Measurement of
Non-Electric Quantities
29.1 LINEAR DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS
Most of the transducers which are used for
measurement of linear displacement have already
been described in great details in Chapter 25. These
transducers are :
A. Resistive potentiometers,
A Strain gauges,
A Variable inductance transducers,
A Linear variable differential transformers
(LVDTs),
A- Capacitive transducers,
A Piezo-electric transducers,
A Hall effect transducers,
A Digital transducers.
29.2 MEASUREMENT OF ROTARY DISPLACEMENT
The transducers required for measurement of
rotary displacement have been described in detail in
Chapter 25. These transducers are:
A Resistive potentiometers,
A Variable inductance transducers,
A Rotary variable differential transformers
(RVDTs),
A Variable reluctance transducers,
A Synchros,
A Capacitive transducers,
A Shaft Encoders.
29.3 STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT
OF STRAIN
29.3.1 Strain Gauge Circuits
The theory and construction of strain gauges have
already been explained in Art. 25.16 on page 776.
The gauge factor of a strain gauge is given by
Eqn. 25.69, page 777.
(1055)
Gauge factor
G =^R/R=1+2v + ^PlP ...(29.1)
J e £
The various symbols have already been explained.
When we consider the sensitivity of a metallic
strain gauge, we find that it is extremely versatile and
reliable.
Typical values of gauge factor and resistance for
commonly used strain gauges are :
Gf = 2 and R = 120 Q
Strain gauges are used for measurements of
strains as low as 1 microstrain and therefore the
corresponding change in resistance is :
AR = G/£R =2 xl0-6x 120
= 10"6 Q = 0.00024 Q
This small change in resistance which is 0.002% of
original resistance has to be measured. It is quite
resistance evident that in order to measure a change in
resistance of this low order will require the use of
extremely, sensitive and sophisticated instru­
mentation.
Strain gauges utilize circuits like voltage measuring
potentiometer circuits, ballast circuits and Wheatstone
bridges which have already been described. The
purpose here is to review them.
29.4 BALLAST CIRCUIT
The ballast circuit has been described in Art. 26.20
on page 924. Figure 29.1 shows a ballast circuit using a
strain gauge.
If the R? is the resistance of strain gauge the
output voltage when the gauge is not strained is,
R.
e =----- e ...(29.2)
0 R. + R '
 1 056
Ballast
resistance Capacitor
o----- •---- Wv---- ♦----- *------ 1|------ 0
___ Input r p] Strain Output
T voltage et- s 11 gauge voltage e0
<i---------------------------- it-------------- 1
Fig. 29.1 Strain gauge using ballast circuit.
.'. Change in output voltage when the gauge is
strained :
r RhRo dRa
d Q = ———y dR ■ e- =--------- —- e-
(Rt + Rg)2 s (R|, + Rs)2 Rg
!tR.
717 g'
Cfze‘
:. Change in output voltage when the gauge is
strained is directly proportional to the strain.
Maximum sensitivity is obtained when the ballast
resistance is equal to the strained resistance of the
gauge or Rb - Rg. For this arrangement, change in
output voltage when the gauge is strained
Ae0=(G/£/4)q.
Some of the inherent limitations in the ballast
circuit can be explained by the following example.
Consider a gauge of resistance of 120 Q and gauge
factor of 2. Let the output voltage be 8 V. The voltage
across the strain gauge when it is not strained is
g0=e(./2-4V
When the strain gauge is subjected to strain, the
change in output voltage is,
Ae0 = 2 x (8 / 4) £ = 4e
Now if a strain equal to 1 microstrain is to be
measured the change in output voltage is,
AeQ = 4x lx 10-6 = 4x IO-6 = 4 pV
Thus the indicator connected to output terminals
to provide indication of strain must sense a change of
voltage of 4 pV in a range/of 4 V i.e., a change 0.0001%.
This is a stringent requirement which practically
eliminates the use of ballast circuits for static strain
measurements. However, the circuit is used for
dynamic strain measurements where static strain
components are ignored. Thus a capacitor is connected
in series in one of the leads as shown in Fig. 29.1. It acts
as a high pass filter. It does not allow d.c. components
of output voltage on account of static strain to go to
output terminals. Only a.c. output voltage compo­
nents due to dynamic strains are allowed to pass.
Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Example 29.1 A strain gauge having a resistance 100Q
and gauge factor of 2 is connected in series with a ballast
resistance of 10Q Cl across a 12 V, supply. Calculate the
difference betweerl the output voltage with no stress applied
and a stress of 140 MN/m2. The modulus of elasticity is
200 GN/m2.
Solution. When no stress is applied voltage across
the gauge ; output voltage is,
Rg 100 m
e =------------e. =------------- x 12 = 6 V
0 R.+R ' 100 + 100
b g
Strain = s/E= (140x 106/200 x 109) = 0.7x 10“3
Change in resistance of gauge
AR = GfeR =2x 0.7 x 10”3x 100 = 0.014 O
g f g
~(29'3> :. Voltage across the gauge when stress is applied :
100 + 0.014
=------------------------ x 12
2100 + 100 + 0.014
= 6.00042 V.
Change in voltage
= 6.00042 - 6 = 0.00042 V = 0.42 mV
Example 29.2 A strain gauge having a resistance of
...(29.4) 120 Q and a gauge factor of 2 is subjected to a strain of:
(60 +10 sin 314t) x 10~6.
(a) Find the expression for the change in output
voltage when the strain gauge is connected in
ballast circuit having a ballast resistance of 120Cl
and an input voltage of 6 V.
(b) If a capacitor is connected in one of the output
leads and a true rms reading voltmeter of infinite
impedance is connected across the output
terminals, find the reading of the voltmeter.
Solution. («) Change in output voltage
Gf
Aeo = ~f£ei
n
= - X 6 X [20 +10 sin314 t] x 10"6 V
= [60 + 30 sin 314 t]xl0~6 V
= [60+30 sin 314 f]pV
(b) When a capacitor is connected in series with
one of the leads, the d.c. component is blocked and
only the a.c. component is allowed to pass.
Signal applied to a true rms reading voltmeter
= 30 sin 314 fpV
.’. Reading of voltmeter
= rms value of output voltage
= 30/72 =21.2 p V
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 057

29.5 WHEATSTONE BRIDGES :. Output voltage

The Wheatstone bridge is of two types :
A Null type and ...(29.5)
4 + 2(AR /R )
o o
A Deflection type.
However, the change in the value of resistance is
29.5.1 Null Type Wheatstone Bridge quite small and therefore : 2 AR$ / Rg « 4
The null type Wheatstone bridge is shown in ^RJRX Gfe
Fig. 26.92, page 922. When the bridge is unbalanced on Hence, AeQ = ——- = —ei ...(29.6)
account of change in resistance AR} of arm 1, the
Therefore the change in output voltage is linearly
resistance required to balance it,
proportional to strain. This bridge is called a Quarter
AR2 = AR] (R3 / R4) Bridge since only one of the four arms contains an
Suppose arm 1 is composed of a strain gauge Active Gauge.
having a resistance R$ and initially with (zzj Current sensitive bridge. The analysis of this
^2 = ^3 = ^4 ~ Rg bridge has been done in Art. 26.22.4, page 927 by using
Thevenin theorem. The meter current under unbalance
AR2 = AR
conditions is directly proportional to the strain.
where AR? = change in the value of gauge resistance Example 29.3 A Wheatstone bridge is shown in
when strained Fig. 26.96 on page 926 with R3 = R4=100fi. The
But AR = Gfe R galvanometer resistance is 50Q. The strain gauge is connected
o J O
in arm 1 and has an unstrained resistance of 120 Q. The
and AR2 = Gf £ R?
value of R2 is adjusted for balance under zero strain
Hence change in the value of resistance R2 is a conditions. The gauge factor is 2. Calculate the galvanometer
direct measure of strain. current when a strain of400 pm / m is applied. Take the battery
29.5.2 Deflection Type Wheatstone Bridges voltage as 4 V. Calculate the voltage output when a meter of
infinite impedance is connected across output terminals.
There are two types of deflection type Wheatstone
bridges as described in Art. 26.22.2, on page 926. They Solution. Suppose the strain forms arm 1 of the
are : bridge. The value of R2 for initial balance is 120 Q.
(z) Voltage sensitive bridge, and Resistance of gauge when strained
(zz) Current sensitive bridge. Rx = 120(1 + 2 x 400 x 10-6) =120.096 Q
This causes unbalance resulting in the appearance
(t) Voltage sensitive bridge. The output of a of an output voltage. The value of Thevenin source
voltage sensitive bridges when the resistance of arm 1 voltage is,
is changed is given by ;
’ Rl *2
q. = ----- ------------- -— e-
AR. I R 0 [R1 + R3 R^RJ '
Ae„ = ---------- 1----------- e-
0 [4 + 2(ARj/R)J '
120.096 120
x4=793 pV
(See Eqn. 26.165, page 927) 120.096 + 100 120 + 100

This relationship pertains to a condition wherein The Thevenin source resistance can be found by
the values of resistance of all the arms are initially short-circuiting the battery terminals and finding the
equal, i.e., R} = R2 = R^ = R^ = R and the unbalance is resistance looking into output terminals. Thevenin
created on account of change of resistance equal to source resistance is :
ARj in Rr 1 - ^3 + R3R4
‘° Rj + R3 R2 + R4
Suppose now the strain gauge is in arm 1 and
unstrained resistance of gauge is equal to R?. The - 120x100 120x100
bridge is balanced initially with : " 120 + 100 120 + 100
~ = ^2 = ^3 =
.-. Meter current
When the strain gauge is subjected to strain, its "0 793x10,-6
in - = 5xlO'bA = 5pA
value changes by AR^. R^R. 109 + 50
 1 058 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

9.6 GAUGE SENSITIVITY Now if Rgl. = R~ = R, = R, = R

Figure 29.2 shows a single strain gauge mounted The output voltage from the bridge is
on a cantilever beam. When a force is applied to the

Strain
gauge, Rs}
29.7 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
The resistive type strain gauges are sensitive to
temperature. Therefore, it becomes necessary to
Fig. 29.2 Force acting on a cantilever and measured account for variations in the strain gauge resistance
by using single strain gauge.
which occur on account of temperature changes. If
beam, the gauge is subjected to a tensile stress. There­ changes in resistance due to temperature variations
fore, the resistance of the strain gauge increases. This are not accounted for or not compensated, the results
increase in resistance is measured using a Wheatstone would be in error. This is because the resistance of the
bridge as shown in 29.3. strain gauge changes both with strain as well as with
temperature. Temperature changes act as spurious
inputs and cause change in the resistance in two
ways :
(i) the resistance of the wire grid of strain gauge
changes with change in temperature, and
(ii) a change in resistance occurs due to
differential expansion exsiting between the
gauge and the test surface to which the strain
gauge is bonded.
A strain may be caused because of the differential
Fig. 29.3 Strain gauge bridge for arrangement co-efficients of expansion of strain gauge and the
of Fig. 29.2.
surface to which it is bonded to even when there is no
The bridge is balanced under unstrained conditions, load on the test surface.
but becomes unbalanced when the gauge is strained. Temperature effects may be handled by :
The change in resistance of gauge (i) compensation or cancellation, and
ARg = AR2(R3/R4) (ii) evaluation as a part of the data reduction
problem.
where AR, = change in R^, to rebalance the bridge
The first method is extensively used for both
after the strain is applied
metallic as well as semi-conductor strain gauges while
Now Aj^ = (R4 / R3) Rgl the second method is used for semi-conductor gauges
only.
Output of bridge = KA/^
where K = scale factor of AR2 readout or indicator. 29.8 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION AND
Gauge sensitivity CANCELLATION TECHNIQUES
_ KAR^ _ KAR^ Compensation may be provided by :
...(29.7)
8= < Xa 1 (i) use of adjacent arm balancing or compen­
sating gauge,
Gf
K—AR (ii) self-compensation, and
*3
(iii) use of special external control circuitry.
= R G ...(29.8) 29.8.1 Adjacent Arm Compensating Gauge

1. Use of Dummy Gauge

When R4-R3 and =R
Gauge sensitivity One of the ways in which temperature error can
be eliminated by using adjacent arm compensating
sx- ...(29.9) gauge is to use a dummy gauge in the adjacent arm.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1059

This arrangement is shown in Fig. 29.4. Gauge 1 is
installed on the lest specimen (called active gauge)
while gauge 3, called a dummy gauge is installed on a
like piece of material and is not subjected to any
strain. The gauges installed on the test piece and the
dummy gauge are at the same temperature. A gauge is
called dummy gauge in case it is not subjected to any
strain. Active gauge is one which is subjected to strain.
Initially when the bridge is balanced,
^1 _ ^2
The use of dummy gauge for temperature
compensation is simple and effective and should be
employed whenever possible.
2. Use of Two Active Gauges in Adjacent Arms
In certain applications, where equal and opposite
strains are known to exist, it is possible to attach two
similar gauges in such a way that one gauge
experiences a positive strain and the other a negative
strain. Thus instead of having an arrangement
wherein one gauge acts as the active gauge and the
other as the dummy gauge, we have now an
arrangement wherein both the gauges are active
gauges.
Figure 29.5 shows the two gauges mounted on a
cantilever. The gauge R^ is on top of the cantilever
and hence experiences tension or a positive strain. The
Rg3 is at the bottom surface of the cantilever and hence
experiences a compression or a negative strain.
F
Rgi (tension)

Rg3 (compression)
IMHSKK. 'HBSSBB
Fig. 29.5 Two gauges used for measurement of strain.

The bridge arrangement for the two gauges is

Fig. 29.4 Use of dummy for temperature compensation.
shown in Fig. 29.6. There are two active gauges in the 4
Supposing a change in temperature occurs, the arm bridge and hence it is called a Half Bridge.
resistances R2 and R3 change by an amount
ARj and AR3 respectively.
Hence for balance,
Rj + ARj R2
^3 + A^3 ^4

or A(J?i+ari) = (R3 + AR3)

or A + A aRj = R, + ARj

Fig. 29.6 Adjacent arm compensation using

But - R, = R, two active gauges.
r3 1
A AR, = AR, The temperature effects are cancelled out by
having R2 = R3 and using two identical gauges in the
opposite arms of the bridge.
Suppose R4 = R^ Suppose R?1 =Rg3 = R2 = R4 = R
This requires that AR} = kR^
When no strain is applied both points b and d are
It means that for the bridge to remain insensitive at the same potential, e,/2 and the value of output
to variations in temperature the gauges Rj and R3 voltage eQ - 0.
should have their resistances change by equal amount
When the arrangement shown in Fig. 29.5 is
when subjected to variation in temperature. Therefore
subjected to strain, the resistance of gauge 1 increases
the active gauge R] and the dummy gauge R3 should
and that of gauges R^,3 decreases.
be identical.
 I 060 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Resistance of gauge R^]z when strained is These gauges are connected in the arms of a
Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 29.8. Since the
R(1 + AR/ R)
bridge has 4 active gauges with one gauge in each of
Resistance of gauge R 3 when strained is the four arms, it is called a Full Bridge.
R(1-AR/R) When no strain is applied the potential of points b
Now R,L = R,4 = R and d are both equal to e/2 and hence the output
Potential of point d = e- /2 voltage Cq = 0.
When strained, the resistance of various gauges
Potential of point b
are :
R(1 + AR/R)
R(1 + AR/ R)+ R(1-AR/R)X For R, and R,: R(1 + AR/R)

and For R 9 and R , : R(1-AR/R)

1 + AR / R
------------ e.
Potential of b when strain is applied
Change in output voltage when strain applied is, = R(1 + AR/R) e
. 1+AR/R e. R(1 + AR/R)+R(1-AR/R) '
Ac. =------------ e- — —
2 '2 1 + AR / R
AR/R Gre = ~~2------e‘
=-------- e■ = ...(29.11)
Potential of d when strain is applied
Thus the output voltage from a half bridge is R(1-AR/R)
twice that from a quarter bridge and therefore the R(1-AR/R)+R(1 + AR/R) '
sensitivity is doubled. In addition, the temperature
1-AR/R
effects are cancelled. The gauge, sensitivity of a half = ——■——— £■
bridge is, 2 '

Sg=2RR?G; ...(29.12) Therefore change in output voltage

A 1+AR/R 1-AR/R
3. Use of Four Active Gauges o = ——----- e-i ----------------
Ac.. 2 e-1
Figure 29.7 shows a cantilever using 4 strain
gauges for the measurement of strain. All the four = (&R/ R)
gauges are similar and have equal resistance when = Gfe et ...(29.13)
strained i.e.,
Four active-active-arm bridges are extensively
R,I = «1(2 = \:3 = ^1 = * used when strain gauges are used as secondary
transducers to give maximum sensitivity combined
with full temperature compensation. The effect of
increasing the number of active gauges is the same if a
(Compression) low impedance detector is used.
The gauge sensitivity of a full bridge
Fig. 29.7 Use of four strain gauges for
Sy = 4KRyGf ...(29.14)

Fig. 29.8 Bridge circuit for measurement of strain
four using active gauges.
4. Poisson's Method
This method of temperature compensation
utilises two active gauges R^ and R^ which are
bonded at right angles to the structural member as
shown in Fig. 29.9(a).
Measuring gauge is in tension, but gauge R^
reduces in length depending upon the Poisson's ratio
of the material. Poisson's gauge is connected, in the
adjacent arm of the bridge as shown in Fig. 29.9(b).
The advantage of Poisson's gauge is that in addition to
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1061

temperature compensation, it acts as an active gauge. JI has two fixed resistors Rj and R2 o/120Q each. The
The bridge sensitivity is increased by a factor (1+v) gauge is represented by resistance R3. The variable resis­
accordingly. tance R4 is 120.00Q. at zero strain and has value of 120.63 Q
Change in output voltage when strain is applied zoith strain e. The gauge factor is 2.04. Determine the strain
in the beam at the point where the strain gauge is attached.
Ae0=(l+v)-^q. ...(29.15)
Solution. Change in value of resistance when
strain is applied :
Practical strain bridge. A strain gauge bridge AR4 = 120.63-120= 0.63 Q.
may be rigged up by the user or may be purchased as a
.’. Change in resistance of gauge when strained :
'package' which is built up as a unit and only requires
connections to the active strain gauge and to a source ^=(RJR2)(AR4)
of power supply. The 'package' consists of an ampli­ 120
= —-x 0.63= 0.63 O
fier and also other signal conditioning equipment for 120
amplification and monitoring of the output of the
strain gauge bridge.
NT
Now —- = r
Ge&
1

