Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Kristie Sigler - Persuasive Communication-Kendall Hunt Publishing (2017)

    Uploaded by

    Lukki Lukitawati
    109 views384 pages

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    109 views384 pages

    Kristie Sigler - Persuasive Communication-Kendall Hunt Publishing (2017)

    Uploaded by

    Lukki Lukitawati

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 384
    PERSUASIVE hells yc] CUE Ti Kendall Hunt wwwkendallhunt.com Send all inguiies to: 44050 Westmark Drive Dubuque, 1A 52004-1840 Copyright © 2017 by Kendall Hunt Publishing Company ISBN 978-1-5249-4969-3, All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, clectronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Published in the United States of America CL) SECTION 1: PERSUASION THEORY AND RESEARCH 1 ‘CHAPTER: THE CONCEPT OF PERSUASION ...... ‘GHAPTER2: ATTITUDES: DEFINITION, FORMATION, AND MEASUREMENT ..... . CHAPTERS: CLASSICAL RHETORIC... 0000 CHUPTERA, SOURCEFACTORS 2... esc ; CHAPTERS: MESSAGE FACTORS «eee anenreeasan CHAPTER: SOCLALIUDGMENT THEORY... CHAPTER?, CONSISTENCY AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY... CHAPTERS: AREASONEDACTION APPROACH... . ‘CHAPTERS: ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL ...... SECTION 2: PERSUASIVE WRITING 213 ‘CHAPTER 10; ACADEMICWRITING: MYTHS AND EXPECTATIONS ‘CHAPTER: FINDING GOOD SOURCES . . . ‘CHAPTER 12: EVALUATING AND WORKING WITH SOURCES . . SECTION 3: PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS 269 ‘CHAPTER 13: PERSUASIVE SPEAKING ‘CHAPTER 1: PRACTICING AND DELIVERING PUBLIC SPEECHES: GOING PUBLIC. ....... ‘CHAPTER 15: LISTENING AND CRITIQUING SPEECHES 3 Brief Contents iii BRIEF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. SECTION 1: PERSUASION THEORY AND RESEARCH 1 ‘CHAPTER: THE CONCEPT OF PERSUASION ... Learning Objectives... 222s s eee Defining Characteristic of Persuasion, Why Study Persuasion? i ‘Where and When Do We Persuade? ......... Persuasion as One of Multiple Forms of nfvence - ‘The Roe of Ethisin Persuasion. Summary, KeyTerms ... (Questions forReview (Questions forDiscusson. References. . CHAPTER 2: ATTITUDES: DEFINITION, FORMATION, AND MEASUREMENT ........+. Learning Objectives... Characteristics of Atitudes . ‘Attitude Defined. Theories of Attitude Beit Formation The Functions of attitudes... Attitude and Related Concepts... How Do We Measure Attudes? Thurstone Scales. . ert Scales... Semantic Diflerential Scales. Inplct Measures Summary... w Contents v KeyTerms ...... Chests even. ‘Questions fo Discussion References. (CHAPTERS: CLASSICAL RHETORIC, Learning Objectives ‘The Beginning: Corax and Sophsts. Prato. isto... Pra Es Paths and lags has... Pathos ‘sole’ Five Canons of Rhetoric. ‘Arangement. Syke. Memory. Delivery KeyTems i (Questions for Review... Questions for Discussion. References. . CHAPTER4: SOURCE FACTORS Leaming Objectives. Geibity 2... -Aistte's Approach Dimensions of Ceiity edibity and Persuasion. . : Pest uel ects ve Tine... Introductions and Cebity. Mesage Variables. anne cts... OtherSouce Factors vi Contents Uecbtty Summary, Key Terms (Questions forReview (Questions forDiscusson. (CHAPTERS: MESSAGE FACTORS . Learning Objectives... What Say Message Content...» Logical versus Emotional Appeals ‘Humor « Gui. ite aannca aera tay Extended Parlel Process Model... Sosa eseay Wing the tended Paral Pocss Mode... eee ecseeseeeeeeeeeeees TOT sect videne. : ‘ ‘ne Sided versus Two-Sided Messoges . ... How Say Language Style... Powerful versus Powerless Speech. Intense Language . Resistance to Persuasion. Inoculation Theory a Forewaming 13 Summary. 15 Key Terms ai 15 (Questions forReview. . .W Questions for Discusion. 18 PAU os cecum countess commer - 0 ‘CHAPTER: SOCIAL JUDGMENT THEORY . m4 Learning Objectives, zi aes TS Latitudes of Acceptance and Rejection, ws Judgments and Attitude Change. w EGO-INOWEMER cece eeecseee cate etseeetseetseeeteees TB Changing Atitudes with Social Judgment Theory f w ‘Applying Social Judgment Theory... eee eseeesseeesseeseeeeseseees BA Strength and Limitations... SP RTARTATS oe BS Summary. a7 Key Terms -B Contents vii ‘Questions for Review... . ‘Questions for Discussion References (CHAPTER: CONSISTENCY AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY . ‘Mar and Lary’s Apple Aventure . Learning Objectives... Cognit Dissonance Theory... ‘Magnitude of Dissonance. Dissonance Reduction. Cognitive Dissonance Contexts Induced Compliance. . Necessary Condition for Cognitive Dissonance. . Applying CogitiveDisonance Theory... ‘An Alternate Explanation Sele Pecepton Theoy . a ‘Sel Perception Theory Postulaes... Supporting Research Strengths and Limitations. Summary. . KeyTems (Questions for Review... Questions for Discussion. References. CHAPTERS: A REASONED ACTION APPROACH .. Learning Objectives... Attitudes are Not Alone TeRoleof tenons... Perceived Behavioral Contra. The Model. . . vr : ‘Measuring and Predicting Atitude toward Behavior. ‘Measuring ond Predicting Subjective Norms . ‘Measuring Perceived Behavioral onto! viii Contents . 