Energy Development & Power Generation Committee
IEEE Std 2778™-2020
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSIDADE DE SAO PAULO. Downloaded on March 02,2021 at 22:30:27 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE Std 2778™-2020

Grounding for Personnel Protection
Developed by
Energy Development & Power Generation Committee

of the
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Approved 30 January 2020
IEEE SA Standards Board
Abstract: This guide is primarily concerned with the grounding system design for photovoltaic solar
power plants that are utility owned and/or utility scale (5 MW or greater). The focus of the guide is
on differences in practices from substation grounding as provided in IEEE Std 80. This guide is not
intended for the substations to interconnect the plant; however, if the substation is included within
the plant, portions of this guide may be applicable. Similarly, this guide does not directly cover
small scale solar power plants (such as rooftop type systems), substation grounding, or lightning
protection.
Keywords: grounding, IEEE 2778™, personnel, photovoltaic, protection, solar power plant
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5
Participants
At the time this IEEE guide was completed, the Wind and Solar Power Plant Collector Design Working Group
had the following membership:
Loren Powers, Chair

Sudipta Dutta, Vice Chair
Chris Brooks Dustin Howard Doug Price

Josh Brown Andy Leon Abdou Sana
Tracker Goree David Lewis Rob Schaerer
Matt Hadsell Dave Mueller Alkesh Shah
Gopal Padmanabhan
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have voted
for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
William Ackerman Werner Hoelzl Loren Powers

Ali Al Awazi Robert Hoerauf Charles Rogers
James Babcock Yuri Khersonsky Ryandi Ryandi
Sirak Belayneh Jim Kulchisky Steven Sano
Thomas Blair Chung-Yiu Lam Rob Schaerer
Derek Brown Giancarlo Leone Robert Seitz
Gustavo Brunello David Lewis Nikunj Shah
Demetrio Bucaneg Jr Jose Marrero Gary Smullin
William Bush Charles Morse Gary Stoedter
William Byrd Jerry Murphy James Timperley
Kurt Clemente Ali Naderian Jahromi Gerald Vaughn
Gary Donner Arthur Neubauer John Vergis
Kevin Fellhoelter Bansi Patel Kenneth White
Kamal Garg Christopher Petrola Jian Yu
Randall Groves Allan Powers Nicholas Zagrodnik
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this guide on 30 January 2020, it had the following membership:
Gary Hoffman, Chair

Vacant Position, Vice Chair
Jean-Philippe Faure, Past Chair
Konstantinos Karachalios, Secretary
Ted Burse Howard Li Dorothy Stanley

J. Travis Griffith Dong Liu Mehmet Ulema
Grace Gu Kevin Lu Lei Wang
Guido R. Hiertz Paul Nikolich Sha Wei
Joseph L. Koepfinger* Damir Novosel Philip B. Winston
John D. Kulick Jon Walter Rosdahl Daidi Zhong
David J. Law Jingyi Zhou
*Member Emeritus
6
Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std 2778-2020, IEEE Guide for Solar Power Plant Grounding for Personnel
Protection.
Utility scale solar power plants (SPP) cover areas as large as tens of square kilometers. The approaches
presented in IEEE Std 80™1 for substations do not always directly apply to these much larger facilities. For
example, in the United States, the National Electrical Code (NEC) [B5]2 specifically excludes plants 5 MW
and greater and the NESC (IEEE Std C2) [B1] does not provide significant guidance for plant design, primarily
referencing IEEE Std 80. IEEE Std 80 is intended for substation environments where ground systems are
comparatively small and have dense grid spacing in comparison to the grounding of utility scale SPPs.
This guide was prepared in order to help utilities, developers, and SPP operators understand the differences
and challenges of utility scale SPP grounding. It heavily references IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 81™ for design,
testing, and theory of grounding, focusing on the differences from these documents.
1
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
2
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex A.
7
Contents
1. Overview�� 9
1.1 Scope�� 9
1.2 Purpose�� 9
2. Normative references�� 9
3. Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations�� 10

3.1 Definitions�� 10
3.2 Acronyms and abbreviations�� 10
4. Description of SPP and SPP grounding systems�� 11

4.1 Differences among SPPs, traditional power plants, and substations�� 12
4.2 Challenges with design and analysis�� 12
4.3 Auxiliary systems (equipment frames) for grounding�� 13
4.4 Fence grounding�� 13
4.5 Personnel protection in SPP�� 13
5. Design and analysis approach�� 14