Strain e = —- x ~
R3 Gf

Example 29.5 A strain gauge bridge comprises of two

fixed resistors each of value 1200, one active gauge, and an
unstrained temperature compensation gauge. The two
gauges are of unstrained resistance 120 0 and gauge factor
2.2. Find the bridge output voltage (with output open
circuited) for a supply voltage of 3 V, when the active gauge
is subjected to 600 micro strain.
Solution. The bridge has equal arms when there
is no strain. It has only one active gauge. Therefore,
output voltage is :
t Gfe 2.2 x 600 x 10’6 x 3
0 2 1 4
= 0.99x1 O’3 V =0.99 mV
F.xamplc 29.6 A single strain gauge is mounted to
Fig. 29.9 Use of Poisson's gauge. measure the axial strain in a simple tensile member. If the.
recorded strain is 380 microstrain, what is the axial stress:
faxamp'ie 29.4 A strain gauge bridge is shown in
Fig. 29.10.— (i) If the member is of steel ?
(zz) If the member is of aluminium ?
The modulus of elasticity of steel is 200 GN/m2 and
that of aluminium is 70 GN/m2.
Solution. Stress s = e E
where e = strain and E = modulus of elasticity.
(z) Stress in steel
s=380x10~6x200x109

= 76xlO6N/m2 =76 MN/m2

(zz) Stress in aluminium
s=380xl0~6x70xl09
Fig. 29.10 Bridge of Example 29 4. = 26.6xlO6N/m2 =26.6 MN/m2
 1062 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Example 29.7 A single electrical resistance strain Example 29.8 Two electrical strain gauges are bonded
gauge of resistance 120 Q and having a gauge factor of 2 is to a Duralumin cantilever (Fig. 29.5) and connected into a
bonded to steel having an elastic limit stress of400 MN/m bridge circuit as shown in Fig. 29.6. Each gauge has a
and modulus of elasticity 200 GN/in~. Calculate the change resistance of 100 Q and a gauge factor of 2.1. The input
in resistance, voltage is 4 V. The stress is 200 M/N2, calculate
(a) due to a change in stress equal to 1/10 of the elastic (a) the change in the value of resistances R4 to restore
range; and balance,
(b) due to a change of temperature of 20°C, if the (b) the output voltage if the .letectOr has a resistance of
material is advance alloy. lOkCl,
The resistance temperature co-efficient of advance (c) the current through the detector if its resistance is
alloy is 20 x 10~6/°C. 400 Q,
(c) Calculate the strain due to differential expansion (d) current through the strain gauges. ■
of the gauge metal and steel if, co-efficient of linear The modulus or elasticityfor Duralumin is 70 GN/m .
expansion of steel is 12x 10~6/°C and that of
Solution, (a) One of the gauges is subjected to
advance alloy is 16* 10~6/°C.
tensile stress and the other to compressive stress. The
Calculate also the change in resistance. Comment upon change in the value of resistance R4 to restore balance
the results. is :
Solution, (a) Change of stress AR4 = Gy e R
s = 400xl(F6xl/10
= 2 x2.1x 200x10 x 100 =1.2 Q
= 40xl06N/m2 =40 MN/m2 70xl08
Change of strain (b) Open circuit voltage across the bridge for two
e = —- = 40xl06 =20Qx10-6 active strain gauges is :
E 200 xlO9 Gr&
enu = 2
.'. Change in resistance
AR = Gy e R _2.1x200xl06 _4
= 2 x 200 x 10-6 x 120 = 0.048 Q 70xl09 ~2

(b) Change in resistance due to change in tempe­ = 0.012 V = 12 mV

rature : Output voltage when the meter is connected
= aA OR =20x 10-6x (20)x 120 across the output terminals is :
= 0.048 Q 1
xe0
The strain due to differential expansion of the
gauge metal and steel is : 1
x 0.012 V
e = (12-16)x 10-6x20 1 + lOO/lOxlO3
= -80 x 10-6 = -80 microstrain = 11.9 mV
AR = Gy eR =2 x80x 10-6x 120
(c) When a meter of 400 Q is connected across the
= - 0.019 Q bridge output terminals, the output voltage is :
Comments, The change of resistance due to
en, =------- -------- x 0.112 V
change in temperature is of the same order as that due 0L 1 + 100/400
change in resistance caused by application of strain. If
= 9.6 mV
the temperature effects are not compensated for, they
will lead to extremely large errors in the measurement .'. Meter current
of strain. The measurement in fact does not have any j - e0L - 10
meaning in that case. m Rin 400
It is seen that change due to differential expansion = 24xlO~6A=24 pA
partly offsets the change due to co-efficient of
(d) Current through strain gauges
resistivity in the example. The effect may become
additive instead of subtractive in certain combinations e- 4
= -*- =--------- = 0.02 A = 20 mA
of gauge metal and the metal used for mounting. 2R 2x100
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1063

Example 2g.g In order to measure strain in a cantilever The strain gauge is bonded to structural member and is
beam, a single strain gauge of resistance 1 kQ, and gauge subjected to a sinusoidal time varying strain. As a result of
factor 2 and a temperature co-efficient 10xW6/°C is this strain, the resistance value of strain gauge between
mounted on the beam and connected in one arm of a bridge extremes of 999 Q and 1001 Q. The bridge output is
circuit. The other three arms of the bridge have a resistance connected to an amplifier. Determine the equivalent circuit.
of 100 Q each. The bridge detector resistance is 100 Q and its The supply voltages is 10 V.
sensitivity is 10 mm/pA Solution. Open circuit voltage of bridge under
(a) Calculate the detector deflection for 0.1 percent maximum tension :
strain. 1001 10,000 I
=---------------- 1-------------------- x 10 V
(b) Calculate the change in effective strain indicated 1001 + 1000 10,000+ 10,000
when the room temperature increases by 10°C.
= 2.5 mV
Solution, (a) Change in strain e = 0.1% = 0.001
Open circuit voltage under maximum com­
Change in resistance
pression :
AR = 0.001 x2x 1000 = 2Q
J 999 + 10/)00 1X1QV
.’. Resistance of gauge
999 + 1000 10,000 + 10X100 _
= 1000 + 2 =1002 Q
= - 2.5 mV
Open circuit voltage of Thevenin generator :
Therefore the output voltage alternates with an
1002 100 A
’o = ----------------- 100+ 100 J xlO V amplitude of 2.5 mV.
0 I WOO+ 1002
Thevenin source resistance is,
= 5 mV 1000x1000 10/100 x 10/100
Resistance of Thevenin generator " 2000 + 20/100
D 1002x1000 100x100
= 5500 fl.
2002 200
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 29.11.
= 550.5 Q
For More Solved and Unsolved Examples on
.'. Current through detector
Strain Gauges, see pages 777, 778, 782, 862.
; _ 5xl0"3
m 550.5 + 100 29.9 STRAIN GAUGE CALIBRATION
= 7.7 pA A theoretical objection to the use of strain gauges
and deflection of galvanometer = 7.7 x 10 = 77 mm is that, in most applications, it is impossible to check
the accuracy of the readings obtained from them. Once
(b) Change in resistance due to change in
the strain gauge is bonded in its measuring position, it
temperature AR = 10 x 10-6 x 1000 x 10 = 0.1 fl
cannot be removed or transferred and subjected to a
The equivalent strain known strain for calibration. Strain gauges are often
AR 0.1 used in applications where no other form of strain
s =------ =-----------
GfR 2x1000 measurement is possible. Since no check on perfor­
mance can be made, the value of the gauge factor as
= 50 x 10-6 = 50 microstrain.
specified by the manufacturer has to be relied upon.
Example 2g.io A strain gauge is used for However, this leads to errors because the value of
measurement of dynamic strain as shown in Fig. 29.10. The gauge factor is specified with certain tolerance limits
strain gauge has a resistance of 1 k£l when unstrained. A and hence each gauge should be individually
resistance oflkCl is connected in the arm adjacent to strain calibrated.
gauge. The resistances of other two arms are 10 kQ each. Simple strain gauge bridges usually employ
readout systems having scales marked in arbitrary
units. The basic motive of practical calibration of strain
gauges is to establish a relationship between arbitrary
units and the measured strain. In fact, calibration of
strain gauges involves making necessary adjustments
Fig.29.11 Figure of Example 29.10. to obtain correct scale reading.
 1 064 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

The technique employed is to produce a known Shunt resistance

change in the resistance of one of the bridge arms to
simulate a particular value of strain. The value of the
change in resistance required for this purpose may be
calculated if the unstrained resistance of the gauge,
and the gauge factor, are known.
The procedure for calibration of strain gauges,
involves a known change in the value of the resistance
of the strain gauge by shunting it with a high value of
resistance and then measuring the output corres­
ponding to the known change of resistance. This is
shown in Fig. 29.12. A shunt resistance Rsh, is used, the
resistance of the gauge being R
o exactly from Eqn. 29.19. If a linear relationship
Rg(l-GzEe)
Rsk =
Gf£e
...(29.18)
In practice Gy &e «1, and therefore the term Gy e£
in the numerator of Eqn. 29.18 can be neglected
without introducing any significant error.
...(29.19)
Sh GfE
The value of effective strain e may be deter­
mined, exactly from Eqn. 29.17 or 29.18 or nearly
between the readout (output indicator system) and
strain is assumed, only one value of Rsh is required for
the calibration. This value of Rs/l should be so chosen
that the readout (output indicator) gives its full scale
deflection.
The calibration of bridges using more than one
active strain gauge may be done in the same manner.
Suppose there are n active strain gauge elements in the
bridge, then the strain represented by a given value of
Rsh is 1 / n (approximately) of the strain given by
Eqn. 29.17.

Fig. 29.12 Calibration of strain gauges. .’. Effective strain

Resistance of arm 1 of bridge before switch S is

closed - R$
Resistance of arm 1 of bridge after switch S is Example 2^.11 A strain gauge bridge comprises of two
closed fixed 120 Q resistors, and one is an active gauge and one
= Resistance of parallel combination unstrained temperature compensating gauge. The two
of R and Rsh. gauges have an unstrained resistance value of 120 Q each.
g
The gauge factor is 2.2. Find the strain which would be
represented by 100 AQ calibration resistance shunting one
arm of bridge.
Solution. From Eqn. 29.17, the effective strain
.. The change in resistance of arm 1 resulting from represented by the arrangement is :
introduction of shunt resistance Rsh is :
AK = R-----PjJE_
e
8 8 (*,+ **)
120
~ 2.2 (120 +100 xlO3)
...(29.16)
(VRSO
= 0.545 x 10-3 = 545 microstrain
Equivalent strain Example 2<).i2 Four strain gauges are mounted on a
1 AR , . simple flat tensile specimen arranged for complete
£ = —.-.1 1
Gf‘ R g temperature compensation and maximum sensitivity when
G/W^> connected in a four arm bridge circuit. An 800,000 Q
R calibration resistor is shunted across one of the strain
_____ g
...(29.17) gauges. Gauge resistances are each 118 Q and gauge factors
are 1.22.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 065
If the strain gauge readout is 150 divisions when the
calibration switch is closed and 240 divisions when the load
is applied, what is the axial strain in the specimen ?
Solution. The bridge has four active elements.
Effective strain
__ L
n___ +
=------------- —-------------- = 48.1 x W6
4x1.22(188 + 800,000)
When the calibration switch is closed, the readout
gives a reading of 150 divisions.
.’. 1 division
= —xlO’6 = 0.321 x 10'6
150
When the strain gauges' arrangement is loaded,
the strain is :
s = 0.321 x IO-6 x 240 = 77 x 10-6 = 77 microstrain
29.10 LOAD CELLS
Load cells utilise an elastic member as the primary
transducer and strain gauges as secondary trans­
ducers as explained in Art. 25.3.6, page 742. Strain
gauges may be attached to any elastic member (as
shown in Fig. 29.13) on which there exists a, suitable
plane area to accommodate them. This arrangement
may then be used to measure loads applied to deform
or deflect the member, provided that the resultant
strain is large enough to produce detectible outputs.
When the strain gauge-elastic member combination is
used for weighing it is called a load cell.
Fig. 29.13 Tension compression resistance
strain gauge cell.
29.10.1 Tensile-Compressive Cell
Figure 29.13 shows a tensile-compressive cell
which is a cylinder. This arrangement uses four strain
gauges each mounted at 90° to each other. The bridge
circuit is also shown. Two of strain gauges experience
tensile stress while the other two are subjected to com­
pressive stress.
The output of a bridge with equal arms and using
two strain gauges mounted 90° to each other is :
/R
Ae0 =(1 + v) ...(29.21)
4 + 2(AR1/R)
In the present case, there are two sets of gauges
mounted 90°C to each other, with one set experiencing
tensile stress while the other a compressive stress.
/. Output voltage of Wheatstone bridge :
ARj/R
Ae0=2(l + v) ...(29.22)
4 + 2(AR1 / R)
The above relationship is clear from the following
explanation :
In the case of a cylinder, an axial compressive load
causes a negative strain in the vertical gauges, and a
positive strain in the circumferential gauges. The two
strains are not equal in this case. These two strains, are
related to each other by a factor v, called the Poisson's
ratio. Since the value of the strain is of no interest, the
objective is to produce a force transducer. This force
transducer is calibrated empirically. In case all the
gauges are similar, temperature compensation is
obtained as all the gauges contribute equally to
unbalance the bridge.
Compression cells of this type have been used
with a capacity of 300 MN.
Unbonded strain gauge transducers are
frequently used for force measurement, particularly if
high sensitivity is required. Highest sensitivity is
obtained when the gauge itself performs the function
of elastic member, i.e., all the input force is used fort
producing strain in the gauge.
Example 29.13 A load cell consists of a solid cylinder of
steel 40 mm in diameter with four strain gauges bonded to
it and connected into the four arms of a voltage sensitive
bridge. The gauges are mounted to have Poisson's arrangement.
If the gauges are each of 100 Cl resistance and the gauge
factor, 2.1, the bridge excitation voltage 6 V, determine the
sensitivity of the cell in V/kN. Modulus of elasticity for steel
is 200 GN/m2 and the Poisson's ratio is 0.29.
Solution. Suppose a load of 1 kN is applied to the
load cell.
 1 066 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

IxlO3 longitudinal direction. Thus there are longitudinal

Stress stresses which produce stresses in the radial direction.
~ (tt/4)(40xlO’3)2
This is shown in Fig. 29.14.
= 0.796 xlO6N/m2
Let us consider a general element as shown in
Strain Fig. 29.14 that is subjected to bi-axial tresses. Suppose
the stresses sx and s are applied at the same time. This
= 0796xl°6-=3.98x10-^ is shown in Fig. 29.15.
200 x109
AR
— = £ G.-
R -f
= 3.98 xl0"6x 2.1 =8.36 xlO’6
From Eqn. 29.22, the voltage output of the bridge
is :
ARt/R
Ae0 =2 (1 + v)
4 + 2(AR1/R)

8.36 xlQ~6
= 2(1 + 0.29) x6
4 + 2x8.36xl0-6
= 0.324 x 10-6 V= 0.324 pV

Hence, the sensitivity is 0.324 pV / kN.