88 19 ml . 12 6a: 18 118 4 1s 6 8 8 -. 80 11 8 . 14 stag. 1S . 155 7 . 19 10 . 16 .m m eB soe: 1 wee 6 7 SoNow What Do You Do with it? Using TRA to Change Attudes. ‘Using TRA to Change SubjectiveNorm. 180 ‘Using TRA to Change Perceived Behevioa Contr. , 8 ‘Using TRA to Change Behvior 1 Strengths and Limitations Summary... Keyes... (Questions for Review. (Question for Discusion. References... m9 19 185 (GHAPTER. ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL . ore arenas a Learning Objectives. Elaboration... a TwoRoutesto attitude Change. . Which Routt Use?.. Central versus Peripheral Routes... ‘tad Chane Cn and Pipher Rees Measurement of Elaboration Testing ELM Using EM to influence attitudes. . Strengths and Limitations... Summary Keyes... (Questions forReview. . (Question for Discusion References... SECTION 2: PERSUASIVE WRITING 215 ‘CHAPTER 10; ACADEMIC WRITING: MYTHS AND EXPECTATIONS ...... 26 Learning Objectives... 2... Ba Sadi ou IE ‘Common Myths About Writing... Sev mM Myth Wing tle tht paler bo wit ard doth m7 ‘Myth 2:1haveto know everything | watt say before can start wing... 218 Myth 3:My first daft should eas good asi canbe, 01 wil ony have to ‘clean itup" inversion... . sidceetienr ate 20 yt thave ona sue tend bet estar wring. 28 Contents ix x Contents ‘Myth SH could jus find the perectsoure | would understand exactly what wantto sey aboutmy topic... 5 ‘Myth6: There is noting that can be done about “wnter block”. ‘Myth 7 cannot gure out my introduction, sol cannot wntethe paper. QUeSHONSFOEREVIEW. ee eeeeecseeeeseeeenseee : Web StesforFurtherREFRONCe sees sseeeeseeeeeseeeeseeersee CHAPTER TI: FINDING GOOD SOURCES .......0seseeeeeeeeenees moiieeddaill Leaning Objectives. . seaaiguuuneusmena ts 23 Distinguishing Between Scholarly, News, Iade, and Popular Sources, Scholar SOURS eevee eevee News, Trade and Popular Sources... . ‘sing Scolar ond Popul Sources BEAM: A CommonSense Way of Thinking Abou Sources. . The“B"n BEAM: Background Sure. The"E'inBEM:Eshbits. The“A”in BEAM: Argument Sources The ‘Min BEAM: Method Sources Finding Sources... ‘Starting Researchina New Field Questions for Review. eee eves Web Sites for Further Reference . . (CHAPTER 12: EVALUATING AND WORKING WITH SOURCES ... ateseneann tk 246 Learning Objectives. wr Evaluating and GoosingSOUreS. «2... eeceeeesseeeesereensees Mt Evaluating Sources Acorn to BosicCitra ur Choosing Sources That Meet YourResearch NEOUS... ess ceeeseeeeee 2 WB Working wih Sources —How to Review the Literature. 9 (Gite Reading and Note Taking Strategies... 3 ‘Anlying and interpreting. BI Giibesag 2 vcéa eKewnaing oho Scot 3 Plagiarism and Responsible Use of Sources 202 ‘Best Note Tokng Practices to Avoid Plagiarism. .. fe 264 ‘Ways to Signal When You re Borrowing Words and ideas. 264 Summary. ieaih a fastetnes acs ect Key Terms arias e aateeana sian 3B. (Questions forReview 266 Web ies frFurther een. a SECTION 3: PERSUASIVE CHAPTER: PERSUASIVE SPEAKING . Learning Objectives. The Aten Psa Spaing Maslow Herachy of Needs Elements of Persuasion . Atos nd the over of espa eity Pathos and the Power of Eaton . ai ogc overt ge peak and gues Mythos andthe Power o Nara. ‘Argument alae. Fon ek ep as i ai Goals of esuason. Pesuasve Aims... Types of Persuasive Cams. 289 Organizing Persuasive Speeches. a Comparative Advantages, m itera Sats... 2m Monroe's Motivated Sequence 23 Ethis and Persuasive Speaking. 296 Summary 297 KeyTems . 5 298 (Question for Review. 299 (Questions for Discusion. 301 References. . 302 ‘GHAPTER 14: PRACTICING AND DELIVERING PUBLIC SPEECHES: GOING PUBLIC. ......... 304 tela OBANGS starr ssrasya' Sen onaueeiecokauantc caine 305 Chapter Overview. . 306 Methods of Speech Delivery... 306 Speaking froma Manuscript 307 Spotty Tan Meaty iesisas isanes neeasxvosasaneeTeenssaey 308 Contents xi xii Contents Impromptu Delivery. = 309 Extemporaneous Dele. 309 Effective Vocal and Nonverbal Delivery. sae sae Vocal ements of Delivery eee aed ee NonverblEements of Delvery 3B Practicing Your Speech Delivery = 36 Pract Your Speech Out Loud 37 Practein rontofOthes - 38 Tine or Specie Yu ate sie cto aac oD Ge Eta ein Your tadcon ad itt... eos 3B it Your Speech ifNeeded. Practice To Incense Confidence. ‘The Queston-and- Answer Period The importance of Reflection Summary... Key Terms (Questions for Review. . Questions for Discussion References. CHAPTER 15: LISTENING AND CRITIQUING SPEECHES Listening and Pllc Speaking Learning Objectives. Usterngand ote Conmuniaon Actes, The Importance of Good Listening Sk... Reflecton How YouUsten. Reasons Autences Stop Listening. ‘The Four Stages of Listening Sensing. Interpreting . lating. . AeacngReganding. it eps fo euning our Listening ks GetReadyto Listen . ‘i nin Pson Baris ste Leave Distraction Behind... Do Not Rush to udgement LUsten Fist for Content, Second for Delivery. . ‘Become an fective Note Teker ess Provide Feedback Citiquing Speeches. 