5.1 Soil�� 14
5.2 Fault data�� 15
5.3 SPP grounding design�� 16
5.4 Modeling and analysis�� 18
5.5 Post-construction testing�� 21
Annex A (informative) Bibliography�� 22
8
Grounding for Personnel Protection
1. Overview
1.1 Scope
This guide is primarily concerned with the grounding system design for ground-mount photovoltaic (PV)
solar power plants (SPPs) that are utility owned and/or utility scale (5 MW or greater). The focus of the guide
is on differences in practices from substation grounding as provided in IEEE Std 80.
This guide is not intended for the substations to interconnect the solar plant; however, if the substation is
included within the plant, portions of this guide may be applicable. Similarly, this guide does not directly
cover small-scale SPPs (such as rooftop type systems), substation grounding, or lightning protection.
1.2 Purpose
The intent of this guide is to provide guidance and information pertinent to the grounding practices in SPPs
for personnel protection, specifically to identify differences between substation grounding (covered under
IEEE Std 80) and SPPs.
This guide is primarily concerned with grounding practices related to personnel protection within SPPs for 50
Hz or 60 Hz systems.
2. Normative references

The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the
referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
IEEE Std 80™, IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding.
IEEE Std 81™, IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance, and Earth Surface Potentials
of a Grounding System.
9
IEEE Std 2778-2020
IEEE Guide for Solar Power Plant Grounding for Personnel Protection
3. Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations

3.1 Definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. The IEEE Standards Dictionary
Online should be consulted for terms not defined in this clause.3
collector system: All cables, underground cables, and/or overhead lines and switchgear from solar inverter
and step-up transformer sites to the SPP interconnect substation. The total number of ac collector system
circuits is driven by the size of the substation transformer.
functionally grounded: A photovoltaic (PV) system that has an electrical reference to ground that is not
solidly grounded.
personnel protection: Establishment of a grounding system capable of meeting touch and step voltage
compliance within the SPP under fault conditions within the context of IEEE Std 80.
point of interconnection (POI): The location where the generation facility (SPP) connects to the transmission
or distribution systems.
solar power plant (SPP): A group of electrically interconnected solar photovoltaic (PV) panels having one or
more points of interconnection to the utility electric system.
split factor: A factor representing the portion of the remotely-sourced symmetrical ground fault current that
flows through the grounding system and earth compared to the total current.
SPP grounding system: The combination of all below-grade grounded objects within the solar power plant
(SPP), including the interconnection of grounding through above-grade SPP structures. This may or may not
include the interconnect substation, depending if this substation is within the SPP or not.
traditional power plants: Referring to those power plants that convert the chemical energy of a fuel into
electrical energy (e.g., coal fired, gas fired, oil fired, etc.).
utility-scale SPP: A solar power plant (SPP) sized at 5 MW or greater.
3.2 Acronyms and abbreviations
GPR ground potential rise

GSU generator step-up
HV high-voltage
MV medium-voltage
POI point of interconnection
PV photovoltaic
SPP solar power plant
3
IEEE Standards Dictionary Online is available at: http://dictionary.ieee.org. An IEEE Account is required for access to the dictionary,
and one can be created at no charge on the dictionary sign-in page.
10
IEEE Std 2778-2020
4. Description of SPP and SPP grounding systems

Solar power plants consist of a number of PV panels which produce dc power, which are then interconnected
to a common dc collection point. The dc power is inverted to ac power at low voltage and then transformed
to medium voltage (commonly 11 kV to 35 kV) through an adjacent generator step-up (GSU) transformer
(commonly 1 MVA to 2 MVA). A typical design may have one or two inverters collect on the order of 1 MVA of
solar generation each, and connect to a step-up transformer at a collection point within the block of generation.
The ac power is collected through an ac collector system of medium voltage cables, typically combining the
output of multiple transformers, sometimes through medium voltage switchgear. A simplified one-line of a
sample portion of an SPP is shown in Figure 1. The ac collection system is then connected to the electric utility
at a point-of-interconnection. Larger plants may have an independent interconnection substation, which may
or may not be part of the SPP grounding system.
Figure 1—Sample SPP partial single line diagram
The dc and ac sides of the SPP system are often galvanically isolated. When dc system grounding is required,
the dc and ac grounding systems may be bonded or may be functionally grounded. Where applicable, the
National Electrical Code® (NEC®) (NFPA 70®) [B5]4 indicates that the dc system-grounding connection
should be made at a single point in the dc circuit. In grounded PV systems, this system-grounding connection is
made via an inverter’s internal ground-fault-protection device. Upon operation of this ground-fault-protection
device, the dc system ground reference may be removed.
The SPP grounding system consists of the below-grade grounding material (typically bare copper or copper-
clad steel conductor and grounding electrodes), as well as interconnected above-grade metallic objects, such
as equipment frames and support posts. These objects affect the grounding system performance when they are
bonded to the below-grade grounding system or extend below grade.
A typical design utilizes minimal below-grade grounding, typically just enough to provide bonding between
each block of generation, connecting the individual step-up transformers. The inverter/transformer may utilize
an additional loop of grounding conductor around this equipment. Grounds to the remainder of the plant
equipment (PV panels, support frames, etc.) are often provided by bonding one point of a row of panels to the
4
The NEC is published by the National Fire Protection Association (https://www.nfpa.org/). Copies are also available from the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (https://standards.ieee.org/).
11
IEEE Std 2778-2020
grounding system at one end. Some designs also continue a run of grounding along the row of panels either
above or below grade.
The size of a typical SPP makes it impractical to install a grounding mesh sufficiently dense to maintain a
near-equipotential plane across the entire facility or to install crushed rock surfacing throughout the entire
facility. The large open areas generally require less grounding (similar to traditional power plant design), but it
is imperative to pay attention to step and touch voltages in the vicinity of all exposed conductive equipment. A
design model that can account for this wide variation in grounding system characteristics and requirements is
necessary to design a grounding system that adequately protects personnel without being prohibitively costly.
4.1 Differences among SPPs, traditional power plants, and substations