29.11 STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
In this section cases of uniaxial and biaxial strain
measurements are analyzed.
1. Simple Uni-axial stresses. This case arises
where a simple tensile or compressive loading is
applied to a member. The stress may be calculated
from the observed strain using the modulus of
elasticity, E, of the material used provided the
operation is within the elastic limits.
The axial stress is, s = £ E
2. Bi-axial stresses. Many a times strain gauges
are used in applications wherein the test piece is
subjected to stress in more than one direction. If the
test piece is on a free surface, as is usually the case, the
condition is called as bi-axial. A typical example of this
case exists on the outer surface or shell, of a cylindrical
vessel. The Hoop Stresses acting circumferentially (in
the radial direction) tend to open up to seam in the
Fig. 29.15 An element subjected to bi-axial stresses.
Suppose a stress sx is applied in the longitudinal
direction. This will produce a strain ex = sx I E in the
longitudinal or X-direction.
At the same time, because of the Poisson's ratio
effect, there will be a stress produced in the radial
direction or along Y-axis. This produces a strain equal to
-vsx I E.
Now suppose that a stress s is applied in the
y
radial direction. This stress will produce a strain in the
Y (radial) direction. Its value is s I E. It will also
y
produce a strain equal to -vs /E in the X or the
y
longitudinal direction.
The net strains in the two directions are,
-(29.23)
and =l(Sy-vst) ...(29.24)

(Radial Y .". We get expressions for the stresses as,

direction) i
I /— Hoop E(£x+V£ )
J ‘/ stress (sy) SX =-----------------
1-v2
•— X'
(Longitudinal E(£v +ve )
and s =----- y - --- ...(29.26)
^-Longitudinal direction) ■ 1-v
stress (s )
Y' Suppose it is required to determine the stresses in
given orthogonal (right angled) directions. Equations.
Fig. 29.14 A free surface subjected to bi-axial stresses. 29.25 and 29.26 show that in order to determine these
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1067

stresses, it is necessary to know the modulus of Transverse stress s = 0

elasticity E, Poisson's ratio v and also the strains Axial strain
&x and £y in the X and Y directions. Even if the stress is 1 / A 1
desired to be known in one direction it becomes
necessary to measure strains in both the directions.
or Modulus of elasticity
The problem becomes more complicated if a third
stress acts in the third orthogonal direction. Let the
stress in the Z direction be sz. The stress strain Ex
relationships are, 212 xlO6
" 1620 xlO-6
-<29-27)
£L J = 131x109=131 GN/m2
ty=^Vv++S<)i -(29.28) Equation 29.24 gives the value of strain, the
transverse direction
and e2 = | [s -v (s + s )] ...(29.29) S=|(sy-«x)
t J
Example 29.14 Two strain gauges attached to the = -v — as s„ = 0
E v
surface of a cylindrical pressure vessel, one in axial and one
in circumferential direction, gave the strain values of0.00018
and 0.00072 respectivehj. Calculate the hoop and the
longitudinal stress values if the cylinder is of steel having a, or Possion's ratio v = 0.281
modulus of elasticity of200 GN/m" and Poisson's ratio =0.29.
29.12 STRAIN GAUGE ROSETTES
Solution. Strain in the longitudinal direction
The installation of a strain gauge on a bar
sx = 0.00018
specimen shown in Fig. 29.16 is a useful application of
strain in the circumferential direction the gauge, but it is restricted. The strain that is
e = 0.00072 measured in such a situation is a principal strain since
y
we assumed that the bar is operating under only a
From Eqn. 29.26, the hoop stress is,
tensile load.
E(e +vex)
F(Force)
Syy =---- ’1----
-V
2-----

200 x 109 (0.00072 +0.29 x0.00018) KT . 2

=--------------------------- -----------------N/m
[1 —(0.29)2]
= 168.6 MN/m2

From Eqn. 29.25, the longitudinal stress is,

_ £(ex+vey)
Sx~ 1-v2

200 x 109 (0.00018 + 0.29 x 0.00072) x T, 2

[l-(0.29)2]
= 84.9 MN/m2
Example 29.15 A simple tension member having an F(Force)
area of 125 mm2 is subjected to a load of 2700 kg. Strains of Fig. 29.16 Simple bar under axial strain.
1620 and -455 microstrain are measured in the axial and
tranverse directions respectively. Determine the value of The axial strain is,
Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. F/ A s AL
£ = ------- = -+ =---
Solution. Axial stress a EEL
2700 x 9.81 212xl06N/m2 where and sfl are respectively the axial strain and
x 125 xlO-6 stress respectively.
 1 068 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

The strain that is measured in situations as shown This is the axis at which the maximum stress, siiiax
mnv,
in Fig. 29.16, is a principal strain since we have occurs.
assumed that the bar is operating under only a tensile A problem arises with the determination of the
load. Obviously, a more general measurement quadrant for 0 since there will be two values obtained
problem will involve strains in more than one from the solution of Eqn. 29.33. The angle will lie in
direction, and the orientation of the principal stress the first quadrant 0 < 0 < n/2, if,
axis will remain unknown. In a practical problem, an
£1 + e3
element may be subjected to stresses in any direction '2
...(29.34)
and hence it will not be possible to locate the direction
of principal stress. Therefore, as a consequence, it will Another type of strain-gauge rosette in common
not be possible to orient the strain gauge along the use is the Delta Rosette shown in Fig. 29.18. The
direction of principal stress. Hence, there is a necessity principal strains in this case are,
to evolve a strain gauge measurement system which _ gi + g2 + £3
^max' ^min 3
measures the values of principal strains and stresses,
without actually knowing their directions. The ±—[(g! ~e2) +<e2 ~e3) +<e3 "el) J
solution to the problem lies in using three strain
gauges oriented in different directions to form a unit is ...(29.35)
called a Rosette.
The principal stresses are,
Consider the rosette shown in Fig. 29.17. The £(8. + £_ + Eq)
three strain gauges forming a rosette are oriented as s s • —---------------- -
max' mm 3(l-p)
shown, and the three strains measured by these
gauges are elz £2 and e,. V2 £ [(gl
7 711-'2
£2) +(£2 -£3) +(£3 -Ej) J
3(W)
...(29.36)
The maximum shear stress is,
^2 Er 7
Tmax =o/i , u \ bSl -e2^ + (g2-£3^ +(£3-£l)j
0^1 -t- PJ

...(29.37)
The principal stress axis is located according to :
tan 2 0 = ^S3~e2) ...(29.38)
2 £T -£3 -£3
Fig. 29.17 Rectangular Strain Gauge Rosette. Angle 0 will be in the first quadrant when £3 > e2
The principal strains are : and in the second quadrant e2 > £3.
£1 +S3 It is worthwhile to mention that the resistance
p £ . = —------- -
max' min 2 strain gauges may be sensitive to transverse as well as
to axial strains. The resistance change produced by a
...(29.30)
transverse strain, however, is usually less than 2 to 3
The principal stresses are : percent of the change produced by axial strain. For
£(£^£3) £ this reason, it may be neglected in many applications.
c 5 =------ ±i ——----------
max' mm 2(l-p) x/2 (1 + p) If the transverse strain is to be considered, the above
r 7 rosette formulae may be modified accordingly.
±[(£1-£2) 2 + (£2-e3) 2] -(29.31)
Rosettes are of many types. Figure 25.57 on page 779
The maximum shear stress, shows different types of strain gauges and rosettes.
F r o 71^/2
Example A rectangular rosette as shown in
+(^>] -(29-32) Fig. 29.18 is maintained on a steel plate having a modulus
The principal stress axis is located with the angle 0 is of elasticity £ = 200 GN/nf and the Poisson's ratio is 0.3.
tan20 = 2£2~£1~^ ...(29.33) The three strains measured are :
E1-£3
Ej =+ 500 p strain, e2 =+ 400 p strain, e3 =-100 p strain
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 069

Calculate the principal strains and stresses and the Example The maximum and minimum strains
maximum shear stress. Locate the axis of principal stress. in a rectangular rosette are given by
Ei + Eo 1 r o o-j 1/2
emax' emin =-J-2 ± VjL £1 +(e2'£3> J

and then is located at an angle,

2e9 -e. -Eo
tan 20 = —2---- 1---- 3
el -e3

Show the e = e1 and Efnin = e3 when 0 = 0

Solution. When 0 = 0, tan 2 0 = 0

gauge 1
and hence,
Fig. 29.18 Delta Strain gauge rosette.
2 e2 -£i -e3 _ $
Solution. As an intermediate step, we calculate
ei -e3
the quantities
£. + £q
£□ + £. -100 + 500 k . or £2 =
A - ---- 1 =-------------- = 200 p strain
2 2
emax “
Ei + Eo
2 1 r, e2
.2 /
+ 82 83
\211/2
-I
B = [(£]-s2)2+(e2-£3)2]1'2
= [(500 - 400)2 + (400 +100)2],/2 x 10 *’ Eq + Eq
NOW £0 = —----- --
= 510 p strain 2 2

Then, Also 2e2 = e1-e3

R 510 or £i-£2 = e2 + £3
s max = A + -t= =200 + —/=- = 561 n strain
Therefore maximum strain
R 510
e . =A—7= =200—= -161 p strain
mm yj'2_
Maximum stress
EA EB
’max " l^T + V2 (1 + p)

200 x 109 x 200 x 10”6 200x109x 510x10 6

1-0.3 + 72(1 + 0.3)

= 57.1 x 106 + 55.4x 106 =112.5 MN/m2 The value of the minimum strain can be obtained
in the same way
Minimum stress
. = Eo-
e mm 3
s . = 57.1x 106-55.4x 106
min
= 1.7 MN/m2 29.13 STRAIN GAUGE CIRCUITRY
Maximum shear stress There are many strain gauge instrumentation
-— = 55.4 MN/m2 circuits available commercially. The type instrumen­
T max
V2 (1 + M) tation system depends upon the following consi­
derations :
Now, we have,
2 £o —£. -£o (i) whether static or dynamic strains have to be
tan 20 = —---- 1---- 3 measured,
el -£3
(ii) whether an analog or a digital readout is
2x400 -500 -(-100)
desired,
500 -(-100)
(iii) whether output is to be displayed on a
2 0 = 33.7° or 213.7° recorder for instantaneous reading or for
or 0 = 16.8° or 106.8° permanent record,
We choose the first quadrant angle 0 = 16.8° in (iv) whether a single channel is required or
accordance with Eqn. 29.34. multichannel measurement is necessary.
 1070 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Depending upon the requirement a suitable

instrumentation may be selected.
The most commonly used circuit for strain
measurements is a Wheatstone bridge with d.c.
excitation. The strain may be measured with the help
of a voltmeter connected across the output terminals.
The scale of the voltmeter may be calibrated in terms
of strain. The voltmeter may be called a "strain
indicator". The voltmeter may be a d.c. analog meter
and digital voltmeter. Since the output is low, it may
have to be amplified before being fed to the voltmeter.
This requires the use of a d.c. amplifier which has its
inherent problems.
10VDC

Fig. 29.20 Strain gauge measurement using different

types of readout devices.
Commercial strain gauge bridges normally use an
a.c. power supply and subsequently demodulate and
amplify the output so that greater sensitivity could be
achieved. The normal excitation frequency is 1000 Hz,
providing frequency response up to 100 Hz. Since the
normal frequency response is about 10% of the carrier
frequency, problems requiring better response will
necessitate higher carrier frequencies. Instruments
utilizing 20 kHz excitation frequency are commercially
available (Fig. 29.21). They usually have their own
Fig. 29.19 Strain gauge bridge circuit with IC recording oscillograph with provision for viewing the
operational amplifier. waveform on an external oscilloscope display.
It has been found that by using IC operational
amplifiers placed in the proximity of a strain gauge
bridge using two active gauges, inexpensive load cells
of various sensitivities may be constructed with
sufficient output to actuate galvanometric recorders
(ultraviolet recorders are normally used). This
arrangement is shown in Fig. 29.19. However, this
arrangement involves screening 'and earthing to
ensure the removal of power line (50 Hz) pickup.
Figure 29.20 shows a highly sophisticated system
which employs four active strain gauge connected in a
bridge circuit. The galvanometer of the usual bridge
circuit is replaced by a self-balancing potentiometer. A
low resistance slide wire is connected between and
R%4 to adjust the bridge so that the self-balancing Fig. 29.21 Strain gauge circuitry for dynamic
potentiometer reads zero when no strain is applied. measurement and recording.
The output device of a self-balancing potentio­ The output may be fed to a strip chart recorder to
meter could be an indicator, a digital voltmeter, a strip record the variations. A galvanometer type recorder
chart recorder for recording purposes. The output provided with mirror arrangement is used with
may also be indicated or recorded by numerous moving photographic paper or film for permanent
combinations of the above readout systems. and reproducible records.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1071
Multipoint Measurements
In many applications of strain gauges, it is
desirable to measure strain at more than one point.
This necessitates the use of a number of strain gauges
which may be arranged so that either they have a
bridge circuit and an a display device each. Instead an
arrangement where in only one bridge circuit and a
single display device are used which are connected to
each strain gauge circuit in turn through a switch. The
latter method is very much less expensive. However,
this method has some disadvantages like introduction
of errors due to switch contact resistance, and
different zero settings for each strain gauge circuit.
The strain gauge circuits may use one, two or four
active strain gauges and suitable arrangements must
be developed whereby each of these situations may be
incorporated in a multipoint measuring system.
Figure 29.22(a) shows a system where there is
only one active strain gauge in each circuit while
Fig. 29.22(b) shows an arrangement for four active
gauges in each circuit.
Fig. 29.22 Multipoint arrangements.
(a) Single active gauge arrangement;
(b) four active gauge arrangement.
29.14 USES OF STRAIN GAUGES
1. Strain gauges are used extensively for
analysing the dynamic strains in complex
structures such as the stress and the strain in
bridges, automobiles, roads etc. where the
output of the bridge can be recorded with an
oscillograph calibrated to read the instan­
taneous strain or stress.
2. Resistance strain gauges are very useful for
measurement of tension, torque, force,
stresses in structures. They are particularly
useful where a minimum disturbance by the
presence of transducer is required as in wind
tunnel measurements.
3. Strain gauges are used in load cells and
proving rings to measure force by the strain
produced. The proving ring is usually made
of steel. The strain produced in the load ring
is measured with a strain gauge. The strain is
a measure of the force applied to the ring.
29.15 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
Pressure measurements are one of the most
important measurements made in industry. The
number of instruments used are by far greater in
number than the instruments used for any other type
of measurement.
The principles used in the measurement of
pressure are also, applied in the measurement of
temperature, flow, and liquid levels. Thus it is
essential to have complete knowledge of working
principles of these instruments.
Pressure is represented as force per unit area. As
such it may be considered as a type of stress since
stress is also defined as force per unit area. In this
section, the term 'pressure' refers to the force per unit
area exerted by a fluid on a containing wall. Therefore,
the discussion of pressure measurement is limited to
fluid systems. The forces that arise as a result of strains
in solids are designated as stresses and have been
discussed earlier.
29.16 TYPES OF PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT DEVICES
In industrial applications the pressure is usually
measured by means of indicating gauges or recorders.
These instruments may be mechanical, electro­
mechanical, electrical or electronic in operation.
(z) Mechanical Instruments. These instruments
may be classified into two groups. The first group
includes those instruments in which the pressure
 1072 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
measurement is made by balancing an unknown force
with a known force. Instruments using this principle
include manometers and ring and belt type of gauges.
The second group includes those instruments which
employ the balancing of unknown force through a
force produced on or known area due to stress in an
elastic member. This group employs quantitative
deformation of an elastic member for measurement of
pressure. The elastic members used are Bourdor tubes,
bellows and diaphragms.
(ii) Electro-Mechanical Instruments. These
instruments usually employ a mechanical means for
detecting the pressure and electrical means for
indicating or recording the detected pressure.
(iii) Electronic Instruments. Electronic pressure
measuring instruments normally depend on some
physical change that can be detected and indicated or
recorded electronically.
In this text, the discussion is limited only to
Electro-mechanical and Electronic instruments.
29.17 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE USING
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS AS
SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS
The measurement of force or pressure can be done
by converting the applied force or pressure into a
displacement by elastic elements which act as primary
transducers. This displacement, which is a function of
pressure may be measured by transducers which act
as secondary transducers. The output of the secondary
transducers is a function of displacement, which in
turn is a function of pressure. Mechanical methods
have to be used to convert the applied force or
pressure into displacement. These devices are called
Force Summing Devices.
They possess elasticity, when deformed, the
stresses established in the summing devices establish
equilibrium with the applied pressure. The choice and
design of the type of summing element used depends
on the magnitude of force or pressure to be measured.
The most commonly used summing devices are:
A Flat or corrugated diaphragms.
A Bellows.
A Circular or twisted Bourdon tube.
A Straight tube.
A Single or double mass cantilever suspension.
A Pivot torque.
Examples of these force summing devices are
shown in Fig. 25.4 on page 742. For description offeree
summing devices like Bourdon tube, bellows and
diagphrams see pages 742 - 749. Pressure transducers
generally use one of the first four types of force
summing members. While mass cantilever suspension
and pivot torque types are found in accelerometers
and velocity transducers.
Secondary transducers. The displacement created
by the action of the force summing member is
converted into a change of some electrical parameter.
The force summing member actuates a transducer
which converts the displacement into an output of
electrical format. The various transducers used are of
the following types :
A. Resistive,
A. Inductive,
A Differential transformers,
A Capacitive,
A Photo-electric,
A- Piezo-electric,
A Ionization, and
A Oscillation.
1. Resistive Transducers
The electrical strain gauges attached to
diaphragm as shown in Fig. 29.23 may be used for
measurement of pressure.
P.
1
Strain—| Diaphgram
gauges p2
Fig. 29.23 Measurement of differential pressure
with diaphragm and strain gauges.
The output of these strain gauges is a function of
the local strain, which, in turn, is a function of the
diaphragm deflection and the differential pressure.
The deflection generally follows a linear variation
with differential pressure P=P2-Pr (When the
deflection is less than one-third of the diaphragm
thickness.)
One of the disadvantages of the method is the
small physical area is required for mounting the strain
gauges. Change in resistance of strain gauges on
account of application of pressure is calibrated in
terms of the differential pressure. Gauges of this type
are made in sizes having a lower range of: 100 kN/m2
to 3 MN/m2 to an upper range of 100 kN/m2 to
100 MN/m2.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 073
2. Inductive Transducers
Inductive transducers have been successfully
used as secondary transducers along with a
diaphragm for measurement of pressure. Figure 29.24
shows an arrangement which uses two coils; an upper
and a lower coil which form the two arms of an a.c.
bridge. The coils have equal number of turns. The
other two arms of the bridge are formed by two equal
resistances each of value R.
Since K, Ro, D and e, are constant, the output
voltage is directly proportional to displacement d, of
the diaphragm. Displacement d, is directly propor­
tional to differential pressure P=P2-P]. Hence the
output voltage eQ may be calibrated in terms of the
differential pressure P.
It is seen that there exists a linear relationship
between output voltage t’o and the differential pressure
for small values of deflection d.
It is possible to determine whether P2 > P1 or
P1 > P2 with reference to the phase of output voltage,
eQ, with respect to source voltage
Standard laboratory equipment, such as an
electronic voltmeter, an oscilloscope, as well as
recorders may be used for display and recording of
the output. The gauge may be used for pressures
ranging from 0-5 kN/m2 to0-100 kN/m2.