3 Five Key Criteria for Evaluating Speeches . Using Technology to Provide Feedback /AFinal Note About Set- Evaluation, Summary. Keyes oe eeeeeceees Discusion forReview . Questions for Discusion. References... Contents xiii INTRODUCTION ‘This book is organized into three sections: Persuasion Theory and Research, Persua- sive Writing, and Persuasive Presentations. Chapters in the Persuasion Theory and Research section provide a foundation of persuasive concepts, models, and theo- ries supported by current research. The second section, Persuasive Writing, devotes attention to a discussion of academic writing and information about finding and using credible sources to support a persuasive argument. Finally, chapters in the Persuasive Presentations section focus on public speaking, listening, and critiqu- ing speeches. Sections two and three provide writing and speaking instruction to encourage immediate application of material presented in section one. Questions provided at the beginning of each chapter guide your reading and make connections with information you already know. Following each chapter, you are asked to answer a few questions without looking back through your text. These ques- tions help you practice retrieving information from memory, a skill necessary to demonstrate understanding of material and apply it to other contexts. Additional questions require you to review key concepts and terms from the chapter. Finally, discussion questions encourage critical thinking, active listening, and application of ‘material to course goals and assignments. The last question in each chapter addresses ethics which is essential to any discussion of persuasion. Introduction xv UE att rent research. You will learn the importance of understanding your audience through chapters on attitude and attitude measurement. A chapter on classical rhetoric leads to the next two chapters that explore source factors and message factors in persuasion. This section ends with a comprehensive overview of four persuasion theories: social judgment theory, cognitive dissonancy theory, the theory of reasoned action, and the elaboration likelihood model T his section includes chapters about persuasive concepts, theories, and models supported by cur- As you read each chapter, you should keep your final presentation in mind. Think about how you can apply what you are learning to your writing assignments and speeches. Use the questions included with each chapter to guide you. The material in this section is about theory and research, all of which is rel- evant to you and the work you will be doing for the course. 1. The Concept of Persuasion 2 2. Attitudes: Definition, Formation, & Measurement 18 3. Classical Rhetoric 44 4. Source Factors 68 5. Message Factors 92 G. Social Judgment Theory 124 1. Consistency and Cognitive Dissonance Theory 142 B. A Reasoned Action Approach 168 9. Elaboration Likelihood Model 192 BEFORE YOU READ Respond to the following questions before you read the chapter. 1. How would you define persuasion? 2. When have you been persuaded? When have you persuaded someone else? 3. What benefit is there in learning about persuasion? How might it help you in your personal or academic life right now and in your professional life in the future? Shekera, a 20-year-old female and full-time student at a state university, is sitting in her nutrition class with Dr. Kalibo listening to her explain how complex carbohydrates are broken down into simple carbo- hydrates. Shekera loves the class and feels she has learned so much about food, diet, and health. Since the beginning ofthe semester, Shekera has almost quit drinking soda, has starting eating vegetables every day, and has quit adding cream to her coffe. Jake and Melinda have been dating for 2 years and have lived together for the past 8 months. Melinda regrets moving in with Jake and has decided to move out. This evening Melinda broke the news to Jake. From Persuasion: Integrating Theory Research and Practice, Fourth Eatin by Ann Bainbridge Frymler and Margorse Keeshan Nal. [Copyright © 2017 by Kendall Hunt Publishing