While there are some similarities between SPP grounding systems and traditional power plants and substations,
there are more significant differences. Utility-scale SPP grounding systems can often extend over hundreds or
thousands of acres where substations and traditional plants are typically much smaller.
The general practice in a substation or plant grounding design is to produce a near-equipotential plane through
the facility, or at least around grounded equipment. Using a relatively dense mesh, this is achieved to an
acceptable level as determined by examining mesh, touch, and step voltages within the grounding system area.
Substations are small enough that grid spacing on the order of 5 m to 15 m (15 ft to 50 ft) is typical and presents
a reasonable expense for the project. Similarly, applying an insulating surface layer around equipment and
throughout the station is common practice. Since the total area is relatively small, analysis can be performed
by most grounding software packages, and in some instances hand calculations, to provide acceptable results
with relative ease.
Traditional power plants often have large rebar-reinforced concrete foundations or buildings that equalize
the voltages in the vicinity of major equipment. Auxiliary equipment is grounded in similar fashion as in
a substation environment, and the power plant is typically connected to a substation that follows typical
substation grounding design. Many traditional plants have large areas where there is no equipment to
touch which allows for less grounding in some areas. While power plants are often larger than substations,
the grounding design and analysis is usually not significantly more difficult and can be handled readily by
software.
Due to the larger size of SPPs, it is usually not practical to install an insulating crushed rock surfacing layer
throughout the entire facility, nor is it practical to install a dense grounding mesh. These two omissions have
an additive effect on personnel protection implications: the lack of crushed rock can significantly reduce
allowable touch and step voltage limits and the lack of dense grid results in higher step and touch voltages.
4.2 Challenges with design and analysis

The cost of a large utility-scale SPP grounding system can often reach into the millions of dollars in materials
alone. Unlike a substation grounding design, where some overdesign may be acceptable from a cost standpoint,
even a small percentage of overdesign in a SPP can introduce significant cost. Thus, there is incentive to
perform an accurate analysis and design that provides IEEE Std 80 compliant personnel protection while
reducing unnecessary design margin costs.
The size of utility-scale SPPs cause modeling difficulties as well. Hand calculation methods are insufficient
due to the assumptions they require, particularly the exclusion of internal grounding conductor resistance that
becomes significant over large distances. Many software programs have limitations as well, including soil
structure type, maximum number of conductors, or not accounting for conductor self and mutual-impedance.
Even the most advanced grounding software packages cannot accommodate the largest utility-scale PV SPPs
without some sort of compromise. Complex techniques, which require a detailed understanding of the problem
12
IEEE Std 2778-2020
and the modeling software, often have to be used to obtain reasonable and accurate results with partial, limited,
or approximate models.
4.3 Auxiliary systems (equipment frames) for grounding

As noted above, SPP grounding design often makes use of auxiliary systems (such as cable trays, PV frames,
support posts, etc.) as part of the grounding system. These auxiliary systems are primarily above-grade, and in
most cases they provide electrically-continuous paths for current to distribute through the SPP. However, there
are caveats to be aware of when the grounding system is dependent on these auxiliary systems.
For instance, the path needs to be truly electrically continuous across any joints and connections; full
compliance with UL 2703 [B6] and 3703 [B7] is one way to provide confidence in this continuity. If the
support posts are covered with a corrosion-prevention coating, embedded in high resistivity (gravel) backfill,
or otherwise not in solid electrical contact with native soil, their benefit may be reduced or eliminated. These
effects can be properly accounted for if modeled and analyzed properly.
Similarly, the electric resistivity of steel is higher than that of copper, potentially resulting in greater voltage
drop along the line of panels. There may also be concerns regarding galvanic corrosion between dissimilar
metals when connecting grounding conductor to the equipment frames. Where the NESC is applicable, there
are a variety of requirements for these auxiliary grounding electrodes including materials, size, etc. [B1].
4.4 Fence grounding