3. LVDT
Fig. 29.24 Measurement of pressure with diaphragm
The LVDT is used as a secondary transducer for
element and inductive transducer.
measurement of pressure with Bellows or Bourdon
The diaphragm is symmetrically placed with respect
tube acting as the transducer i.e., as a force summing
to the coils and so when R, = P2, the reluctances of the
device. The two arrangements are shown in Figs. 29.25
paths of magnetic flux for both the coils are equal and
and 29.26. The pressure is converted into displace­
hence the inductances of the coils are equal.
ment which is sensed by the LVDT and transduced
Now initial self-inductance = N21RQ into a voltage.
where N = number of turns,
and Ro = initial reluctance of flux path
Under this condition the bridge is balanced and
the output, eQ, of the bridge is zero.
Suppose P2 is greater than and therefore the
differential pressure P = P2 - Pr deflects the
diaphragm upwards through a distance d. For small
displacements of diaphragm, the reluctance of the flux
path of the upper coil is RT = RQ + K( D - d) and that of
Fig. 29.25 Measurement of pressure with Bellows
the lower coil is R2 = RQ + K( D + d). and LVDT.
Hence, the inductance of the upper coil
Ll=N2/R1=N2/[R0+K(D-rf)]
and that of lower coil is
L2 = N2/R2 = N2/[RQ+K(D + d)].
The bridge becomes unbalanced and the
approximate value of output voltage is given by :

__________ N2/[Rq +K(D+d)]______

N2/[R0+ K( D-d)] + N2/[R0+ K(D-d)]
Kdx e Fig. 29.26 Pressure measurement with Bourdon
...(29.39)
2(Rg+ KD) tube and LVDT.
 1 074 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
4. Capacitive Transducers
Capacitive transducers are used for measurement
of pressure by converting the pressure into a displace­
ment. The displacement is sensed by a capacitive
transducer using a differential arrangement as
explained in Art. 25.28.3 on page 818. This arrange­
ment gives a linear relationship between output
voltage and displacement (and hence pressure) as
shown in Eqn. 25.111.
The use of a three terminal variable differential
circuit capacitor is shown in Fig. 29.27. Spherical
depressions of a depth of about 0.025 mm are ground
into the glass discs. These depressions are coated with
gold to form the two fixed plates of the differential
Fig. 29.27 Capacitive transducer and bridge circuit.
capacitor. A thin stainless steel diaphragm is clamped
between the discs, acts as the movable plate. With
equal pressures applied (i.e., =£*2) diaphragm is
in neutral position and the bridge is balanced. The
output voltage e^ is zero under the conditions. If one
pressure is made greater than the other, the
diaphragm deflects in proportion to the differential
pressure, giving an output voltage, eQ from the bridge
terminals. This output voltage is proportional to the
differential pressure. For an opposite pressure
difference, the output voltage shows a 180° phase
shift. This voltage may be amplified by an emitter
follower amplifier which gives a high input output
impedance. A direction sensitive d.c. output voltage
may be obtained by using a phase sensitive
demodulator and a filter circuit.
The use of capacitive transducers is not common
because of low sensitivity. Also capacitive transducers
require high carrier frequencies (typically 2500 Hz) for
dynamic pressure measurements.
5. Photoelectric Transducers
The photo-electric transducer makes use of the
properties of a photo-emissive cell or photo-tube. A
photo tube is described in details on page 583. It is
shown at Fig. 19.18 and its characteristics are given in
Fig. 19.20 on page 583.
From the characteristics of Fig. 19.20, we find that
for voltage above approximately 20 V, the output is
nearly independent of the applied anode voltage but
entirely depends upon the amount of incident light.
The current through the photo-tube produced as a
result of incident higher is very small. This current is
the output of the photo-electric transducer. As the
current is small (of the order of a few pA), it must be
amplified to provide a usable output.
The photo-electric transducer of Fig. 19.28 uses a
photo-tube and a light source separated by a small
window, whose aperture is controlled by the force
summing member of the pressure transducer.
Fig. 29.28 Photoelectric transducer for
measurement of pressure.
The displacement of the force summing member
modulates quantity of incident light falling on the
photo-tube (since the applied pressure or force
changes the position of the force summing member
which in turn changes the position of the window thus
causing a change in incident light). According to
curves given in Fig. 19.20 page 583 a change in light
intensity varies the photo-emissive properties at a rate
approximately linear with displacement. This
transducer can use either a stable source of light or an
a.c. modulated light.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1075
Advantages :
(i) It has a high efficiency.
(zz) It can be used for both static and dynamic
conditions but it does not respond to high
frequency light variations.
Disadvantages:
(z) It has a poor long term stability.
(zz) It requires a large displacement of the force
summing member in order to produce a
detectable output.
6. Piezoelectric Transducers
Piezoelectric crystals produce an emf when they
are deformed. The force or displacement or pressure
to be measured is applied to the crystal. The pressure
is applied to the crystal through a force summing
member. This causes a deformation which produces
an emf that is a function of the deformation. This
output emf may be measured to know the value of
applied force and hence the pressure.
Advantages :
(z) This transducer needs no external power and
is therefore self-generating (active types).
(zz) It has a very good high-frequency response.
Disadvantages :
(z) The principal disadvantage is that this
transducer cannot measure static pressure.
(zz) The output of the transducer is affected by
changes in temperature. Therefore tempe­
rature compensating devices have to be used.
7. Oscillation Transducers
These transducers use a force summing member
to change the capacitance, C, or inductance, L, of an LC
oscillator circuit. Figure 29.29 shows the basic
elements of LC transistor oscillator whose output
frequency is affected by a change in the inductance of
a coil. The change in inductance is caused by the force
summing member acting upon an inductive device.
Fig. 29.29 Basic elements of an oscillation transducer.
The output of oscillator is a modulated output
and can be demodulated and calibrated in terms of
pressure or force applied.
Advantages:
(z) This transducer measures both dynamic and
static phenomena.
(zz) This transducer is very useful for telemetry
applications.
Disadvantages:
(z) This transducer has a very hunted
temperature range.
(zz) It has poor thermal stability.
(zzz) It has a low accuracy and therefore is used
only in low accuracy applications.
Example 29.18 A piezoelectric pressure transducer
gives an output of 1 mV per 100 kN/m . It feeds into an
amplifier which may be considered as having negligible
output impedance and a voltage gain of 25. The amplifier
output is taken to an oscilloscope having calibrated vertical
sensitivities ofl, 5, 20, 100 and 500 mV/mm. The viewing
area of the oscilloscope screen is 100 mm x 100 mm. The
transducer is used to measure a pressure fluctuating at a
frequency of 50 Hz between upper and lower level of about
700 kN/m~ and 100 kN/m respectively. Assuming that the
trace seen on the screen is steady and the peak to peak
amplitude may be estimated correctly within ± 1 mm,
what is
(«) optimum setting of the vertical sensitivity, and
(b) the likely maximum reading error in a
measurement of the peak amplitude of wave in
kN/m*2.
(zz) The two extreme pressures of
Solution,
700 kN/m and 100 kN/m“ give the outputs as
700x(l/100)x25 = 175 mV
and 100x(l/100)x25 = 50 mV
The corresponding peak to peak voltages are :
2 x 175 = 350 mV
and 2 x 25 = 50 mV
Suppose we use the sensitivity of 1 mV/mm
.■. Deflection on the screen corresponding to
maximum pressure =350/1 = 350 mm.
Since the length of the screen is 100 mm, the
waveform is out of range and hence the 1 mV/mm
should not be used. Let us tr^ 5 mV/mm setting.
The peak to peak deflection =350 / 5 = 70 mm
This is within the range of the screen of the scope.
 1076 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

If we use 20, 100 or 500 mV/mm, no doubt, the
pattern will be visible on the screen but the sensitivity
will be lower as the deflections are lower. Hence the
setting 5 mV/mm is the optimum setting.
(b) A ± 1 mm error corresponds to an input peak to
peak pressure of
Indirect or inferential methods for pressure measure­
ment are used which involve a property that is
pressure dependent and is examined for the
measurement of pressure. The property selected must
be sensitive to change in pressure in the ranges
required.

, 5mV 1 100 kN/m2 29.18.1 Thermocouple Vacuum Gauge

1 mm x----- x — x = ±20 kN/m2
mm 25 lmV~ This gauge operates on the principle that at low
pressures the thermal conductivity of a gas is a
29.18 MEASUREMENT OF LOW PRESSURE function of pressure. A thermocouple vacuum gauge
consists of a heater element (heated a temperature of
(VACUUM GAUGES)
50° to 400°C by a known constant current) having a
These pressure gauges are used primarily for thermocouple in contact with its centre shown in
measuring pressure below atmospheric pressure,
Fig. 29.30.
which is often referred to as vacuum. The science of
low pressure measurement is rather a specialized field
which requires considerable care on the part of the
experimentalist. The wide range of pressures to be
measured under the general heading of vacuum
measurement makes the problem an extremely
extensive one. This range extends from the normal
atmospheric pressure of 760 mm of mercury column
down to 10“8 mm of mercury column.
A common unit of low pressure is the micron,
which is one-millionth of a meter (0.001 mm) of
mercury column. Very low pressure may be defined as
any pressure below 1 mm of mercury and an ultra low
pressure is a pressure is less than a millimicron
(10-3 micron) or 10-6 mm of mercury. Torr is 1 mm of
mercury column and therefore a millimicron is 1 micro
torr.
There are two basic methods for measurement of
Fig. 29.30 Thermocouple vacuum gauge.
low pressure :
1. Direct methods. The direct methods of The heater element and thermocouple are
measurement involve measurement of a displacement
enclosed in a glass or metal envelope which is valued
as a result of application of the pressure.
into the vacuum system. The heater element is heated
2. Indirect or inferential methods. These methods by a constant current and its temperature depends
involve the measurement of pressure through upon the amount of heat which is lost to the
measurement of certain other properties which surroundings by conduction and convection. At
depend upon the pressure to be measured. The pressures below 10-3 mm Hg, the temperature of the
pressure controlled properties which may be utilized heater wire is a function of the pressure of
for measurement of pressure are volume and thermal
surrounding gas. Thus the thermocouple provides an
conductivity etc.
output voltage which is a function of temperature of
Pressure is measured by direct methods using heater element and consequently of the pressure of the
spiral Bourdon tubes, flat and corrugated diaphragms,
surrounding gas. The moving coil instrument may be
capsules and various forms of manometers. These
directly calibrated to read the pressure.
devices have been discussed earlier. They need not be
discussed further except to state that these devices are The advantages of the thermocouple gauges are
useful for measurement of pressures down to about that they are inexpensive. However, they are subject to
10 mm of mercury column. For measurement of burnout if exposed at rugged and atmospheric
pressures below this value, indirect methods are used. pressure when hot and the current is flowing.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 077
29.18.2 Pirani Gauges
The operation of a Pirani gauge depends on
variation of the thermal conductivity of a gas with
pressure. For pressures down to about 1 mm Hg the
thermal conductivity is independent of pressure, but
below this an approximately linear relationship exists
between pressure and the thermal conductivity. At
very low pressures the amount of heat conducted
becomes very small and the method cannot be used.
The thermal conductivity of the gas is measured
by detecting the amount of heat lost from an
electrically heated wire placed in the gas. Heat is
conducted from wire by conduction through the gas
and greater the thermal conductivity of the gas, the
lower will be the temperature of the heater wire. Now
since electrical resistance varies with temperature, the
resistance of the heater wire is a measure of the
pressure. A Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 29.31
Fig. 29.31 Measurement of low pressures with
Pirani Vacuum Gauge.
may be used to measure the resistance of the heater
wire. Alternatively milliammeter carrying a current
on account of unbalance in the bridge, may be
calibrated to read the pressure directly.
Some heat is lost from heater by radiation and
conduction and along leads, but these effects do not
depend on pressure or on the presence of gas. The
compensation for this effect may be carried out by
introducing a similar Pirani element in an opposite
arm of bridge. This second element is enclosed in a
sealed container evacuated to a very low pressure.
Pirani gauge is useful for pressures ranging from
10-1 to 10-3 mm of Hg. Pirani gauges are rugged,
inexpensive and usually more accurate than thermo­
couple gauges. However, they must be individually
calibrated and checked frequently.
29.18.3 Ionization Type Vacuum
Gauge. Ionization is the process of removing and
electron from an atom producing a free electron and a
positively changed ion. Ionization may be produced
by the collision of a high speed electron from the atom.
Figure 29.32 shows the essential features of an
ionization type gauge. Electrons are emitted from
heated cathode, using a filament and are accelerated
Fig. 29.32 Ionization type vacuum gauge.
towards the grid, which is positively charged. Some of
the electrons are captured by the grid, producing grid
current IG. Electrons having high kinetic energy pass
through and cause ionization of gas atoms.
The positive ions so produced are attracted to
plate (which is at negative potential) and a current Ip
is produced in the plate circuit.
It is found that the pressure of gas is proportional
to ratio of plate to grid current.
1 \
P = -~ ...(29.40)
JG
where S = constant of proportionality.
S is called the sensitivity of the gauge. A typical
value for nitrogen is S =20 torr-1. However, the exact
value must be determined by calibration of the
particular gauge since sensitivity S is a function of the
geometry of the tube and the gas filled in it. Pressures
that can be measured by ionization gauge range from
10-3 to 10-8 mm of Hg.
The disadvantage of these gauges is that the
filament can burn out quickly if it is heated before the
pressure is at a low value. For this reason, it is usually
necessary to have a Pirani or thermocouple gauge in
the system to ensure a low enough vacuum. Also an
automatic cutout circuit is used to protect the
ionization tube in case of a system leak to break.
These gauges must be carefully installed - in
particular, absorbed gases must be eliminated.
Voltages required are in the range 50 to 300 V.
 1078 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
29.19 MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE
29.19.1 Torque Transducers
Dynamic measurement of torque transmitted by a
rotating shaft is based upon the angular displacement
or twist in the shaft in a calibrated length of torque
tube attached to the shaft. The strain is sensed by
transducers and is measured. The strain measure­
ments are then interpreted in terms of torque by
proper calibration. These measurements can be used
for measurement of proper if combined with proper
speed measuring devices.
A number of physical effects and devices can be
used for measurement of relative angular displacement
- strain by piezo-resistive (strain gauge) variable
inductance, and magnetostrictive effects. The various
methods are described below.
29.19.2 Strain Gauge Torque Meters
The principle of this method is explained by
Fig. 29.33. Two strain gauges are mounted on a shaft at
an angle 45° to each other. The torque is given by
7iG(R4-r4)
9Nm ...(29.41)
2L
where G = modulus of rigidity ; N/m2,
R = outer radius of shaft; m,
r = inner radius of shaft; m
L = length of shaft; m,
and 0 = angular deflection of shaft; rad
Fig, 29.33 Measurement of stress in a hollow shaft.
The strain gauges attached at 45° to the axis of the
shaft as shown will indicate strains of
TR
= -(29.42)
nG(R'-r )
A strain may be measured by electrical means to
indicate the torque. Multiple strain gauges may be
installed and connected in a bridge circuit configu­
ration so that any deformation due to axial or traverse
loads is cancelled out in the final readout.
The strain in the shaft may be measured by means
of strain gauges attached to its surface. The gauges
should be so mounted that they give maximum
sensitivity to the strains produced by torsion. The
theory of two dimensional stress systems shows that,
for a shaft subjected to pure torsion, the gauges will be
strained in the directions of their major axis if they are
mounted at 45° to the axis of the shaft. The normal
method is to mount a complete strain gauge bridge on
the shaft. The strain bridge configuration generally
used for measurement of torque is shown in
Fig. 29.34(a). In this arrangement two strain gauges are
subjected to tensile stresses while the other two
experience compressive stresses. The gauges must be
precisely at 45° with the shaft axis. Gauges 1 and 2 must
be diametrically opposite, as must gauges 3 and 4.
Fig. 29.34 (a) Shaft with strain gauges.
(d) Measurement of torque of rotating
shaft (Bridge) using strain gauges.
This arrangement has the following advantages :
(/) It is fully temperature compensated,
(ii) It provides automatic compensation for
bending and axial loads and
(iii) It gives the maximum sensitivity for a given
torque.
The main difficulties associated with the use of
this arrangement is the connection of the bridge to its
power source and display arrangement. Slip rings are
used for this purpose. These are conducting rings
attached to the shaft, but insulated from it, with one of
the slip rings connected to each of the bridge
terminals. Rubbing contact is made between the rings
and the stationary brushes, which are connected to the
input and output equipment.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1079
29.19.3 Inductive Torque Transducer
Figure 29.35(a) shows the use of an inductance
transducer. Flange A carries a coil and flange B, an
iron core. This core moves in and out of the coil
according to relative displacement of the two flanges.
Therefore inductance of the coil is altered on account
of relative displacement. The coil is used as an arm of
an a.c. bridge. The output of the a.c. bridge depends
upon the inductance of the coil which in turn depends
upon the position of core and thus on the
displacement. Since the displacement is dependent
upon the torque and hence the bridge output can be
directly calibrated to read the torque.
A scheme which gives higher sensitivity and
better linearity uses four inductive transducers with
the coils connected as four arms of an a.c. bridge. The
arrangement is shown in Fig. 29.35(b).
(a) Inductive torque transducer
(b) Arrangement using four inductive transducers
Fig. 29.35 Arrangement for torque transducers.
This arrangement is such that a torque applied to
the shaft in a given direction moves the cores in such a
way that the inductance of two coils increases, while
the inductance of the other two coils decreases. (This
arrangement is similar to use of four strain gauges,
two in tension and two in compression.) Thus the
sensitivity of the bridge is increased four times as
compared to the sensitivity obtained with a bridge
using only one inductive transducer.
29.19.4 Digital Methods
Digital timing techniques can also be used for
determination of relative displacement between two
flanges A and B. Suppose the flanges are made in the
form of single toothed wheels as shown in Fig. 29.36.
The teeth produce voltage pulses in inductive pickups
C and D respectively. When no torque is applied to the
shaft, the teeth are perfectly aligned and hence the
voltage pulses are produced in C and D simul­
taneously. If the two pulses are compared by an
electronic timer, the time difference shown will be
zero. When a torque is applied to the shaft, there is a
relative displacement between the‘two flanges. This
produces a phase shift between the pulses generated
in the inductive pickups C and D. When these pulses
are compared with the help of an electronic timer, it
will show a time interval between the two pulses. This
time interval is proportional to the relative
displacement of the two flanges which in turn is
proportional to torque. Therefore, the ratio of this
interval to the time taken for one complete revolution
gives the relative displacement as a fraction of a
revolution.
The advantage of digital methods is that they
eliminate errors arising from the use of slip rings.
There is no leakage of the signal and also there is no
noise problem.
There are other ways of obtaining output signals
from digital pickup. Figure 29.37 shows multi-toothed
wheels which replace the single toothed wheels of
Fig. 29.36. The pickups are either magnetic or
photoelectric. In case multiple toothed wheels are
replaced by single toothed wheels, the output of the
pickoffs is perfectly sinusoidal. The two outputs are
exactly in phase if the two wheels are correctly
aligned.
Fig. 29.36 Torque transducer using single toothed
flanges and inductive pickups.
 1080 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Fig. 29.37 Torque measurements of rotating shafts
using slotted discs and pickups.
The output voltage progressively becomes out of
phase as the torque increases since an increase in
torque results in relative displacement of the two
flanges. The phase difference may be measured with
the help of a cathode ray oscilloscope. The phase
difference may also be measured by converting it to
suitable analog or digital signals.
29.19.5 Magneto-Strictive Transducers
The action of Magneto-strictive transducers
depends upon the change which occurs in, the
permeability of magnetic materials when they are
subjected to strain. The permeability decreases wit
positive strain and increases with negative strain.
The torque transducers described earlier use an
attachment with the shaft whose torque is to be
measured resulting in substantial increase in the
length of shaft. Magneto-strictive transducers (see
pages 838) can operate without any attachments or
modifications to the shaft.
It is well known that a shaft subjected to pure
torsion, the highest positive and negativestrains are
experienced in the two directions at 45° to the shaft
axis. Thus, if flux paths can be established in these two
directions, and their changes can be detected, a
method for torque measurement can be evolved.
This method is illustrated in Fig. 29.38. Two a.c.
energized coils, wound on iron cores, are positioned
close to the shaft so that their flux paths through the
material of the shaft coincide with the directions of
maximum strain. The coils form adjacent arms of an
a.c. bridge. The inductance of one of the coils increases
due to increase in permeability and the inductance of
other coil decreases due to decrease in permeability.
The bridge is initially balanced when there is no
torque applied and the two coils have equal
indutance(or reactance). But when the torque is
Fig. 29.38 Magneto-strictive transducer for
measurement of torque.
applied the bridge becomes unbalanced on account of
increase in inductance (or reactance) of one coil and
decrease in inductance (or reactance) of the other coil.
This is due to differential change in inductance (or
reactance) of the two coils, caused by change in
permeability of flux paths due to application of
torque. Hence, the voltage output of the a.c. bridge is
indicative of the torque applied.
Example 29.19 A mild steel shaft is used to connect a
motor drive to a constant load torque. A foil strain gauge
having a resistance of 120 Q and a gauge factor 2 is
mounted on a shaft with its active axis at angle 45° to the
axis of the shaft as shown in Fig. 29.39. The shear modulus
of steel is 80 GN/m , the shaft radius is 15 mm and the
change in strain gauge resistance due to the load is 0.24 Q.
Find the load torque.
Fig. 29.39 Strain gauge transducer used for
measurement of torque (Example 29.19).
2T
Solution. Angle of shear 0 =----- -
nGr3
where G is the Shaft Shear modulus, r is the radius of
the shaft and T is the applied torque.
An area of the shaft surface, originally square
with the sides of unit length, is deformed by strain to a
parallelogram. The original length of the diagonal is
V2. If the angle of shear, 0, is small, the length of the
diagonal of the parallelogram is longer than the
diagonal of the square. The difference in lengths is
0/V2.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1081