Compan. Reprinted by permission, 2. Seotion 1: Persuasion Theory and Research LEARNING OBJECTIVES ‘@ DEFINE PERSUASION AND DIFFERENTIATE IT FROM OTHER FORMS OF INFLUENCE. @ DESCRIBE KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSUASION. @ DESCRIBE SITUATIONS IN WHICH PERSUASION IS COMMONLY USED. @ CONSIDER THE ROLE OF ETHICS IN PERSUASION. Jake responded with complete rage and began breaking things. Melinda yelled and pleaded with him to stop, and then Jake saw the fine porcelain Lladro figurine that her beloved grandmother had brought to her from Spain. Jake grabbed the Lladro, held it over his head and said, “Tell me you won't move out. Promise me you'll stay and I won't break it. Ifyou leave, I break i.” Melinda agreed to sta. Nick is an 18-year-old male in his first year of college. On his way to class one day, he sees a flyer for the rowing club. It looks like fun, and Nick decides to go to the informa- tional meeting that evening. At the meeting several members of the club spend a few ‘minutes describing their experiences with the club, how much fun it is, and how many _fun people they have met. By the end of the meeting, Nick can't wait to sign up. As he fills out the membership form, the club members congratulate him and welcome him to the rowing club So which of these situations involve persuasion? Is Shekera persuaded by her instruc- tor to change her diet? Does Jake persuade Melinda to stay inthe relationship? Is Nick persuaded to join the rowing club? All three of these situations involve influence, but are these examples of persuasion? One of these situations is clearly persuasion. Most scholars would agree that one situation is not persuasion, and one situation could be persuasion, but we need more information about the situation to know for sure. Let's begin discussing some of the characteristics of persuasion so that you can determine which of these situations are good examples of persuasion and which are not. DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSUASION Persuasion has been defined in numerous ways, as is illustrated by the five defini- tions shown in Figure 1.1. Before we provide the definition to be used in this text, ets discuss some key characteristics that will help you understand why we define persua- sion the way we do. First, persuasion involves symbolic interaction using a shared symbol system, Language and nonverbal behaviors are symbols, which means that communication between people involves symbolic interaction. Therefore, persua: sion involves verbal and nonverbal communication. Four of the five definitions in ‘Chapter 1: The Concept of Persuasion 3 BOSTROM (1983) “Persuasion is communicative behavior that has as its purpose the changing, modification, or shaping of the responses (attitudes or behavior) of the receivers” (p. 11) PETTY AND CACIOPPO (1981) any instance in which an active attempt is made to change a person's mind because the word is relatively neutral and because one person's propaganda may be another person’s education’ (p. 4). LARSON (2013) ‘the process of dramatic co-creation by sources and receivers ofa state of identification through the use of verbal and/or visual symbols” (p. 20). PERLOFF (2010) 2 symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to change their attitudes or behaviors regarding an issue through the transmission of a message in an atmosphere of free choice" (p. 12). O'KEEFE (2002) "A successful intentional effort at influencing another's mental state through communication i Inwhich the persuadee has some measure of freedom’ (p.5). FIGURE LI Definitions of persuasion, Figure 1.1 refer to communication. The one definition that does not directly refer to communication does imply communication. Persuasive messages can be verbal and involve language (e.g.. English). be nonverbal with symbols that have shared mean- ings €-g..a smile, a picture of a flag), and are transmitted from a sender to a receiver. Al three of the influence situations described above clearly involve communication and a shared symbol system, so all three have at east one characteristic of persuasion. Second, persuasion requires intent. Without this requirement, we could argue that all communication is persuasive; however, only three of the five definitions in Figure 1.1 refer to intent in some way. When someone walks across campus and says “hello” to you, it is possible to interpret that as a persuasive intent to convince you that he or she is a friendly person and/or to convince you to respond in a friendly ‘manner but, most often, itis nothing more than a greeting. A definition that doesn’t require persuasive intent on the part ofthe sender doesn't help us distinguish