Where the National Electrical Safety Code® (NESC®) (Accredited Standards Committee C2) is applicable,
metal fences surrounding a SPP may require grounding as of the publication of this document [B1]. From
a technical standpoint, additional fence grounding may not be necessary if the fence posts are metallic and
bonded to any fence mesh material. However, analysis of touch voltages on the fence is required to confirm
compliance with the practices of IEEE Std 80.
It is not uncommon to have fence-plant separation of 6 m (20 ft) or more if there is a perimeter road, which
significantly decreases the conductive coupling between the fence and faulted equipment. Bonding the fence
causes the fault voltages to be transferred onto the fence, which in many cases would require a significant
amount of additional grounding and/or surfacing along the site fence.
A more practical option is to analyze the site’s metal fence(s) with faults at various locations near the perimeter
of the SPP grounding system. If the analysis indicates that touch or step voltage limits are exceeded along
portions of the site fence, additional localized fence grounding and/or crushed rock surfacing may be placed in
those specific areas.
When fences are parallel to or crossing under transmission lines, magnetic and capacitive induction can also
pose a concern, although this effect may be substantially smaller than the conductive component from a fault
scenario. These aspects can be considered on a case-by-case basis.
4.5 Personnel protection in SPP

An SPP grounding system serves the same function as a traditional grounding system. This includes limiting
touch and step voltages to the limits determined in IEEE Std 80. Under fault conditions, personnel protection
is examined for the following:
— Touch voltages on all equipment within the SPP fence electrically connected to the SPP grounding
system
— Touch voltages on the SPP and any connected fence, possibly due to transfer voltage
13
IEEE Std 2778-2020
— Touch voltages on other grounded objects in the vicinity of the SPP that may be affected by transfer
voltage from the SPP grounding system, as required
— Step voltages throughout and just beyond the entire area within the SPP and SPP grounding system
5. Design and analysis approach

The following subclauses discuss a useful design approach, with significant references to IEEE Std 80. The
goal of this section is to identify differences in design and analysis compared to a substation environment,
allowing a user familiar with substation grounding design to understand additional considerations for large
SPPs.
5.1 Soil
Because of the size of SPPs, the soil generally cannot be considered consistent across larger sites, and merits
more extensive testing and modeling than substation or traditional power plants. Testing is typically performed
at a variety of locations with soil models developed for specific areas to capture local differences in the soil
characteristics throughout the SPP.
5.1.1 Soil resistivity testing
To get sufficient information to perform the analyses of the grounding system, it is necessary to collect a
significant amount of soil resistivity data throughout the SPP prior to construction. Ideally this includes a
combination of a large number of shorter traverses and a few very long traverses of soil resistivity. The long
traverses of soil resistivity are used to characterize the lower layer(s) of soil. Generally, the bottom layer
remains constant across the entire site and can significantly influence the overall grounding system impedance.
Short traverses should consist of measurements from small spacings (around 0.5 m or less) up to maximum
spacings of at least 30 m (100 ft). For some SPP sites where significant variation of resistivity with depth is
expected, these tests may need to be extended to a maximum spacing upwards of 75 m (250 ft). Typically these
shorter traverses should be made in a grid across the site with separations between center points on the order of
500 m (1650 ft) [B3]. Short traverses can be used to develop upper-layer soil models for each location where
the data was gathered.
Longer traverses are critical for the accurate characterization and analysis of any large grounding system [B4].
Ideally, the maximum spacing of the soil resistivity test would equal the largest SPP diagonal dimension;
however, this is not practical for larger SPP sites. For larger plants, the largest spacings for the longer traverses
may need to be around 300 m (1000 ft) in order to get a few probe spacings measuring this deepest layer [B3].
If measured apparent resistivities have not stabilized with little change over increasing probe spacings, the
traverses should be extended until the resistivities do level out. In large plants it is advisable for multiple long
traverses to be performed in varying areas within the plant to improve accuracy of the SPP soil model.
5.1.2 Soil model development
Each traverse of soil resistivity data measured should be analyzed separately. The shorter traverses in a given
area are used to represent the upper layers of local soil. The nearest longer traverse(s) of soil resistivity data
provides data on the deeper layers of soil. For smaller plants, the bottom layer of soil often is the same for
the entire SPP. Some very large SPPs may require the use of different values for the lower layer(s) of soil
resistivity.
Utilizing the data from the short and long traverse models for a given site, an overall soil model for a given area
of analysis can be developed. Table 1 shows an example of combining a short traverse (with two layers of soil
detected) and a long traverse (three layers of soil detected due to the larger probe spacings). The resistivity of
the upper and middle layers is based on the short traverse, and the resistivity of the bottom layer uses the long
14
IEEE Std 2778-2020
traverse. For depths, the top layer(s) utilize the depths known from the short traverse. Selecting the depth of
the next to bottom layer is the most difficult aspect if there is not a direct correlation between the middle layer
resistivities. One approach is to place the bottom layer at the same total depth as measured in the long traverse
(35 m in this example).
Table 1—Sample soil model development