Therefore the longitudinal strain is : NT

Now AR = cG.
—
R f
AL_e/V2 6
L~ ~2 = 0.0015 x 2.1 =3.15 x 10-3
:. Output voltage
But — = Gf£=2x- = e = 3-15x10 x 6v = 9 mv
R 2
0 2
or 9=— — =2xl(T3 rad (c) Overall sensitivity of bridge
R 120
Torque T = K^r 0 9 45 x 10~3
S = ——A— VI kW =215 pV / kW
44
Tix 80 x 109 x(15x IO-3)3 3 Example 29.21 A digital timer is used to determine the
=---------------- ------------ -- X 2 X10-J
2 torque in a rotating shaft using single toothed flages and
inductive pickups. Static calibration shows that the flanges
= 848 Nm
twist by an angle of one degree for an applied torque of
Example 2g.20 A shaft is to transmit power up to 1000 Nm. In a test with the shaft rotating at 500 rpm, the
44 kW at a constant speed of 25 rps and it is proposed that torque calculatedfrom the timer readings is 1200 Nm. What
the torque be sensed by a pair of torque strain gauges bonded is the maximum probable error, affinal digit on the timer
to a specially machine portion of the shaft. The gauges are to display represents units ofl0~ 5s, and accuracy of instrument
be connected pushpull in an equiarmed voltage sensitive is specified is.0.05 per cent of the reading ± 1 in thefinal digit.
bridge, the output of which is to be calibrated in power
Solution. 1 degree = 1000 Nm
units. If the maximum strain value of the gauges is 0.0015,
their resistance 120 Q and gauge factor 2.1, calculate : The shaft is rotating at a speed of 500 rpm
(a) the diameter of steel shaft to which they should be Angular speed
bonded if its modulus of elasticity is 200 x 109 N/m2, 360 x 500 ,
=---- —---- = 3000 degrees/second
(b) the output voltage at full power if the excitation
voltage of the bridge is 6 V, or 1 s - 3000 degrees = 3000 x 1000
(c) the sensitivity of the bridge is in V/kW.
= 30,00,000 Nm
Solution.
10’5 s = KT5 x 30,00,000 = 30 Nm
(a) Angular speed w = 27tx25 =157 rad/s
m P 44000 The error is thus :
Torque T = — =------- = 280.25 Nm
co 157 + 30 Nm _ ,
— x 1200 =0.6 Nm = ------------Total
Maximum value of strain max = 0.0015 100 30.6 Nm
Maximum value of direct stress
Hence percentage error = -—xlOO =2.55%
smax = °-0015 x 200 x 109 N / rn2 = 300 MN / m2 1200
For pure torsion, the maximum shear stress, r has 29.20 MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR VELOCITY
the same value.
The most commonly used transducer for
Using relationship, —
T r
measurement of linear velocity is the electro-magnetic
Ip 7/2 transducer. This transducer utilises the voltage
we can find the diameter. produced in a coil on account of change in flux
71 4 linkages resulting from change in reluctance.
Polar moment of inertia ID = — d
p 32 In general, the output voltage output from a coil is
280.25 _ 300 x 106 given by
(k/32)c/4 ~ d/2 _ d§ _ N di Ni dR
e°~ dt~ R dt R2 dt
or diameter of shaft d = 0.0168 m = 16.8 mm.
„ . •• t . Ni dR
(b) The output voltage of an equal armed bridge Supposing 1 is constant .’. eQ = ...(29.43)
using two active elements is
dR
Hence output voltage : x— ...(29.44)
 1 082 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Equation 29.44 is derived on the basis of following
explanation.
If the average value of reluctance R is
considerably greater than the variations in R, the
quantity Ni/Rz is approximately constant. Therefore
the rate of change of flux is directly proportional to the
rate of change of reluctance. The change in flux
produces an output voltages and hence the output
voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change of
reluctance. The reluctance varies directly as the length
of air gap and therefore the output voltage is directly
proportional to rate of change of air gap and hence to
the velocity. (This condition is only satisfied when the
length of air gap is small.) Thus this type of transducer
is velocity sensitive.
The electro-magnetic transducers are classified
into two categories :
(i) Moving magnet type, and
(ii) Moving coil type.
29.20 .1 Moving Magnet Type
The constant mmf (polarizing field) Ni, can be
provided by a solenoid of N turns and carrying a
constant current i. But the electromagnetic transducers
use a permanent magnet which provides a constant
polarizing field.
Figure 29.40 shows a moving magnet type of
transducer. The sensing element is a rod that is rigidly
coupled to the device whose velocity is being
measured. This rod is a permanent magnet. There is a
coil surrounding the permanent magnet. The motion
of the magnetindtices a voltage in the coil and the
Fig. 29.40 Moving magnet type transducers.
amplitude of the voltage is directly proportional to the
velocity. For a coil placed in a magnetic field, the
voltage induced in the coil is directly proportional to
the velocity.
The polarity of the output voltage determines the
direction of motion. The sensitivity of this transducer
is stated in terms of mV/mm-s.
Advantages:
(i) The maintenance requirements of these
transducers are negligible, because there are
no mechanical surfaces or contacts.
(ii) The output voltage is linearly proportional to
velocity.
(iii) These transducers can be used as event
markers which are robust and inexpensive to
manufacture.
Disadvantages :
(i) The performance of these transducers is
adversely affected by stray magnetic fields.
These fields cause noise.
(ii ) The frequency response is usually limited
and is stated.
(iii ) These transducers are not very useful for
measurement of vibrations because their
calibration deteriorates as contact with steel
tools etc. leads to progressive demagne­
tization.
There are two other forms of electromagnetic
transducers which are described below :
29.20 .2 Moving Coil type Velocity Transducer
The moving coil type velocity transducer shown
in Fig. 29.41 operates essentially through the action of a
coil moving in a magnetic field. A voltage is generated
in the coil which is proportional to the velocity of the
Fig. 29.41 Moving coil type velocity transducer.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1083
coil. (Note that in this transducer, the functions of
permanent magnet and the coil are reversed from their
functions as used in transducer of Fig. 29.47.)
The advantages of this transducer are :
(i) This is a more satisfactory arrangement as the
system now forms a closed magnetic circuit
with a constant air gap.
(zi) The whole device is contained in an
antimagnetic case which reduces the effects
of stray magnetic fields.
Another type of velocity transducers uses a
pivoted arm on which a coil is mounted. There is a
mass attached at the end of the arm. The velocity to be
measured is applied to the arm and therefore the coil
moves in the field of a permanent magnet.
A voltage is generated on account of motion of the
coil in the magnetic field. The output voltage is
proportional to the velocity. This type of transducer is
generally used for measurement of velocities
developed in a linear sinusoidal or random manner.
Damping is obtained electrically, thus assuring high
stability under varying tempemture conditions.
29.20 .3 Seismic Tape Velocity Transducer
In this type of construction a permanent magnet is
supported between two springs and fitted with low
friction bearing rings as shown in Fig. 29.42. If this
transducer is attache^ to an object which is vibrating
at a frequency that is\greater than the low natural
Fig. 29.42 Seismic type velocity transducer.
frequency of the transducer, the magnet appears to be
stationary in space. The case and coil oscillate around
the magnet resulting in an output voltage which is
proportional to the amplitude of the vibration. The
frequency of output is equal to the frequency of the
vibration.
Both moving coil and seismic transducers have
the disadvantage that the connections must be made
to the moving member.
29.2 1 MEASUREMENT OF ANGULAR VELOCITY
In many cases the only way to measure linear
velocity is to convert it into angular velocity. For
example, a speedometer uses the wheel rotational
speed as a measure of the linear road speed. The
disadvantage with measurement of linear velocity
arises because a fixed reference must be used and if
the moving object has to travel large distances, the
detection becomes impossible. Hence angular velocity
transducers are used.
The measurement of angular speed may be made
with tachometers which may be either mechanical or
electrical type.
29.2 2 ELECTRICAL TACHOMETERS
The electrical tachometers are preferred over
mechanical tachometers for all applications because
these tachometers offer all the advantages associated
with electrical transducers. The various types of
electrical tachometers are discussed below :
29.22.1 Electromagnetic Tachometer
Generators
There are two types of electromagnetic tachometer
generators called tachogenerators.
These are :
A D.C. tachometer generators, and
A A.C. tachometer generators.
1. D.C. Tachometer Generators
D.C. tachometer generators consist of a small
armature which is coupled to the machine whose
speed is to be measured. This armature revolves in the
field of a permanent magnet. The emf generated is
proportional to the product of flux and speed. Since
the flux of the permanent magnet is constant, the
voltage generated is proportional to speed. The
polarity of output voltage indicates the direction of
rotation. This emf is measured with the help of a
moving coil voltmeter having a uniform scale and
calibrated directly in terms of speed.
 1084 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Figure 29.43 shows a d.c. tachometer generator. A
series resistance is used in the circuit for the purpose
of limiting the current from the generator in the event
of a short circuit on the output side.
magnet
Fig. 29.43 D.C. Tachometer Generator.
Advantages :
The chief advantages of this tachometer are :
(z) The direction of rotation is directly indicated
by the polarity of the output voltage.
(zz) The output voltage is typically 10 mV/rpm
and can be measured with conventional type
d.c. voltmeters.
Disadvantages:
The disadvantages are :
(z) Brushes on small tachometer generators often
produce maintenance problems, as their
contact resistance may vary and produce
appreciable error. Thus the commutator and
the brushes require periodic maintenance.
(zz) The input resistance of meter should be very
high as compared with output resistance of
generator. This is required to limit the current
to small value. If the armature current is
large, the field of the permanent magnet is
distorted giving rise to non-linearity.
2. A.C. Tachometer Generators
In order to overcome some of the difficulties
mentioned above, a.c. tachometer generators are used.
The tachometer generator has rotating magnet which
may be either a permanent magnet or an electro­
magnet. The coil is wound on the stator and therefore
the problems associated with commutator (as in d.c.
tachometers) are absent.
The rotation of the magnet causes an emf to be
induced in the stator coil. The amplitude and
frequency of this emf are both proportional to the
speed of rotation. Thus either amplitude or frequency
of induced voltage may be used as a measure of
rotational speed.
When amplitude of induced voltage is used as a
measure of speed, the circuit of Fig. 29.44 is used. The
output voltage of a.c. tachometer generator is rectified
and is measured with a permanent magnet moving
coil instrument.
Fig. 29.44 A.C. Tachometer Generator.
Limitations :
(z) The difficulty with this system is that at low
speed the frequency of output voltage is low and
hence it is very difficult to smooth out the ripples in
the output voltage wave shape and hence a.c.
tachometer generators are designed to have a large
number of poles so that the frequency of output
voltage is high even at low speeds.
(zz) High speeds also present a problem. At high
Reference speeds, the frequency increases and
therefore, the impedance of the coils of tacho­
generator increases. If good linearity is to be
maintained the input impedance of the display device
must be considerably larger than the impedance of the
coils.
However, modem electrical instruments such as
counters, make it desirable to use frequency of output
voltage as a measure of speed. This is because the
frequency is not affected by temperature, impedance
of meters, and other systematic errors that can affect
the rotor voltage readings. Thus the frequency as
measured by electronic counters is a measure of
speed.
3. Drag Cup Rotor A.C. Tahogenerator
The principle of operation of an a.c. tachometer or
drag cup generator can be easily understood by
referring to Fig. 29.45. In this case two stator field
windings are mounted at right angles to each other i.e.,
they are in space quadrature with each other. The two
windings are called (z) reference winding and
(zz) quadrature winding. The tachometer rotor is a thin
aluminium cup (to have low inertia) called drag cup
that rotates in the air gap of field structure shown in
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 085
Fig. 29.52. This cup, which has a very low inertia and
made of a high conductive material (aluminium)
proves to be a uniformly short circuited conductor.
Fig. 29.45 A.C. Tachometer Generator.
An alternating current voltage is applied to the
reference winding and the output winding is taken
from the quadrature winding.
Let the voltage applied to reference coil
= Vr cos coc t
where cof =carrier frequency, rad/s
This produces a reference flux <I>r sin co. t lagging
the reference voltage by an angle 90° if the resistance
and reactance coil is considered to be negligible.
Let the rotor speed be
co(f) 0°(f) = 0m COSflCOct
The rotor is replaced by two imaginary coils 1,
T and2,2'
Speed (motional) emf in coil 1, T
= (<|)r sin coc t) (0'„ cos a wc f)
Assuming the rotor reactance to be negligible, the
current in coil 1, T will be proportional to the induced
emf. This will cause a quadrature flux whose
magnitude is,
&m cos a cd, t sin cof t
Because of the quadrature flux, a transformer emf
will be induced in the quadrature coil. This emf is
= ^3 e'w 4 [cos « sin M
dt
= fC [-a cof sin a cd. t sin cof t + wc cos a t cos co. t]
If the carrier frequency is very large a «1, the
sinusoidally varying speed 0(f)is very much less than
the carrier frequency o>f,
- Kt &m cos a a>c t cos w. t
eq = Kt 0'(f)cos coct =vf(t) coscocf
or vf(t) = Kt 0'(t)
The emf induced in the quadrature coil is thus
proportional to rotor speed and is phase with the
voltage applied to rotor speed and is phase with the
voltage applied to the reference coil. The modulating
signal (emf) available at the terminals of the reference
coil can be expressed as
vf(f)= 0'(f)=Kf co(f) ...(29.45)
where Kt = tachometer constant.
Hence, the voltage output available at the terminals
of quadrature coil is a function of the speed.
The rotation of the rotor causes an induced voltage
in the sensing winding and this voltage is propor­
tional to the instantaneous value of speed if the excita­
tion frequency is very large as compared with speed.
Advantages:
(i) The drag cup type of a.c. tachogenerator
described above is in fact a two phase squirrel cage
induction motor. One of the windings is excited by
carrier and the other winding develops an output
voltage proportional to the speed. With the rotor
stationary, the output voltage is zero. The rotation of
rotor in one direction produces an output voltage at
the terminals of the sensing winding. The frequency of
the a.c. output voltage is the same as that of the
excitation frequency with its amplitude proportional
to the speed. The output voltage is in phase with the
input excitation voltage. Reversal of the rotation
produces an output voltage which is proportional to
the speed but is 180° out of phase with the input
voltage. This can be detected with a phase sensitive
demodulator. Thus the arrangement affords a
discrimination in the direction of the applied speed.
(ii) A linear relationship between the output
voltage and speed is obtained if the carrier frequency
is 5 to 10 times larger than the frequency of the speed
signal. For this purpose the excitation winding is
supplied with a frequency of 400 Hz.
(iii) The drag cup type tachometers are rugged and
are in-expensive. Also, they require little maintenance.
(iu) In some situations these tachometers are very
useful since they give a ripple free output.
Disadvantages :
(i) The output voltage is proportional to the
product of speed and input voltage. Thus, in order
that the calibration of the tachometer holds good, the
input voltage should be maintained absolutely constant.
 1 086 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
(ii) These tachometers are hard to calibrate.
(in) At high speed there exists a non-linear
relationship between output voltage and the input
speed. Hence corrections should be applied or
otherwise higher carrier frequencies should be used. It
is no doubt possible to excite the tachometer excitation
winding with frequencies higher than 400 Hz if
necessary, but some performance characteristics will
change their value in the process.
29.23 DIGITAL METHODS
The electromechanical methods for measurement
of angular velocity are satisfactory up to about a speed
of 10,000 rpm. Higher speed measurements are possible
with digital pickups which work in conjunction with
digital-frequency meters.
The biggest advantage of digital methods is that
no direct physical contact is required with the shaft
whose speed is to be measured. Therefore, no load is
imposed upon the shaft by measuring device.
The digital pickups are of two types :
A photo-electric type, and
A inductive type.
29.23.1 Photoelectric Tachometer
This method of measuring speed of rotation
consists of mounting an opaque disc on the rotating
shaft as is shown in Fig. 29.46.
Fig. 29.46 Photoelectric tachometer.
The disc has a number of equidistant holes on its
periphery. At one side of the disc a light source is fixed
and at the other side of the disc, and on line with the
light source, a light sensor such as a photo tube or
some photosensitive semi-conducting device is
placed. When the opaque portion of the disc is
between the light source and the light sensor, the latter
is unilluminated and produces no output. But when a
hole appears between the two, the light falling upon
the sensor produces an output pulse.
The frequency at which these pulses are produced
depends upon the number of holes in the disc and its
speed of rotation. Since the number of holes is fixed,
the pulse rate is a function of speed of rotation. The
pulse rate can be measured by an electronic counter
which can be directly calibrated in terms of speed in
rpm.
Advantages:
This system has two distinct advantages :
(?) The output format is digital and this means
that if the tachometer is a part of a digital
instrumentation system, no analog to digital
conversion is necessary.
(ii) The pulse amplitudes are constant. This
simplifies the electronic circuitry.
Disadvantages:
(i) A disadvantage is that the light source must
be replaced from time to time. A typical life
time for light source is 50,000 hours.
(ii) The accuracy of this method depends
principally on the error represented by one
pulse. The digital meters measure frequency
by counting the number of input pulses which
occur in short period of time called gating
period. If this period is too small serious
errors maybe caused. The gating period
should therefore, be chosen to give a suffi­
ciently large count. In general, all the digits
on the digital display should be utilized.
The factors which the user can control to minimise
the errors are :
(i) gating period, and
(ii) number of pulses generated per revolution.
29.23.2 Toothed Rotor Variable Reluctance
Tachometer
This tachometer generator consists of a metallic
toothed rotor mounted on the shaft whose speed is to
be measured. This is shown in Fig. 29.47. A magnetic
pickup is placed near the toothed rotor.
Fig. 29.47 Toothed rotor tachometer generator.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 087
The magnetic pick up consists of a housing
containing a small permanent magnet with a coil
wound round it. When the rotor rotates, the reluctance
of the air gap between pickup and the toothed rotor
changes giving rise to an induced e.m.f. in the pickup
coil. This output is in the form of pulses, with a variety
of wave shapes.
The frequency of the pulses of induced voltage
will depend upon the number of teeth of the rotor and
its speed of rotation. Since the number of teeth is
known, the speed of rotation can be determined by
measuring the frequency of pulses with an electronic
counter. Suppose the rotor has T teeth, the speed of
rotation is n rps and number of pulses per second is P.
Number of pulses per revolution = T
Hence speed
pulses per second P
n = —-------------------- = — rps
number of teeth T 3000
P = 25 rps.
= — x 60 rpm ...(29.46)
A typical rotor has 60 teeth. Thus if the countre
counts the pulses in one second, the counter will
directly display the speed in rpm.
We have mentioned above that the pulses have a
variety of wave shapes. This is immaterial, as this
tachometer is always connected to an electronic
counter, whose requirement is merely that the
amplitude be great enough to trigger a count.
Variable reluctance tachometer probably is the
most common type of tachometer in use today.
Advantages :
The advantages of this tachometer are :
(z) It is simple and rugged in construction.
(z'z) It is maintenance free.
(zzz) It is easy to calibrate. This has been illustrated
earlier, if the rotor has 60 teeth and the pulses
are counted by counter in one second, the
count displayed by the counter gives the
speed directly in r.p.m.
(z'v) The information from this device can be
easily transmitted.
Example 2g.21 A variable reluctance type tachometer
has 60 rotor teeth. The counter records 3600 counts per
second. Determine the speed in rpm.
Solution.
Speed - Per secon^
number of teeth
3600
= rPs =3600 rpm.
Example 2g.22 An inductive pickoff operating from a
120 tooth wheel is used with a digital frequency meter to
measure the speed of rotation of the shaft on which the wheel
is mounted. The gating period is set to 104 ps, and a reading
of 0030 is obtained on the four digit display. What shaft
speed does this represent in r.p.s. ? If the available gating
periods are 102, 103, 104,IO5, 106,107 ps respectively, what
would be the optimum setting of gating period for making
this measurement ?
Solution. .-. Number of pulses per second
_ reading of digital meter
gating period
0030
= 3000
104xl0-6
Speed - num^er Pu^ses Per second
number of teeth
120
The setting of the gating period for this measure­
ment is 104 ps and this gives a reading of 0030 on a
four digit display. It is seen that out of four digit place
only two are utilised. For optimum setting of gating
period, all the four digits places should be utilized.
This required that the gating time be increased by a
factor 102.
Optimum gating time setting
= 104xl02 =106 ps
29.24 STROBOSCOPE AND STROBOSCOPIC
METHODS
The stroboscope is a simple, portable manually
operated device which may be used for measurement
of periodic or rotary motions. Basically, the
instrument is a source of variable frequency flashing
brilliant light, the flashing frequency being set by the
operator. The circuit used is based upon variable
frequency oscillator which controls the flashing
frequency. The speed is measured by adjusting the
frequency so that the moving objects are visible only at
specific intervals of time.
The method of use of the stroboscope depends
upon imperfect dynamic response of the human eye. If
a strong light is caused to flash on a moving object
which, at the time each flash occurs, occupies a given
position, the object will appear to be stationary.
Therefore the method is useful for only those types of
motions which occur regularly after a fixed interval of
time, such as oscillation or rotation.
 088 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
The stroboscope consists of a source of flashing
light whose frequency can be varied and controlled.
This source is called a strobotron.
29.24.1 Strobotron
It is hot cathode gaseous discharge tube as shown
in Fig. 29.48. It has a cathode, an anode and two grids,
one is called the inner grid and other as the outer grid.
If the potential of the outer grid is increased or
that of inner grid is decreased beyond a certain limit,
the conduction starts. Once the conduction starts, it
can be stopped only by removing the anode potential.
The flashing of light is started by a signal from an
oscillator or a multivibrator. When the tube is ionized
and starts giving out flashes the capacitor C is
discharged and a heavy current drawn by it reduces
the anode potential due to large voltage drop in
resistance Rr The ionization stops and so does the
flashing of light. In the mean time the capacitor is
recharged and waits for the next pulse to start the
flashing again. The tube has a maximum flashing rate
of 300 per second with effective discharge time of 10 to
100 ps. The discharge current may be as high as 300 A.
Fig. 29.48 Strobotron.
29.24.2 Shaft Speed Measurements
A distinctive mark is made on the shaft or on a
disc attached to the shaft as shown in Fig. 29.49. A
stroboscope is made to flash light directly on the mark.
The flashing frequency is adjusted until the mark
appears stationary. Under these conditions, the speed
is equal to the flashing frequency provided that the
Fig. 29.49 Shaft speed measurement using
stroboscope.
approximate speed of the shaft is known in advance
and the flashing frequency is not allowed to depart too
much away from this value.
The scale of the stroboscope is calibrated in terms
of speed which can be directly read off.
If the two conditions outlined above are not met
or if there are several identical marks on the shaft like
spokes of a wheel or jaws of a chuck, serious errors in
the measurement may arise.
Consider first the case where there is only one
mark as shown in Fig. 29.49. If the mark is at A every
time a flash occurs, a stationary image appears. This is
the case when n = f where n = speed of shaft, rps and
f = flashing frequency, Hz.
However, if n = 2f,3f, etc. i.e., and if speed
of shaft is any whole multiple of flashing frequency
the mark would appear as stationary. Therefore, the
mere fact that a stationary image is obtained does not
guarantee the shaft speed with certainty.
It should be noted that this problem does not arise
if n < f. Under these circumstances if n is a sub­
multiple off, Multiple images are obtained as shown
in Figs. 29.50(a) and (bf
The reason for formation of these multiple images
may be visualized considering the case where n = f /2
as shown in Fig. 29.50(a). Suppose a flash occurs when
the mark is at A. With n = fH, the next flash will
occur after half a revolution i.e., when the mark is at B,
and the next when the mark is at A and so on. Thus
although the mark will be repeated at A when the
flashes occur, it will also repeatedly be at B at the time
of alternate flashes. Thus for n = //2, two stationary
marks will be seen.
B
(a)n=f/2 (b)n=f/3
Fig. 29.50 Formation of multiple images.
Figure 29.50(b) shows the case where n = f/3,
where in a stationary mark is seen at three different
places A, B and C. Thus the argument can be extended
for cases n = f / 3, f / 4, f / 5... etc. where 3, 4, 5..... etc.
stationary marks are seen for one mark on shaft.
Let us now consider the case, where there are
multiple marks on the shaft. Figure 29.51 shows a
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1089