persua- sion from other related terms such as communication. The intent requirement means that persuasion focuses on messages that are intended to persuade the receiver. The second and third situations above clearly involve intent. Jake clearly intends to influ- ence Melinda, and the rowing club clearly wants to influence Nick to join. But does Dr. Kalibo intend to influence Shekera to change her eating habits? Maybe. Assum- ing Shekera’s teacher is like most other teachers, she wants Shekera to learn specific information about nutrition and dispel myths and misconceptions about food and diet. But that doesn’t mean Dr. Kalibo intends to change Shekera’s eating habits, particularly the changes that Shekera made. We would really need to ask Dr. Kalibo ifshe intended to change her students’ eating habits. Ifthat indeed was her intention, then the situation would have the second characteristic of persuasion. If Dr. Kalibo simply wanted students to learn the content, and she left it up to the students to decide what to do with that information, then we would likely conclude that this really is not persuasion. Education and persuasion overlap in numerous ways, and the similarities and differences are further discussed later in this chapter. 4 Section 1: Persuasion Theory and Research ‘Third, persuasion involves two or more persons. ‘There has to be a sender and a receiver for persuasion to occur. Some have considered whether nonhuman animals can be involved in persuasion, whether individuals can persuade themselves through intrapersonal communication, and/or whether inanimate objects (e.g. tree) can be persuasion agents. Although each of these arguments has supporters, the persuasion discussed in this textbook (and in most persuasion research) refers to persuasion attempts between at least two persons. All three of the influence situations involve at least two persons, so they all have this characteristic. Finally, we need to consider the outcomes of persuasion. Miller (1980) argues that persuasion is intended to shape, reinforce, or change the responses of the receiver, and all of the definitions in Figure 1.1 refer to some type of change. We generally expect persuasive messages to involve attempts to change the beliefs attitudes, and/ or behavior of the receivers. For example, you have probably heard and seen numer- ‘ous public service campaigns that want people to avoid texting while driving, In our situations, we can see change in behavior. Shekera changes her eating habits; ‘Melinda stays rather than moves out; and Nick signs up for the rowing club. We also assume that Shekera's beliefs about her diet changed, which led to a change in her behavior. It’s hard to say whether Melinda's beliefs about moving out changed, but her intended behavior was altered. We can also assume that Nick developed positive beliefs about the rowing club; otherwise, he wouldn't have signed up. Therefore, all three situations share this characteristic of persuasion. Not all persuasive messages try to invoke change, however. Some attempt to rein- force currently held beliefs or attitudes and/or current behavioral practices. For example, Pepsi wants current Pepsi drinkers to remain loyal to the product. Political candidates speaking to members of their own party want members to remain loyal to the party and vote along party lines. Typically, speeches at the Republican and ‘Democratic National Conventions focus on their supporters and use persuasive mes- sages designed to reinforce current political views. Check out the 2016 convention speeches online to examine their focus. Another example is antismoking campaigns targeted at teens. Such campaigns are focused more on encouraging them not to start smoking than on altering current behaviors. Much of the persuasion surrounding us is attempting to reaffirm current beliefs, attitudes, and/or behaviors. The image in Figure 1.2 reinforces the benefits of running. Finally, some persuasion tries to shape responses. These are messages targeted toward receivers who have not developed an attitude toward an object and who often lack knowledge on the issue. For example, when a company introduces @ new prod- uct, it tries to shape positive responses to that product. When Procter and Gamble introduced Febreze’, a product targeted at removing odors from fabric, the com- pany needed to inform consumers and wanted them to think positively about such a product. Because receivers had no prior knowledge of this product, the company wasn't trying to change anything, and there was nothing there to reinforce. When AIDS was identified, the government was most concerned with shaping responses to that information. Now, the government is more