Soil resistivity and thickness
Short taverse (local)
Long traverse (nearby) Combined local model
(tested to 30 m)
Top layer 50 Ω·m for 2 m 30 Ω·m for 4 m 50 Ω·m for 2 m
Second 120 Ω·m (bottom measured 100 Ω·m for 31 m 120 Ω·m for 33 m
(middle) layer with shorter traverse) (cumulative depth 35 m) (cumulative depth 35 m)
Third 65 Ω·m 65 Ω·m
(bottom) layer
Utilizing this methodology, a soil model can be developed for each region where a short traverse of soil
resistivity was measured. These various models then can be considered for analysis as discussed in 5.4.
5.2 Fault data

Fault data for an SPP grounding analysis is not significantly different than is needed for other facilities, but
there some aspects where the differences in a SPP that need to be considered.
5.2.1 Fault data required
Faults on the low-voltage ac system can be high in current magnitude, but the ground potential rise (GPR)
is limited by the system line-to-ground voltage. If the transformer is grounded, the current will primarily
circulate within the local metallic paths; if it is ungrounded, it is essentially zero. Additionally, the area of
exposure is limited (between the GSU transformer and adjacent inverter). Thus, faults at the high-voltage
(HV) or medium-voltage (MV) system generally produce the worst-case scenario for personnel protection.
Data can be collected as discussed in IEEE Std 80, including magnitudes, X/R ratios, and maximum clearing
times for the HV and MV systems, preferably separating contributions from the interconnecting utility and the
plant where possible. For the MV case, fault data at a large variety of locations throughout the SPP is required.
5.2.2 Fault current split considerations
If a split factor analysis is performed, care needs to be taken to perform a detailed analysis versus using the
simplified methods, such as the pre-calculated values or curves in IEEE Std 80-2013 Annex C. A detailed
sketch illustrating the zero-sequence paths for each fault type and location aids in understanding the split
factor calculation, as the split factor will be different for an HV fault versus an MV fault. The methodology in
IEEE Std 80 assumes that all lines exist and are sourced from outside of the grounding system (i.e., outside the
SPP). Therefore, collector circuits cannot be considered using the IEEE Std 80 methods but can be included in
detailed grounding system models.
Split factors associated with the remotely sourced currents for SPPs are generally high, often around 90%, due
to the low grounding system impedance of the plant and mutual coupling of ground conductors. For smaller
plants in very high-resistivity soil, this value can be lower for faults near the interconnect substation. For faults
further away from the substation, the benefits of determining the fault current split factor are generally minimal
as the impedance of the grounding conductor to the transmission lines can often exceed the impedance of the
transmission-line ground network. Therefore, a split factor is often not considered, but may be if it would
prove beneficial.
15
IEEE Std 2778-2020
Faults within the plant that are close to or at the collector or interconnect substation may benefit to some
extent from the additional path that the shield wires on the transmission lines provide. The most accurate
way to consider the effects is to include a simplified model of the shield wires and structure grounds in the
model, as discussed in 5.4. Simply using an IEEE Std 80 derived split factor neglects the impedance of ground
conductors between the fault location and the shield wire terminations. This value can reach several ohms in
portions of a SPP further away from the substation.
Additionally, some of the current (particularly locally sourced ground fault currents within the plant) returns to
local zero-sequence sources through conductor neutrals, as discussed in 5.2.3.
5.2.3 Determination of worst-case fault current(s)
Often, the interconnect substation has three-winding transformers with a delta tertiary or be delta-connected
on the high side and wye-grounded on the SPP side. This delta acts as a zero-sequence ground fault source
for faults within the plant; however, it may not result in a significant GPR, thus it may not significantly affect
touch and step voltages. Where software allows, modeling the correct return path for the delta contribution(s)
(which primarily circulates in the grounding system) assists in reducing overdesign while maintaining analysis
accuracy. This value cannot just be subtracted out and produce an accurate result. If the interconnect substation
is electrically connected to the SPP grounding system, faults on the HV side of the transformer should be
considered, as the GPR will have an impact on the SPP grounding system and may result in the highest touch
and step voltages near the substation within the SPP.
Considering the local generation from the PV arrays, as controlled by the inverter, may also improve the
accuracy of the GPR calculations; however, modeling this aspect is much more difficult due to the wide
distribution of sources. The system configuration may be such that there is no ground-current contribution
from the PV generation, but if there is, an improvement in accuracy may be achieved by modeling lumped
current return paths at each GSU location.
If protection is based on time overcurrent elements, clearing time varies with varying fault currents. As such,
selecting a single worst-case fault current may be difficult, and analyzing multiple faults is likely required.
5.2.4 Fault locations to use for analysis
Analysis should be performed at a reasonable sampling of line-to-ground fault locations throughout the SPP
and at the interconnect substation if the grounding system is attached. The specific number of sites depends
on the size of the plant and the variation of fault currents through the site. Typically, a short-circuit model is
developed for the site, often modeling to each GSU location. This allows for realistic fault values to be used for
each location analyzed, accounting for the fact that values are often significantly lower far away from the main
collector substation. A subset of locations may be used as discussed in 5.4.
5.3 SPP grounding design