shaft with three identical, The value of the exact speed may be found as
equi- spaced marks on the under : Single line image is obtained by adjusting the
shaft. It is evident by stroboscope at its highest flashing frequency. The
considering the position of flashing rate is gradually reduced and the flashing
the marks as successive frequencies are noted for all single line images. If
flashes occur, it can be seen single line images are obtained at m different flashing
that not only will the Fig. 29.51 Stroboscope rates fv f2,-,fn, the shaft speed is given by
stationary pattern be patterns with (multiple)
three identical marks.
obtained when
n = f, 2 f, 3 f, etc. but also for certain values of n which 1'
are smaller than/, namely n = //3,2/ /3,4/ /3,5/ /3,
etc. This leads to the conclusion that there is a great where fm = highest flashing frequency,
possibility of error when using stroboscopic methods = lowest flashing frequency,
From the above discussion, it is clear that in order m = number of flashing frequencies.
to avoid gross mistakes in measurements :
(These flashing frequencies refer to the
(i) it is safest to work with a single mark and to
frequencies at which single line images are obtained.)
find the highest flashing frequency at which a
true image is seen, and If the shaft (and alongside the disc) rotates at a
(ii) as a check that the correct value of speed, n speed slightly higher than the primary speed, the
has been found, the frequency may be pattern appears to rotate slowly forward. On the other
doubled which should produce a double hand, if the speed is slightly less than the primary
image. speed and the pattern apparently moves in the reverse
A method for finding speed of a multiple marked direction to that of the direction of rotation of shaft.
shaft is given below : This is very useful for measurement of slip speed in
induction motors.
Figure 29.52 shows a disc having 6 marks. This
disc is attached to the shaft of the rotating machine
29.24.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of
and is illuminated by a series of successive flashes by a
Stroboscopic Methods
stroboscope. If the speed is such that each mark of star
Advantages :
moves forward a distance of one point pitch (p) during
the interval between (/) This method imposes no load on the shaft.
successive flashes the (ii) It requires no special attachments with the
pattern appears to be shaft.
stationary. This speed is (iii) This method is particularly useful where it is
called primary speed. The inconvenient or impossible to make contact
pattern will also appear to with the shaft.
be stationary if the speed or (iv) It is very convenient to use a stroboscope for
rotation is exactly twice, spot checks on machinery speeds and for
Fig. 29.52 Pattern
three times of any multiple laboratory work.
having six marks.
of this speed.
Disadvantages :
When the disc appears to be stationary, the speed
of rotating machine is given by (i) The circuit of the variable frequency oscillator
cannot be stabilized to give a fixed frequency.
n=f/m ...(29.47)
Therefore, this method is less accurate than
where / = number of flashes per second ; the methods utilizing digital meters.
and tn = number of point marks. (ii) The stroboscope cannot be used in
The stroboscopic dial may be directly calibrated to surroundings where the ambient light is
read the speed. above a certain level. The stroboscope
requires subdued lighting conditions for
The disc appears stationary for all speeds which
efficient operation.
are a multiple of primary speed. Therefore, to avoid
confusion an approximate value of actual speed Commercial models of stroboscopes are usually
should either be known or measured by other means. available in the speed range of 600 to 20,000 rpm.
 1 090 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Example 29.23 The speed of a shaft rotating at 2880 rpm
is measured using a stroboscope. The stroboscope dial is
slowly turned from setting of4320 rpm to 1400 rpm corres­
ponding to flash rate of 96 to 24 per second (a) Indicate the
speed settings which give single, double, and triple steady
images, (b) What is the observation when the flashing rate is
50 per second ?
Solution. Speed of shaft n = 2880/60 = 48 rps
(a) If the flashing frequency is 48 per second the
shaft completes one revolution during the interval
between successive flashes and therefore we get a
stationary image. If the flashing frequency is 24 per
second, the shaft completes two revolutions during
the interval between successive flashes, and hence
again we get a stationary single image.
Therefore, for getting one stationary image the
flashing rates should be either 24 or 48 per second. The
other flashing frequencies which give stationary
single line images lie outside the range of the
instrument.
Double images are obtained if the shaft turns
through, | , 1-| revolutions during successive flashes.
.•. Flashing frequencies for double images are
48x2 =96 or 48x(2/3)=32,
i.e., 32 and 96 flashes per second.
Similarly, for triple images, the flashing fre­
quencies are :
48 x 3 = 144 (not within range), 48 x (3 / 2) = 72,
48 x (3 / 4) = 36, and 48 x (3 / 5) = 28.8 flashes/second
(b) Rotation of shaft in 1 / 50 s = (1 / 50) x 48 =48/50
revolution.
.-. The image falls by (- 48 / 50) = 2 / 50 revolution
within a time of 1/50 s or by 2 rps.
Example 29.24 A stroboscope is directed at a rotating
disc having five equispaced radial lines on it. The highest
flashing frequency at which a true pattern is observed is
2000 flashes minute. Give two other flashing frequencies
which would produce (a) a 5 line pattern and (b) a 10 line
pattern.
Solution, (a) The highest flashing frequency to
give a 5 line pattern is 2000 per minute.
The other flashing frequencies which give a 5 line
pattern are a submultiple or the highest frequency.
These are :
2000/2 =1000, 2000/3 = 666.7, 2000/4 = 500,
2000/5 = 400 or 1000, 6.667, 500, 400 flashes/minute.
(b) The flashing frequencies which give a 10 line
pattern are twice in magnitude of those which give 5
line patterns. These are :
2000 x 2 = 4000. 666.7 x2 = 1333, 400 x 2
= 800 or 4000, 1333, 800 flashes/ minute
(Flashing frequencies of 2000 and 1000/minute are
not included in the above list since they give 5 line
patterns.)
Example 29.23 While measuring speed of a steam
turbine with stroboscope single line images were observed
for stroboscope setting of 3000, 4000 and 5230 rpm.
Calculate the speed of the turbine.
Solution. The speed is given by Eqn. 29.47 :
4/i^-D
(4-/i)
Now fm = 5250 rpm, f^ = 3000 rpm and m = 3
:. Speed of steam turbine
5250x3000 (3-1)
= 14000 rmp
(5250-3000)
Example 29.26 A disc mounted on the shaft of a
machine has 12 pattern points. The number of flashes
projected on the disc by a stroboscope is 6000 in a minute.
(a) Find the speed of the machine if the disc appears
stationary and has single image of 12 points.
(b) If the disc appears to move forward in the direction
of rotation at 10 rpm, find the speed of the disc.
Solution. From Eqn. 29.46, speed of machine
when patterns appear stationary,
n= f / m - 6000/12 = 500 rpm
Now the patterns move in the direction of rotation
at a speed of 10 rpm.
.’. The speed of machine in this case is :.
n — 500 +10 = 510 rpm
29.25 MEASUREMENT OF VIBRATIONS
The need for making measurement of vibrations
has arisen mainly because of the growth of
environmental testing. Specifications, many a times,
require that the equipment should withstand stated
levels of vibrations. This can be done quantitatively
only through vibration measurement. Vibration
measurements are frequently carried out on rotating
and reciprocatings machinery for analysis, design and
trouble-shooting purposes.
Much knowledge has been gained in the recent
years and computer solutions of various vibration
problems have been developed. However, many a
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1091
times to make actual measurements of vibration
characteristics by tests, during development, either on
the machine itself or on its prototype due the fact that
it is impossible to build a perfect mathematical model
with all its intracies and complexities.
Vibration monitoring is carried out on such
important machines as power station turbines and
generators to give an early warning of impending
conditions which may develop and lead to complete
failure and destruction of the equipment.
29.25.1 Nature of Vibrations
Most vibrations are sinusoidal displacement of
the vibrating member about its mean position. A
vibration of this nature may be defined by its
amplitude and frequency.
For a sinusoidal vibration, the displacement is
given by :
x - xm sin cot
where xm = amplitude,
co = angular frequency ; rad/s,
Velocity v = x = xm co cos cot
and maximum velocity = xm co.
Acceleration a = x - - xm co2 sin cot
and maximum acceleration aQ = - co
A sinusoidal vibration can, therefore, be defined
by specifying its frequency, plus its amplitude or
maximum velocity or maximum acceleration.
29.25.2 Quantities Involved in Vibration
Measurements
The quantities required to be measured in a
vibrating system are displacement, velocity and
acceleration. The peak values of the quantities should
be known. Frequencies are measured and modes of
vibration at particular frequency values may be
observed.
Displacement, velocity and acceleration are
related to each other. If one of the three variables
concerned (displacement, velocity or acceleration) is
measured, it is possible to determine the other two
by integration or differentiation using electronic
devices.
Measurements of vibration may therefore, be
made with a transducer sensitive to amplitude
(displacement), velocity or acceleration. The output of
this transducer, after necessary signal conditioning is
fed to the display which indicates or records the
original measured variable or another variable
derived from it. Since the transducer output is
pulsating the frequency may be measured by a digital
frequency meter at a suitable stage of signal
conditioning process.
29.26 SEISMIC TRANSDUCERS
A schematic diagram of a seismic transducer is
shown in Fig. 29.53. It is called a seismic
accelerometer also. The mass is connected through a
parallel spring and damper arrangement to a housing
frame. The housing frame is connected to the source of
vibrations whose characteristics are to be measured.
Fig. 29.53 Schematic diagram of a seismic transducer.
The mass has the tendency to remain fixed in its
spatial position so that the vibrational motion is
registered as a relative displacement between mass
and housing frame. This displacement is sensed and
indicated by an appropriate transducer.
The seismic transducer may be used in two
different modes :
A Displacement mode, and
A Acceleration mode.
The mode to be selected depends upon the proper
selection of mass, spring and damper combinations. In
general, a large mass and a soft spring are suited for
displacement mode measurements, while a relatively
small mass and a stiff spring are used for acceleration
mode measurements.
Figure 29.54 shows the diagrammatic repre­
sentation of the system to be analyzed.
The input is : x2 = xxl cos co1 t.
Equation for motion can be written as
Mx2 + Bx2 + Kx2 = Bxa + Kx} ...(29.49)
We are interested in the relative displacement
xo = (x2 *n terrns tbe above impressed motion.
 1 092 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