concerned with reinforcing positive behaviors (eg. safe sex) and trying to change the behaviors of those who are at risk for transmission of the disease (e.g, those who engage in sex without condoms, those who share needles). Thus, depending on the situation, the intended outcome for per- suasion may be change, reinforcement, or shaping of receiver responses. ‘Chapter 1: The Concept of Persuasion © MicrOneihuttertock.com STRENGTHENS ‘STRONG MUSCLE IMMUNE SYSTEM STRENGTHENS LUNGS REDUCED RISK OF HEART DISEASE WEIGHT CONTROL IMPROVED BLOOD PRESSURE IMPROVED BRAIN FUNCTION COO@©O PIGURE 1.2 Public service announcement. Of course, you may be wondering what is meant by “receiver responses.” Depend- ing on the situation, the desired response from the receiver may involve attitudes, beliefs, and/or behaviors. For example, at times, attitude change is desired. A politi- cal candidate may want voters to share favorable attitudes toward key campaign issues. A religious organization may want to target beliefs in receivers so that they are in alignment with the particular religion. Many times, however, behavior is the ultimate target of persuasion attempts. Advertisers ultimately want products to be purchased. Political candidates want votes and/or financial contributions. Social issue organizations often want to persuade the public about acceptable behavior (€g. not smoking, wearing seat belts, adopting healthy exercise and eating pat- terns). We often expect attitudes and/or beliefs to be the basis for behavior, s0 tar- ‘geting attitudes and beliefs may be an avenue to influence receiver behavior. As a 6 Section 1: Persuasion Theory and Research result, when considering receiver responses, we need to consider attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. We examine attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors in more depth in Chapters 2 and 3. ‘Thus, when all of these criteria are taken into account, we come to the following definition of persuasion, which draws on the multiple perspectives represented ear- lier: Persuasion involves symbolic communication between two or more persons with intent to change, reinforce, or shape attitudes, beliefs, and/or behaviors of the receiver. Atthis point, we have discussed the situations presented at the beginning of this chap- ter in relation to the key characteristics of persuasion, but we really haven't answered the question of which of these is persuasion and which is not. We determined that Shekera's change of eating habits might not be a result of persuasion if Dr. Kalibo did not intentionally try to influence her eating habits. However, the other two situations seemed to have all ofthe characteristics of persuasion. ‘The second situation, involv- ing Jake and Melinda, brings up another issue in distinguishing persuasion from other forms of influence—coercion. Coercion is social influence that involves force or threat of force. Jake uses a threat to force Melinda to stay. For this reason, this situ- ation is a better example of coercion than it is of persuasion; however, the difference between coercion and persuasion is not always clear. Perloff’s (2010) and O'Keefe's (2002) definitions of persuasion in Figure 1.1 refer to the receiver having free choice or freedom. Think of free vs. forced choice as a continuum as illustrated below. Free choice _______ Forced choice Having a gun pointed at your head with a demand for your laptop is clearly a forced choice. Or, in Melinda's case, the threat of a smashed treasured object is clearly force. In the third situation, Nick chose to become a member of the rowing club. No cone forced or threatened Nick to sign up. Melinda's behavior was a result of force, whereas Nick's behavior was a result of choice. However, not all circumstances eas- ily fit ito one end of the continuum or the other. Consider the class you are in. The teacher controls the awarding of grades. Instructors set grading policies, work and attendance expectations, and so on. Students may choose to complete the work or not; however, there is ¢ consequence in terms of grade received for choosing not to complete the work. Is that a free choice, or is there an element of threat in this situation? Is the public service announcement in Figure 1.3 an example of persua- sion or coercion? Are you being threatened? Do you have free choice when it comes to wearing a seat belt? Situations that fall toward the forced choice end of the con- tinuum are considered more coercion than persuasion, whereas situations that offer more free choice are considered more persuasion. However, where choice ends and force begins is not clear, making many situations ambiguous. De ee EST ‘The question