SPPs are large systems that require an optimized design to reduce costs while providing a grounding system
that is sufficient. The use of software is often a requirement to validate the performance of a grounding system
for a large SPP. Even using software, complete modeling of the entire system can be difficult. The following
sections discuss an approach to design a grounding system and perform this analysis.
5.3.1 General design approach
To keep costs down, a minimalistic grounding system that also provides personnel protection is desired for the
SPP. A common design consists of an interconnected grounding system with very large grid spacing (in excess
of 100 m (350 ft) (see Lewis and Schaerer [B3]). The spacing often is determined in order to surround each 1
MW to 4 MW block of PV generation. This could result in a design similar to that shown in Figure 2, which
shows the large spacing (around 150 m) of the SPP grid and a connection to the interconnection substation at
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IEEE Std 2778-2020
the bottom with a much denser grid. The small loop near each corner represents the loop around the step-up
transformer and inverter equipment. The site fence is shown in red.
Figure 2—Sample primary grounding grid layout
The grid conductor can be placed perpendicular to each line of PV panels and run along one end of the lines,
connecting to each line. The far end typically does not require a separate conductor but may be necessary in
some conditions due to voltage drop along the equipment frames. In some cases, the grid may be reduced to
just enough conductor to connect the inverter loops together and back to the substation.
An example of this is shown in Figure 3 where the black lines are the main grounding system (grid) and the red
lines are the auxiliary grounding systems (steel supports and posts in solid contact with native soil). Alternate
designs may use a single run of conductor shared between blocks and connected across the open area between
the blocks to tie to each row of PV panels.
5.3.2 Grounding along rows of panels
In some cases, plant designers use a below-grade or an above-ground copper conductor run in the dc cable
tray along the line of panels as part of the grounding system. This approach can help provide a continuous
low resistance grounding path along the rows of panels; however, this approach is often unnecessary from a
touch and step voltage standpoint assuming that the path along the line of panels is electrically continuous. The
addition or removal of the additional copper conductor should be considered primarily based on the analysis
and design. If a separate copper conductor is not utilized, it is imperative that the design provides the electrical
continuity of the above grade structures.
5.3.3 Use of ground rods
The use of ground rods generally provides little benefit in an extremely large grounding system except to
provide some local reduction of touch voltages (including locations such as fence corners or gates), or where
a shallow high resistivity layer exists such that the main grounding system is not in lower resistivity soil, but
ground rods could reach into the lower layer. The steel support posts also provide a similar benefit if deep
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IEEE Std 2778-2020
Figure 3—Sample grounding of PV arrays
enough and bonded into the grounding system. By examining the soil structure, hundreds or thousands of
unnecessary ground rods may be avoided. In some cases, using a large number of ground rods in certain areas
may increase fault current flow to that area, raising voltages nearby.
5.3.4 Application of insulating surfacing material
Crushed rock insulating surfacing is often not required as part of an SPP design. If some areas (such as
portions of the site fence or gates) do require surfacing, it should be placed in the minimally required areas.
Additionally, the cost of additional copper for small areas may be balanced against the cost of installation and
maintenance of rock.
5.3.5 Consideration of footwear
The resistance of shoes, particularly safety shoes can have a significant effect on the step and touch voltages
presented under fault conditions. The consideration of some form of footwear inside a controlled PV SPP
or the use of specialized (electrical rated shoes) may be considered if their use is required by the owner and
mitigation through traditional design is impractical. Additional discussion is included in 5.4.4.
5.4 Modeling and analysis