But, natural frequency

con = JK/M rad/s ...(29.57)
and damping ratio
i;=B/2/KM ...(28.58)
Hence Eqn. 29.56 can be written as
2
,r _r > =________
2 1 ” |[1-(W1/co„)2]2+[2«<o1/<o„)]2)I/2
Fig. 29.54 Mechanical system for seismic transducer.
...(29.59)
Therefore we can write the equation of motion as:
=______ X>»1 -- ------ — ...(29.60)
x2 + (B/M)x2 + (K/A4)x2 |(1-1i2)2+(2^<)2]1/2
= xmi M) cos co1 t-(B/ M) (Oj sin co1t]
where u = normalized frequency = co1 / con ...(29.61)
...(29.50)
The phase angle may be written as,
The solution of Eqn. 29.51 is,
(i> = tan-1 f 1 rad ...(29.62)
X2-X1 = Exp [~(B/2M)t] [C cos (£>dt+ Bsin co^f] U-w )
(i) Transient term
A plot of Eqn. 29.60 is given in Fig. 29.55. It is clear
, Mxml ^1 COS((01t + (|>) from the diagram that the output amplitude is almost
[(K-Mco^ + B2®2]1'2 equal to the input when = 0.7 and (Oj / con >2.
(ii) Steady state term
...(29.51)
where the frequency corf is given by
2qi/2'%
A- ( B A
)j =----------- -------------- rad/s ...(29.52)
d M \2MJ

and the phase angle by

, Bco.
— tan ------- z- rad ...(29.53)
K-Mcrf

C and D are constants of integration which can be

determined from the initial or boundary conditions.
Note that Eqn. 29.52 is composed of (z) a transient
term involving an exponential function and (zz) a
steady state term. This means that after the initial
transient has died out a steady state harmonic motion
is established in accordance with the second term. The
frequency of this steady state term is the same as that
of the impressed motion. The steady term is,
Mx, co, cos(co,1 f + <|>)
■y __ -y __ Hl 11
2 ’'[(K-M^ + B2^]1'2
Amplitude of steady state term is,
(X -X)
2 [(K-Mco2)2+ B2 <o2]1/2
Dividing throughout by M, we have
(x_ - x ) =__________xml __________
1 [(£/M-co2)2+(B/A4)2co2]1/2
Fig. 29.55 Dynamic response of a Seismic transducer.
For low values of damping ratio, C, the amplitude
may become quite large. The output becomes
essentially a linear function of input at high frequency
ratios. Thus a seismic-vibration transducer should be
used for measurement of displacement amplitude at
frequencies substantially higher than its natural
frequency. Now the natural frequency is con = y/K/ M.
...(29.55) Therefore, this type of transducer (which requires
small natural frequencies) should use weak springs
(which have low Value of K) mid heavy mass, M.
The acceleration amplitude of the input vibration
is :
am ~ X1 “ W1 Xm 1
...(29.53)
...(29.56)
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 093

We may thus use the measured output of the
instrument as an indication of acceleration and call
their instrument as accelerometer. However, there are
problems associated with this application. Figure 29.62
shows the plot of (%2 co* / versus co1 / w(J.
It is clear from Fig. 29.56 that the frequency
response is unsatisfactory for frequency ratios greater
than 0.4 as the curves tend to be non-linear. Thus if the
potentiometer is used as potential divider). The
damping may be provided by filling the housing of
the accelerometer completely with a viscous fluid or it
may be provided by a dashpot. Proper damping is
necessary because it increases the range of frequencies
over which the transducer may be used.

Fig. 29.57 Potentiometric Accelerometer.

The major drawbacks of a seismic accelerometer

Fig. 29.56 Frequency response of a Seismic transducer.
device is to be used for acceleration measurements,
the input frequency should be much lower than the
natural frequency of the accelerometer. In order that
the instrument be used for higher frequencies, it
should be designed to have a high natural frequency.
This requires a stiff spring (high value of K) and a
small mass M.
The most important transducer for vibration,
shock and general purpose absolute motion is the
accelerometer. The instrument is commercially
available in a wide variety of types and ranges in
order to meet diverse application requirements.
29.27 TYPES OF ACCELEROMETERS
The variety of accelerometers used results from
different applications with varied requirement of
range of natural frequency and damping. The
specification sheet for an accelerometer gives the
natural frequency, damping ratio, and a scale factor
which relates output with the acceleration input.
using resistance potential divider are its limited
resolution and a rather low natural frequency. This
frequency is generally lower than 100 Hz and hence its
application is limited to input frequencies lower than
50 Hz. Hence, this instrument is useful only for low
frequency applications.
The instrument also gives errors on account of its
sliding contacts.
29.27.2 LVDT Accelerometers
Figure 29.58 shows a seismic accelerometer using
a linear voltage differential transformer (LVDT). The
core of the LVDT acts as the mass and two flexible
reeds, attached at each end of the rods of the core,
provide the necessary spring action. The reeds are
attached to a housing, which is subject to vibrations.

29.27.1 Potentiometric Type Accelerometer

This is the most simple type of accelerometer is
shown in Fig. 29.57. The seismic mass is attached to
the wiper arm or resistance potentiometer. The
relative motion of the mass with respect to the
transducer frame is sensed either as a change in
resistance or as a change in voltage output (if the Fig. 29.58 Seismic accelerometer using LVDT.
 1 094 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
The above arrangement is necessary in order that
the core of the LVDT is maintained at its null position.
As the sensor moves up and down on account of
vibrations, the LVDT secondaries give an a.c. output
voltage, first of one phase and then, alternately of the
opposite phase. The magnitude of this output signal
depends upon the amplitude of the vibrations. The
signal may then be rectified producing a voltage that
alternately positive and negative. By measuring peak
to peak magnitude of this voltage, an indication of the
amplitude of the vibrations may be obtained.
The advantages of accelerometers using LVDT
are :
(i) The LVDT has a much smaller mass and thus
has a higher natural frequency. Therefore, it
can, be used for measurement of vibrations of
higher frequencies.
(zz) The LVDT offers a lower resistance to the
motion than the potentiometer and is capable
of a much better resolution.
(zzz) It is a contactless device and is therefore free
from problems which arise on account of
moving contacts.
The LVDT accelerometers are used for steady
state and low frequency vibration measurements.
29.27.3 Piezo-Electric Accelerometers
Piezo-electric transducers have been explained in
details in Art. 25.29, page 826.
When a force F is applied to a piezo-electric crystal
it develops a charge Q = dF coulomb (See Eqn. 25.130)
where d = charge sensitivity of crystal; C/N.
Through incorporation of a mass, m, in direct
contact with the crystal, we have the essential compo­
nents of an acceleration transducer. By applying a
varying acceleration to the mass-crystal assembly, the
crystal experiences a varying force.
The force is given by F = mx a
where a - acceleration.
This force generates a varying charge :
Q = dF = dMa
Suppose the crystal has a capacitance, C, the no
load output voltage is
Q dF Ma ( 10 Hz.
°~~C=~C=d~c' -(29.63)
Therefore the output voltage is a measure of the
acceleration.
A typical piezo-electric accelerometer is shown in
Fig. 29.59. The piezo-electric crystal is spring loaded
with seismic mass in contact with the crystal. When
subjected to an acceleration, the seismic mass stresses
the crystal to a force F = Ma, resulting in a voltage
generated across the crystal. This force, generates an
output voltage which is proportional to the
acceleration.
Fig. 29.59 Piezo-electric type accelerometer.
Some of the features of piezo-electric accelero­
meters are :
(z) The instrument is quite small in size and has a
small weight (Typically 0.025 kg).
(zz) The natural frequency is very high. It may be
as high as 100 kHz and therefore the accelerometer is
useful for high frequency applications. They can be
used for any vibration and shock applications.
The primary elements of importance in shock
measurements are that the device should have a
natural frequency which is greater than 1 kHz and a
range typically greater than 500 g (i.e., g = 9.81 m/s2).
The only accelerometer that can usually satisfy these
requirements is the piezo-electric type.
(zzz) The crystal is a source with a high output
impedance and in order to avoid loading effect, a
voltage monitoring source of a high input impedance
should be used.
Electrical impedance matching between
transducer and readout circuitry is usually a critical
matter requiring a very careful design consideration.
(iv) These accelerometers are useful for high input
frequencies and their response is poor at low
frequencies. Therefore, they should not be used for
applications where the input frequency is lower than
Example 29.28 An accelerometer has a seismic mass of
0.05 kg and a spring constant of 3 x 103 N/m. Maximum
mass displacement is ± 0.02 m (before the mass hits the
stop). Calculate (a) maximum measurable acceleration and
(b) natural frequency.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities
Solution, (a) Natural frequency
% = JKTM = 73x”103/0.05 = 245 rad/s.
Maximum acceleration
ani = w2xIn = (245)2 x (0.02) = 1200 m / s2
(b) Natural frequency f =245 / 2 rc = 20 Hz.
Example 29.29 An accelerometer has a damping ratio
of 0.7. Calculate the value offrequency ratio so that ratio of
steady relative displacement to amplitude of input
displacement is 0.99 (i.e., the error is 1.0%).
Solution. From Eqn. 29.60, we have ratio of
amplitudes of output and input
(■^2 —
Xml a/(1-W2)2+(2^)2
y(l-u2)2+ (2 x0.7m)2
/. u = normalized frequency = ci^ / co(( = 2.45
Example 29.30 A seismic instrument has a natural
frequency of 4 Hz and a damping ratio of 0.66. If the system
is excited by a frequency 6 Hz, determine the error due to the
proximity of excited frequency with natural frequency of the
instrument.
Solution.The ratio of output displacement to
input displacement is given by
(*2~Xl)m
-- — (See Eqn. 29.60)
:i-u2)2+(2^)2
Now normalized frequency u = 6/4 = 1.5
0-5>2
xml 1(1 -1.52)2 + (2 x 0.66 X 1.5)2]1/2
.-. Error = (0.961 -1) x 100 = - 3.9%
Example 29.31 An LVDT is used in an accelerometer
to measure seismic mass displacements. The LVDT and
signal conditioning outputs are 0.31 mV/mm with a+ 20 mm
core displacement. The spring constant is 240 N/m and the
core mass is 0.05 kg. Find (a) relation between acceleration
in m/s~ and the output voltage, (b) natural frequency, and
(c) maximum acceleration measurable.
The amplitude of displacement is
Solution, (fl)
proportional to the amplitude of vibration.
/. Sensitivity of accelerometer
m/s2 mm 96 1 -2 / ,7
mm mV 20 0.31
(b) Natural frequency
co„ = fK/M. = 7240/0.05 = 69.3 rad/s
Maximum measurable acceleration
= w2 A =(69.3)2 x 20 x 10-3 =96 m/s2
1 095
Example 29.32 An accelerometer gives an output of
14 mV per g where = 9.81 ms"2. Design signal conditioning
that provides :
(a) a velocity signal scaled at 0.25 V/ms~x and
(b) determine the gain of the system and feedback
resistance ratio.
„ . . n ■ ■ ■ 14mV mV
Solution. Sensitivity =----------- = =1.43----- =-
9.81 ms'2 ms'2
This is an acceleration signal to be converted to a
velocity signal, hence an integrator is used.
The circuit is shown in Fig. 29.60.
Fig. 29.60 An integrator and an inverter used for
obtaining velocity information for
accelerometer (Example 29.32).
J
Output of the integrator = - j e; dt
Take RC = 1 s
Output of integrator is :
1.43mV 1 .4
------ -r— x — = - 1.43 mV/ms
ms 2 Is
„ . , . 0.25V/ms'1 1r74O
Required gam =------------ =----------- T = 174.8
1.43x1 O’3 V/ms'1
This can be obtained by using an inverter with
Ri = 174.8 kQ and Rt = 1 kfl
Example 29.33 accelerometer shown in Fig. 29.61
consists of mass weight 0.5 N attached to a spring
cantilever. The spring is made up of a material of modulus of
elasticity 200 GN/m and is of uniform rectangular
cross-section. The output is obtained from a strain gauge
bridge comprising four active strain gauges of gauge factor
2. Two strain gauges are mounted on each side of the
cantilever. The gauges are connected in a bridge circuit with
input voltage of 3 V d.c. Find the bridge output, voltage at
open circuit for a horizontal acceleration of 4 g ivhere
g =9.81 ms-2. The stress is given by s =6 Fl / bd2 N / m2.
 1096 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

29.28.1 Electrical Resistance Thermometer

The principle of electrical resistance thermo­
meters has already been explained in Art. 25.19,
page 975. The resistance of metals changes with
changes with change in temperature. The resistance
thermometer uses the change in electrical resistance of
a metallic conductor to determine the temperature.
The requirements of a conductor material to be used in
resistance thermometers are :
(z) the change in resistance of the material per °C
should be as large as possible, and
(z'z) the resistance of the material should have a
continuous and stable relationship with
temperature.
The resistance temperature characteristics of
nickel, copper and platinum are shown in Fig. 25.63,
page 786.