of why we study persuasion is one that students may ask advisers and that researchers ask themselves. There are three major reasons people have for want- ing to know more about persuasion. The most common reason students have given us for taking a class in persuasion isa very practical one, We all engage in persuasion in multiple contexts in our lives, and many want to study persuasion in order to be ‘Chapter 1: The Concept of Persuasion 7 more successful persuaders themselves, That desire for mastery of the art of persua- sion may be career oriented. Some career paths cal for particularly strong persuasive skills, sch as sales, law, marketing, public relations, and politics. In these areas, the ability to do a good job relies on strong persuasive abilities. Regardless of what career path is sought, most people want to be able to convince organizations to hire them and supervisors to promote them and award raises. People want to be able to sell their ideas to those in power and want to influence the choices made in their organizations. Re |e ama gp 9. deme he yi ei THCKET| Sweeney National Trafic hihwaysafety FIGURE 1.3 Public service announcement for safety belt use. 8 Section 1: Persuasion Theory and Research In addition, we all use persuasion in our personal lives. You might try to convince your parents to send you money or to buy you a new car. You might try to persuade others to engage in social activities with you, follow you on Twitter, orto join causes you support. Perhaps you try to persuade faculty to admit you to classes or to give you a better grade. You might attempt to persuade a car salesperson to give you a better deal on your next vehicle or try to negotiate a better price for a new house. In. short, because we engage in persuasion on a regular basis in multiple aspects of our lives, one good reason for studying persuasion is to be better at this process. Another common reason for studying persuasion is so that we can be better consum- ers of information. As we discussed previously, we are all bombarded with a broad variety of persuasive messages daily. Understanding persuasion allows us to make choices about when to be influenced and when not to be. By understanding the strat- egies, tactics, and methods employed by others, we can be better prepared to deal with persuasive messages targeted at us. This is particularly important in a demo- cratic society where we trust that the typical citizen is able to process huge amounts of material and competing persuasive campaigns in order to make rational decisions about voting, Participation in a democratic society involves both the production and. consumption of persuasive messages. Finally, some people study persuasion in an attempt to better understand what they observe happening around them. When we look at behavior that doesn't ft our expec: tations and seems at times irrational to us, we try to understand how this can happen. Cult members engage in mass suicide in the belief that a spaceship hidden in the tail ‘of a passing comet will take them to heaven. Seemingly useless products such as sing- {ng toy fish sell out of every store on the block. Trends in fashion come and go. Politi- cal candidates are elected to office although experts said they had no chance of being elected. A nation supports a leader conducting unspeakable atrocities, such as what happened in Germany with the Holocaust under Hitler’s leadership. Studying persua- sion can give us insight into these puzzling events and help to make sense of them. ‘The study of persuasion and the value of exploring this realm is certainly not new. Persuasion was studied and written about more than 2,500 years ago by the ancient Greeks. Arguably the most famous scholar of persuasion from that time was Aristotle. His work, Rhetoric, laid out many concepts about persuasion that are still considered valid today (Freese, 1991). Aristotle observed human interaction and per- suasive attempts and taught his students how to persuade others. We discuss some of Aristotle's concepts as we explore persuasion, and much modern research draws (on Aristotle's basic principles. For example, in Chapter 4, we examine source factors that influence the success and failure of persuasion and draw on Aristotle's con- cept of ethos, which still guides how modern researchers define source credibility. Aristotle saw persuasion as a central part of society and human interaction then, and today we still ask questions and explore persuasion as a part of interactions, ‘We suggest in this chapter that we are immersed in attempts at influence every day. ‘he daily lives of individuals often involve persuasion in interpersonal and small- group contexts as