5.4.1 Limitations of traditional methods
The use of software is required for analysis of a utility-scale SPP. The traditional calculation methods presented
in IEEE Std 80 and other sources assume that a grounding system can be represented as a solid disk with no
significant impedance between the grounding in portions of the grid. Due to the large spacing of most SPP
grids, the resistance of the conductor from one portion of the plant to another can greatly exceed the resistance
to remote earth, which often is in the tenths of an ohm or less.
18
IEEE Std 2778-2020
5.4.2 Regional analysis
Even when using the software, it is typically impractical to model the entire grounding system and auxiliary
grounding systems (arrays, supports, posts, etc.). One general approach is to model the overall main below-
grade grounding system through the SPP, and then analyze specific portions of the system in regions with more
detail by including the portion of the auxiliary grounding system in that local area. Historically, this has not
been a common approach for traditional power plant grounding analysis, but it becomes necessary for many
large-scale plants to reduce overdesign that would occur if the auxiliary grounding systems were entirely
neglected.
Generally, this approach involves modeling an electrical equivalent of the auxiliary grounding systems by
including steel supports or posts that are in solid electrical contact with the earth, along with above grade
interconnections between those elements that are insulated from earth. This helps reduce the resistance of the
grounding system as well as helping smooth out touch and step voltages in the areas where the full auxiliary
system is modeled. Modeling the auxiliary grounding that is near the point of the fault (for example: a GSU
or collector switchgear location) while ignoring the remainder of the auxiliary systems provides slightly
conservative, but reasonably accurate, performance of the grounding system in the area (see Ma and Dawalibi
[B4]). While including the remainder of the auxiliary grounding systems that are not modeled would provide
some benefit, the reduction in overall system impedance is so minimal that the time to perform the additional
modeling is not justified.
A sample setup is shown in Figure 4, demonstrating the auxiliary grounding systems modeled around the
GSU location of interest (for example, the one to the lower left of the figure) and neglected in areas further
away. The green (shaded) areas represent the detailed auxiliary grounding systems model including the array
supports and posts (as in Figure 3), the black portions are again the overall grounding system, and the exterior
red line represents the facility fence. Analysis in a given scenario would be performed over the area with the
detailed auxiliary grounding system modeled, as well as on the adjacent fence.
Figure 4—Example of limited modeling in the area of analysis
19
IEEE Std 2778-2020
Similar to the challenges of the time for detailed modeling, software limitations usually prevent modeling
of the complete auxiliary grounding system beyond the immediate area under analysis. Including the local
details, however, generally results in a significant reduction in the amount of ground grid that is required.
Sensitivity studies have shown that not modeling any auxiliary grounding would have resulted in grid spacing
about three times as dense on several large-scale projects, using nine times the grounding material for a
compliant design [B3].
Additionally, a hybrid method may be utilized to significantly reduce computation time by equating a block
of solar panels to an equivalent ground rod. The resistance of the assembly of arrays within one block can be
calculated in a given soil model. This value needs to include the mutual resistance between ground conductors
which can be a significant contributor to the overall resistance of an equivalent. A ground rod length can be
determined to match this resistance and installed in the model in place of the detailed array shown in Figure 3
and Figure 4. If the arrays and posts are necessary to demonstrate touch voltage compliance, they can still be
modeled in detail in the specific areas under analysis.
5.4.3 Interconnection substation and effect of split factor
The interconnection substation grounding system design is outside the scope of this guide and would be
designed based on IEEE Std 80. However, including this grounding system in the SPP model improves
performance if directly connected to the SPP grounding system, in part due to the ability to consider split
factor provided by the transmission lines, particularly for transmission system voltage faults.
As noted in 5.2.2, using the IEEE Std 80-2013 Annex C approaches to determining a split factor is insufficient
for faults within a SPP. These methods neglect the impedance of grounding system conductors between the
point of fault and the termination of the transmission lines. In a SPP, due to the limited number of ground
conductors, this value can reach several ohms, particularly for faults far from the interconnect substation. A
good approach to appropriately determine the effect of the transmission lines on the split factor is to model
a simplified version of the lines. This model would include the shield wires as insulated conductors with the
appropriate impedance connected to an equivalent of the structure grounding system (e.g., a ground rod).
These simplified lines can be modeled for a few kilometers (miles) from the substation. Once beyond this
distance, additional structure grounds have relatively limited impact due to the accumulated resistance of the
shield wires.
If the interconnect substation is electrically connected to the SPP grounding system, faults on the HV side of
the transformer should be considered, as the GPR will have an impact on the SPP grounding system and may
result in the highest touch and step voltages near the substation within the SPP.
5.4.4 Compliance limits
Because crushed rock surfacing material is often not added across the site, compliance limits for touch and
step voltages are often based on native soil surfacing. If insulating surfacing is installed at least 1 m (3 ft)
beyond all metallic equipment, it can be considered for touch voltage limits on that equipment, as described in
IEEE Std 80.
IEEE Std 80 typically considers no additional foot resistance (such as due to shoes/boots) which may be
unrealistic inside a SPP. Other than the area outside and adjacent to the site fence, the SPP should be only
accessible to qualified personnel. At the judgment of the plant owner/operator and designers, it may be
practical to consider the addition of shoe/boot resistance when determining touch and step voltage compliance
limits only inside the SPP. Common values used are in the range of 1000 Ω to 2000 Ω (and may be greater
in many instances), adding significant margin to compliance limits (per Godlewski, et al. [B2]). This value
is incorporated by increasing the foot impedance in the IEEE Std 80 compliance limit determination.
Consideration for workers in non-traditional configurations (such as kneeling, which is not a typical touch-
voltage consideration) can be considered when deciding whether or not to incorporate footwear resistance.
Gloves with an electrical resistance rating can also be considered.
20
IEEE Std 2778-2020
5.5 Post-construction testing