wel as in myriad forms of mass media. Students try to persuade parents to support them financially and emotionally. Roommates try to persuade ‘Chapter 1: The Concept of Persuasion 9 Google CO Health Campaign andsee theheath behaviors the DCis cently working. ‘each other to clean living quarters and to respect each other's privacy. Students try to convince faculty to grade them more positively. Group projects involve persua- sion about meeting times, locations, and the division of labor. The multiple forms of media, such as radio, television, smartphones, newspapers, magazines, the Internet, posters, billboards, and corporate logos, surround us with messages constantly. It is hhard to imagine a lack of persuasion in daily interactions for most people. In addition, some segments of society depend on persuasion in order to achieve their ‘goals. We have all been targeted as receivers by these segments, and some of you anticipate being senders in these contexts. We often think of advertising and market- ing as bombarding us with persuasion. Certainly every form of media from television to social media to the Internet carries advertising, and it is clearly labeled as such. “These advertising messages are open attempts to influence behavior, and they meet the criteria we established for persuasion. The messages are framed in words and nonverbal images that draw on culturally developed shared symbol systems. Persua- sive intent is clearly involved in the purchase of advertising space, and the ads aren't always successful, but many are. The advertisements all have the purpose of chang- ing, shaping, or reinforcing behavior toward the product or service being promoted. Marketing encompasses advertising, but it moves beyond the purchase of advertising space in mass media outlets. Marketing can include promotional programs such as the popular, annual McDonald's Monopoly promotion. Consumers are encouraged to purchase McDonald's products in order to collect Monopoly game pieces for a chance at a variety of prizes, including a million dollars. Although the odds against winningare great, McDonald's does great business during the promotion. Marketing can also include such promotional devices as hats or T-shirts with corporate logos, special events, and more. In these cases, persuasion is operating and the receivers are ‘generally aware that persuasion is being attempted. Marketing still involves systems of verbal and nonverbal symbols, clear persuasive intent, and attempts to influence the purchasing behaviors of receivers. Persuasion is also used in public relations and encompasses a broad range of activities such as media relations, special events, crisis management, grassroots lobbying, and ‘more. Here, receivers may be unaware that they are targets of persuasion. When read- ing a newspaper, readers often assume that more orless objective journalists write the articles. However, those articles are often influenced heavily by public relations mate- rials that organizations have sent to the newspapers to influence content. The same is true for other forms of mass media, including news programming, talk shows, game shows, and situation comedies. These activities still meet the established criteria for persuasion. They all involve an agreed on verbal and nonverbal symbol system, intent is clearly present in the hiring of public relations professionals, and the targeted result. includes changing, shaping, and reinforcing responses from the receivers. Although we often think of marketing and corporate interests as involved in persua- sion, public health organizations and social issue groups also engage in persuasion. For example, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)_ has launched efforts to reduce smoking, encourage better eating patterns, reduce drug use, and ‘encourage safer personal behaviors to avoid the spread of HIV. Other groups, both public and private, have launched public health campaigns around specialized issues. For example, Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) has worked for years to reduce driving while under the influence of alcohol. Chances are good that one 10 Section 1: Persuasion Theory and Research ‘or more of these health campaigns has influenced choices you make about what to eat and how to live your life safely. Similarly, there are social issue groups that are attempting to get you to recycle more, donate to the homeless, or care about aban- doned pets. These campaigns generally draw on approaches from advertising, mar- keting, and public relations and they all involve persuasion. SUS ty aU ‘We have used the terms influence and persuasion, and we have used them somewhat

    You might also like