Testing of installed grounding systems for SPPs presents additional challenges. Integrity testing, as presented
in IEEE Std 81, is achievable, but it does not validate grounding system resistance like a ground impedance
test is intended to. However, grounding system impedance testing of large PV SPPs is simply not practical in
most instances as the test methodologies require running a test lead on the order of five times the maximum
dimension of the SPP away from the plant. This distance can reach into several kilometers (miles) and requires
generally clear land to be performed properly.
When it is practical to do a ground impedance test on smaller plants, it should be done in accordance with
IEEE Std 81 to the extent that is feasible.
If the collector or interconnect substations are completed before connection so the remainder of the SPP, tests
can still be performed for those substations while isolated from the SPP grounding system. Note that even if
disconnected, if the substation is within the SPP grounding system area and the SPP grounding is partially or
completely installed, the results of the testing is likely influenced by the SPP grounding.
By gathering sufficient soil resistivity data and performing accurate, detailed analysis, the need for post-
construction testing of the larger plants is reduced. Documenting the details of the soil testing, analysis, and
results might provide reassurance of an adequate design when post-construction testing is not feasible.
21
IEEE Std 2778-2020
Annex A
(informative)
Bibliography
Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use
only.
[B1] Accredited Standards Committee C2, National Electric Safety Code® (NESC®).
[B2] Godlewski, J. R., G. T. Purdy, and C. J. Blattner, “Electrical resistance of work shoes,” 1999 IEEE
Transmission and Distribution Conference, New Orleans, LA, vol. 2, pp. 523−525, Apr. 1999, http://dx.doi
.org/10.1109/TDC.1999.756107.5
[B3] Lewis, D. and R. Schaerer, “Large Utility-Scale Photovoltaic Solar Power Plant Grounding System
Safety Design – General Practices and Guidance,” 2015 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting,
Denver, CO, pp. 1−5, Jul. 2015.
[B4] Ma, J. and F. P. Dawalibi, “Grounding Analysis of a Solar Power Generation Facility,” 2010 Asia-Pacific
Power and Energy Engineering Conference (APPEEC), Chengdu, China, pp. 1−4, Mar. 2010, http://dx.doi
.org/10.1109/APPEEC.2010.5449254.
[B5] NFPA 70®, National Electric Code (NEC®).6
[B6] UL 2703, Standard for Mounting Systems, Mounting Devices, Clamping/Retention Devices, and Ground
Lugs for Use with Flat-Plate Photovoltaic Modules and Panels.7
[B7] UL 3703, Standard for Solar Trackers.
5
IEEE publications are available from The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (https://standards.ieee.org/)
6
NFPA publications are published by the National Fire Protection Association (https://www.nfpa.org/)
7
UL publications are available from Underwriters Laboratories (https://www.ul.com/).
22
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IEEE Guide for Solar Power Plant

IEEE Power and Energy Society

IEEE Std 2778™-2020

IEEE Guide for Solar Power Plant

Energy Development & Power Generation Committee

Approved 30 January 2020

IEEE SA Standards Board

Keywords: grounding, IEEE 2778™, personnel, photovoltaic, protection, solar power plant

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright © 2020 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 978-1-5044-6470-3 STD24067

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Updating of IEEE Standards documents

Loren Powers, Chair

Chris Brooks Dustin Howard Doug Price

William Ackerman Werner Hoelzl Loren Powers

Gary Hoﬀman, Chair

Ted Burse Howard Li Dorothy Stanley

2. Normative references

IEEE Std 80™, IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding.

3. Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations

utility-scale SPP: A solar power plant (SPP) sized at 5 MW or greater.

3.2 Acronyms and abbreviations

GPR ground potential rise

4. Description of SPP and SPP grounding systems

Figure 1—Sample SPP partial single line diagram

4.1 Differences among SPPs, traditional power plants, and substations

4.2 Challenges with design and analysis

4.3 Auxiliary systems (equipment frames) for grounding

4.4 Fence grounding

4.5 Personnel protection in SPP

5. Design and analysis approach

5.1.1 Soil resistivity testing

5.1.2 Soil model development

Table 1—Sample soil model development

5.2 Fault data

5.2.1 Fault data required

5.2.2 Fault current split considerations

5.2.3 Determination of worst-case fault current(s)

5.2.4 Fault locations to use for analysis

5.3 SPP grounding design

5.3.1 General design approach

Figure 2—Sample primary grounding grid layout

5.3.2 Grounding along rows of panels

5.3.3 Use of ground rods

Figure 3—Sample grounding of PV arrays

5.3.4 Application of insulating surfacing material

5.3.5 Consideration of footwear

5.4 Modeling and analysis

5.4.2 Regional analysis

Figure 4—Example of limited modeling in the area of analysis

5.4.3 Interconnection substation and effect of split factor

5.4.4 Compliance limits

5.5 Post-construction testing

[B5] NFPA 70®, National Electric Code (NEC®).6

[B7] UL 3703, Standard for Solar Trackers.

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