29.28.2 Platinum Resistance Thermometer

The most commonly used material for metallic
resistance thermometer is platinum. The resistance
Fig. 29.61 Accelerometer of Example 29.33. temperature characteristics of pure platinum are very
Solution. Force F well defined and show a high degree of capability.
0-5 4 Therefore, these resistance thermometer elements are
= mx a = — x 4g = 2 N used over a wide range to establish the Internal
g
temperature scale.
Stress s
Resistance type temperature bulbs use sensing
= 6 Fl/bd2
elements in the form of wires or foil. The films
= 6x2x80xl0-3/(10xlCT3)x (0.5 x 10~3)2 deposited on insulating surfaces are also used for
= 384xl06 N/m2 =383 MN/m2 temperature sensing. In the wire type, the arrange­
Strain £ ment is commonly a helical coil wound as a double
s 384xl06
wire to avoid inductive effects. The laboratory type
= - =----------- g- = 1.92 xlO 3 resistance thermometers have the temperature
£ (200 xlO9)
sensing element wound on a cross mica former and
Relative change in resistance of gauge enclosed in a Pyrex tube as shown in Fig. 29.62(a). The
= AR / R = Gy£ tube may be evacuated or filled with in gas to protect
the platinum.
= 2 x 1.92 x 10-3 = 3.84 x 10~3 Q
The industrial type of thermometer is shown in
Open circuit voltage of a bridge using 4 active
Fig. 29.62(b) the former being of grooved ceramic and
strain gauges is :
the wire being protected by a glass coating or by a
e0 = AR / R e. = 3.84 x 10-3 x 3 V = 11.52 mV
stainless steel tube. The element is normally sealed in
29.28 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE glass when used for temperatures upto 150 °C and
ceramic for use in temperatures up to 850 °C. This
The following devices are used for the measure­
sealing has the two-fold advantage of providing
ment of temperature :
structural strength and protection from chemical
A Resistance thermometers,
attack. Resistance thermometers are sometimes used
A Semiconductor thermometers, above 850 °C but they have a reduced life.
Thermistors,
Resistance elements are also available as thin
* Thermocouples, and etched grids of metal foil similar in shape to foil type
A Bimetallic Thermometers, strain gauges. They are constructed of platinum and
* Radiation Pyrometers. may be bonded to a plastic backing for attachment to a
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1097
surface. They may be open-faced or coated and have a
fast response compared with bulb type thermometers.
Thin film sensors have an extremely fast response and
they are extensively used in ares- space industry.
Double wound
(Non-inductive)
sensing coil
wound in
grooves on a
ceramic former
4*— Protective sheath
of glass ceramic
material etc.
(b)
AB - Coil connections
CD - Compensating leads
Fig. 29.62 Resistance thermometer.
29.28.3 Measurement of Resistance of
Thermometers
The measurement of change of resistance of
thermometer due to temperature changes is measured
by Wheatstone bridge. Ordinary Wheatstone bridge is
not used for measurement of changes in resistance as
it has many disadvantages as explained below :
(z) The contact resistance of the adjustable
standard resistor may be large enough to
produce an error when measuring the change
in resistance of thermometer.
(zz) The leads from the thermometer to the bridge
may introduce an error due to change of their
resistance produced by temperature changes.
(zzz) The current through the thermometer
produces a heating effect equal to the product
of the current squared and the resistance of
thermometer.
Slight modification of the Wheatstone bridge,
such as a double slide wire bridge, eliminate most of
these problems.
1. Three Lead Method
A double slide wire bridge is shown in Fig. 29.63.
It has two slide wire resistors S] and S2 which are tied
together so that the fraction of in series with the
resistance R2 ’s equal to the fraction of $2 in series with
resistance Ry This fraction is defined as/.
Fig. 29.63 Measurement of temperature with double
slide wire bridge and resistance thermometer.
There are three equal leads from the thermo­
meters to the bridge. The resistance of each lead is RL
At balance we have :
Rt + R^ + S| — fS^
fS2 + Rj + Rl /Sj + Rj + S2 — /S2
If the right hand side of the above expression is
unity, the resistance of thermometer element is
Rj = fS^ + Rj
This condition is obtained when :
R1 + Sj - fS1 = fSy + R^ + S2 - fS2
This is an identity when :
Rj - R2 = Sj = 0.5 S2
The bridge is designed using these values.
Since there are three leads coming out of the
resistance thermometers, the method is known as
three lead method.
2. Four Lead Method
In applications, where the highest degree of accuracy
is required, the four lead method is used. Such a
system is used with a platinum resistance thermo­
meter employed as a laboratory standard for calibration
purposes. In this method, two circuit arrangements
are used. They are shown in Figs. 29.64(a) and (b). In
fact, both the arrangements are required for
measurement purposes. First a measurement is made
using circuit of Fig. 29.72(a) and then a second reading
is taken by using circuit of Fig. 29.72(b). The average of
the two readings is taken to give the correct result.
For circuit of Fig. 29.64(a), we have :
Ra + C - Rt + T ...(z)
For circuit of Fig- 29.64(b), we have :
Rb+T = Rt + C ‘"(H)
 1098 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Fig. 29.64 Four lead method for connection of
resistance thermometer.
It is evident that this method should be used only
when accuracy of the highest order is desired since the
method is both time consuming and inconvenient.
It should be noted that two separate leads are
connected directly to each end of the resistance
winding.
These are leads C and c on one side and T and t on
the other side.
Salient Features of Resistance Wire
Thermometers
A Resistance wire thermometers have a higher
degree of accuracy. Precision laboratory instru­
ments may be calibrated for measuring tempe­
ratures to within ± 0.01 °C Industrial instru­
ments called "resistance temperature detectors
(RTD)" can be calibrated to detect the actual
temperatures to within ± 0.25 °C up to 120 °C,
and ± 0.5 °C from 120°C to 550 °C.
A Resistance thermometers are normally designed
for fast response, as well as accuracy to provide
close control of processes in which narrow
ranges or small temperature spans must be
maintained.
Each type of resistance thermometer is inter­
changeable in a process without compensation or
relibration, because each type is calibrated with
reference to a standard resistance-temperature
curve. Thus if a unit is damaged it can be easily
replaced.
Typical industrial applications of resistance
thermometers for measuring temperature are
cooling processes, heating ovens, drying ovens,
kilns, process vessels, baths, quenches, refining,
controlled cold storage plaints, steam and power
generation condensates, steam exhausts,
pickling and plating plants, injection moulding,
compression moulding, transfer moulding, and
air inversion measurements.
29.28 SEMI-CONDUCTOR THERMOMETERS
Semi-conductor materials like germanium
crystals with controlled doping can be used for
measurement of cyragenic temperatures especially
below 25 K ( -248 °C). They are also usable at 100 K
(-173 °C). Semi-conductor materials used in resistance
temperature thermometers have large resistance
temperature coefficients and hence they are very
sensitive in the above-mentioned range. They are
repeatable within 0.01 °C, but the units must be
individually calibrated.
Silicon crystals are now being used in the range -
48 °C to 252 °C. In this range, their resistance increases
with increasing temperature, and the relationship is
sufficiently linear. These thermometers must be
individually calibrated.
Carbon resistors like those commonly used in
electronic circuits are also used as temperature sensitive
elements.
The advantages are :
(z) They are readily available and are
inexpensive.
(zz) They are rugged and sensitive.
(zzz) Their sizes are small. Common sizes vary
from 0.25 to 1 watt power and 10 to 500 Q
resistance.
(zv) They have a good frequency response
characteristics.
Their disadvantages are :
(z) They are not so reproducible as germanium.
(zz) They have a large negative resistance tempe­
rature co-efficient below - 213 °C.
29.30 THERMISTORS
The principle of working and constructional
details of thermistors have already been explained in
Art. 25.20 on page 788.
29.31 THERMOCOUPLES
The thermocouple is one of the simplest and most
commonly used methods of measuring process
temperatures. The operation of a thermocouple is
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1099
based upon Seebeck effect. In 1821, Seebeck
discovered that when heat is applied to junction (hot
junction) of two dissimilar metals, an emf is generated
which can be measured at the other junction (cold
junction). The two dissimilar metals form an electric
circuit, and a current flows as a result of the generated
emf as shown in Fig. 29.65. This current will continue
to flow as long as > T2. Metal B is described as - ve
with respect to a metal A if current flows into it at the
cold junction.
Fig. 29.65 Basic circuit of thermocouple.
The emf produced is function of the difference in
temperature of hot and cold junctions and is given by :
E = aA0 ...(29.64)
(See Art. 25.21, page 793)
where A0 = difference between temperatures of
hot and cold junctions.
29.31.1 Thermo-electric Laws
Several thermo-electric phenomena have been
discovered which are called thermo-electric laws.
These are :
1. The application of heat to a single homo­
geneous metal is in itself not capable of producing or
sustaining an electric current.
2. A thermo-electric emf is produced when the
junctions of two dissimilar homogeneous metals are
kept at different temperatures. This emf is not affected
by temperature gradients along the conductors shown
in Fig. 29.66.
Fig. 29.66 No emf is generated by temperature
gradients in homogeneous conductors.
3. In a circuit consisting of two dissimilar
homogeneous metals having the junctions at different
temperatures, the emf developed will not be affected
when a third homogeneous metal is made a part of the
circuit, provided the temperatures of its two junctions
are the same as shown in Fig. 29.67. rms is called Law
of Intermediate Metals.
Fig. 29.67 Introduction of a third metal does not affect
the emf provided its two junctions are at
the same temperature.
In practice, some means of measuring emf
produced by a thermocouple have to be used. This
usually requires the introduction of a third metal into
the circuit. The law of intermediate metals states that
the net emf in the circuit remains unaltered if a third
metal is of the third metal are at the same temperature.
The third metal may be introduced anywhere in series
with the circuit without affecting the net emf provided
junctions J3 and J4 are kept at the same temperature.
The applications of this law are :
(i) The law makes it possible to use extension
wires of a metal different from the metals
used for thermocouple. For example, the
extension wires used for Platinum/Platinum
rhodium thermocouple may be made of
copper which is an inexpensive material.
(ii) The law enables a measuring instrument to be
introduced into the circuit without affecting
the emf generated by the thermocouple. (This
is subject to the condition that the meter has
an infinite impedance and therefore there are
no loading effects.)
(iii) Another important consequence of this law is
that the wires forming the junction can be
soldered or brazed together without altering
the performance of the junction.
(iv) The thermal emf of any two homogeneous
metals with respect to another is the algebraic
sum of their individual emfs with respect to a
third homogeneous metal. Figure 29.68 shows
that emf of metal A with respect to B is EAB
and that of B with respect to C is EBC and
therefore the emf of A with respect to C is
^AC = ^AB +
 1 1 00
Fig. 29.68 Thermal emfs of two metals with respect to
one another is the algebraic sum of their
individual emfs with respect to a third metal.
4. The thermal emf produced when a circuit of
two homogeneous metals exists between a first
temperature and a second and thermal emf produced
when the same circuit exists between the second
temperature and a third are algebraically equal to the
thermal emf produced when the circuit exists between
first and third temperatures. This is called Law of
Intermediate Temperatures.
Figure 29.69 illustrates this law. The emf
generated with junction temperatures Tj and T3 is
equal to the sum of emfs produced by two similar
thermocouples, one operating with junction
temperature T2 and T2 and the other with T2 and T3
where T2 lies between and T3.
Fig. 29.69 The algebraic sum of thermal emfs pro­
duced between junctions f and J2 and between J2 and
J3 is equal to emf E3 produced in a similar circuit
between junctions f and J2.
Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Suppose the emf between junctions ]\ and ]2 is
and that between junctions J2 and /3 is E2, the resultant
emf between junctions f and /3 is E3 = E2 = E2.
This law is used while making corrections to the
thermocouple readings in case reference (cold)
junction temperature is different from one for which
the thermocouple was calibrated. The calibration
curves and charts are available for a reference junction
temperature of 0°C. In case the temperature of
reference junction is different from 0°C, the calibration,
curves no longer hold good and corrections have to be
applied. Thus if a thermocouple calibrated with a
reference temperature 0°C is used with this junction at
20°C, the thermocouple will read correctly if the so
called lost emf due to reference junction being at 20°C
is added to the measured value. The values of the lost
emf can be read off from table of correction for
thermocouple used.
5. The algebraic sum of the emfs produced in a
circuit containing two or more thermocouples all at
the satire temperature is zero.
6. The net emf of a circuit containing two
thermocouples is unaffected by the addition of more
thermocouples at the same temperature as any of the
others as shown in Fig. 29.70.
Fig. 29.70 Additional thermocouples at junctions
f and J2 not affect the net emf.
29.32 CONSTRUCTION OF THERMOCOUPLES
A pair of two dissimilar metals that are in physical
contact with each other form a thermocouple. These
metals may be twisted, screwed, peened, clamped or
welded together.
The most commonly used method for fabricating
is to weld the metals together. Thermocouples do not
use bare conductors except in applications where
atmospheric conditions permit their use. These
conditions obtain when temperatures to be measured
are low and the atmosphere is non-corrosive.
Industrial thermocouples employ protective sheathing
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities
surrounding the junction and a portion of the
extension leads. The leads and the junction are
internally insulated from the sheath, using various
potting compounds, ceramic beads or oxides. The type
of insulation used depends upon the process being
monitored. The different types of protective sheaths
are shown in Fig. 29.71.
Thermocouple wires without insulators (BARE)
Thermocouple wires with single hole round insulators
Thermocouple wires with double holes round insulators
Thermocouple wires with fish spine insulators
J^nnnnnnnr~rTT~rT~nr~inr~i~i~rb
Thermocouple wires with double hole oval insulators
|«- 75 mm --------------------------- 300 mm -------------------------- ►)
Terminal (Standard)
connections
Fig. 29.71 Protective sheaths for thermocouples.
Thermocouples are normally not installed in
pipelines vessels or other pieces of equipment directly.
They are usually placed inside protective wells so that
thov may be easily removed or replaced without
interruption or shut down of the plant. Protecting
wells are made of stainless steel and some other
special alloy materials. They are normally 12.5 mm to
25 mm in diameter.
The use of protective wells slows down the
response appreciably as they increase the mass of
thermocouples. However, in applications, where
response time is the primary consideration, bare or
thin sheathed thermocouples are used.
Read about the rest of thermocouples from pages
793 to 798.
1101
29.33 QUARTZ CRYSTAL THERMOMETER
A quartz crystal possesses a property that its
resonant frequency changes with p.e change in
temperature. This property is made use of in quartz
crystal thermometer for measurement of temperature.
This is a novel and extremely accurate method for
measurement of temperature.
If the quartz crystal is given a proper angle cut
there exists a linear relationship between resonant
frequency and the temperature. The resonant
frequency is, therefore, a measure of the temperature.
The frequency is measured with the help of digital
frequency meters and is displayed.
The advantage of this thermometer is that
sensitivities of the order of 0.001 °C are obtained. Also
the thermometer is insensitive to stray pickups in the
connecting cables since the output is are frequency
which is measured by digital techniques.
29.34 BIMETALLIC THERMOMETERS
Bimetallic thermometers are extensively used in
process industries for local temperature measure­
ments. These thermometers use two fundamental
principles :
(z) all metals expand or contract with change in
temperature and,
(zz) the temperature co-efficient of expansion is
not the same for all metals and therefore their
rates of expansion or contraction are
different. The difference in thermal expansion
rates is used to produce deflections
proportional to temperature changes.
A bimetallic thermometer consists of a bimetallic
strip which is by bonding together two thin strips of
two different metals such that they cannot move
relative to each other. Since all metals try to change
their physical dimensions at different rates when
subjected to same change in temperature, these two
metallic strips change their lengths at different rates.
The differential change of expansion of two metals
results in bending of the bimetallic strip with change
in temperature.
Figure 29.72 shows a bimetallic strip in the form of
a straight cantilever beam. With one end fixed, the
temperature changes cause the free end to deflect.
The range over which a linear relationship exists
between deflection and temperature depends upon
the combination of metals used for the bimetallic strip.
The deflection of the free end is directly proportional
 no2 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
to the temperature change and square of the length of
strip, and inversely proportional to the thickness
throughout the linear portion of deflection­
temperature characteristics.
strip
Fig. 29.72 Bimetallic strip fixed at one end.
Figure 29.73 shows a bimetallic strip made up of
two metals A and B, having different thermal expansion
coefficients, bonded together at a temperature Tp A
change in temperature, (T2 - Tj) causes a differential
xpansion of the strip and if the motion is unstrained,
Bonded
“J- strips
_L A and B
ax>aB
(a) Temperature not changed
Fig. 29.73 Bonded bimetallic strip (unstrained) and Its
deflection when subjected to change on temperature.
the strip deflects into a uniform circular arc. The
radius of arc is given by :
t[3(1 + m)2 + (1 + mn)(n? + \/ mn)]
...(29.65)
6(ax -agX^-yXl + m)2
where, t = total thickness of strip,
n = ratio of moduli of elasticity = Eg / EA,
m = ratio of thickness = tB / tA,
T2~T^ = change in temperature,
tA, tB = thickness of metal A and B respectively,
aA, aB = thermal co-efficients of expansion of
metals A and B
It is clear from Fig. 29.73 that the bimetallic strip
bends towards the side whose metal has a lower
thermal expansion coefficient when there is increase
in temperature and reverse happens when there is
decrease in temperature.
In most practical applications, the metals and
their dimensions are so chosen that their moduli of
elasticity and thickness are equal i.e.,
E„ = E. orn = l
0/1
and t. - t, - Dt„ or m= 1
/i /i
Therefore, from Eqn. 29.65, we have,
=_______ 2f_______
...(29.66)
3(aA-“s)(T-Ti)
Let us consider the case of a bimetallic strip in the
form of a cantilever of length L as shown in Fig. 29.74.
The strip is assumed to bend through a circular arc
Fig. 29.74 Deflection of Bimetallic Strain.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 1 03
when subjected to a change in temperature. The
thickness of each metal forming the strip is f/2.
Therefore,
r+ t/2 _ expanded length of strip A
r expanded length of strip B
L[l +a.A(T2-Tf)]
L[l + aBa2~T^]
l + aB(T2 Tp
or ...(29.67)
(a^ -ag)(T2 -TJ]
In case one of the metals has a very low thermal
expansion co-efficient say B, we have aB «0.
t
...(29.68)
From the above relationship it is clear that if one
end of the bimetallic strip is fixed, the deflection of the
free end is a direct indication of the temperature of
strip. The displacement of the free end can be
converted into an electrical signal through use of
secondary7 transducers like variable resistance,
inductance and capacitance transducers.
The bimetallic strip described above is unsuitable
for use in industrial applications because the
deflection is small and hence the sensitivity is low. The
sensitivity can be increased by increasing the length of
strip. In order to keep the size of the thermometer
within manageable limits, it is formed in the shape of
either a spiral or a helix. This arrangement permits a
very long length of strip to be compressed into a fairly
small space.
A bimetallic strip using a spiral is shown in
Figure 29.75(4?). The curvature of strip varies with
temperature thereby causing the pointer to deflect.
Figure 29.75(b) shows a bimetallic strip wound in the
form of a helix. One end of the helix is fastened to the
causing of the bulb and the other end is connected to
the pointer. The pointer sweeps over a circular dial to
indicate the temperature.
The spiral strip is often used in ambient
temperature measurement devices and air
conditioning thermostats. The helical strip is used for
most process applications because of its ability to be
manufactured into a small diameter sheath while
maintaining ruggedness.
In making bimetallic thermometers metals are
chosen which have widely different thermal
expansion co-efficient. Invar (an alloy of nickel and
iron) is the mostly commonly used low expansion
material. Its thermal expansion co-efficient remains
stable over a wide temperature range. Nickel Iron
alloys with chromium and manganese added are often
used for thermal expansion material.
(a) Spiral Type (b) Helical Type
Fig. 29.75 Industrial type bimetallic thermometers.
Bimetallic thermometers, like other industrial
temperature measuring devices, are usually mounted
in wells to provide protection against wear and
corrosion. However, the use of protective wells
increases the response time.
The advantages of bimetallic thermometers are
that they are simple, robust and inexpensive. Their
accuracy ranges from ± 0.5% for laboratory type of
about ± 2% for process type instruments. These
thermometers, in general can withstand about 50%
over-range in temperature.
Bimetallic thermometers are not recommended
for use at temperatures above 400°C for continuous
duty of above 550°C for intermittent duty. All metals
have physical limitations and are subject to permanent
warp distortion. This means that metals do not return
to their normal condition and therefore, temperatures
indicated are not correct. Bimetallic thermometers are
used for measurement of temperature between -40°C
and 550°C and are expected to measure with an
accuracy of ± 1% when used below 400°C for
continuous service.
Bimetallic thermometers are used in refineries, oil
burners, tire vulcanizers, hot solder tanks, hot wire
heaters, tempering tanks, and imperegnating tanks.
Example 29.33 A bimetallic thermometer is made up
of strips of a nickel chromium alloy and Invar bonded
together at 25°C. Each strip has a thickness of 1 mm and a
length of 50 mm. Calculate the radius of curvature produced
 1 1 04 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
when the strip is unstrained and is subjected to a
temperature of200°C. For nickel chrome alloy and Invar the
moduli of elasticity and co-efficients of expansion are :
216 GN/m2,147 GN/m2 and 12.5 x 10~6°C,1.7x 10~6°C.
Solution. Ratio of thickness m
= fA / =1
Ratio of modulus of elasticity n
= EbIEa= 147/216 = 0.68
Change in temperature
T1-T1 = 200-25 = 175°C
From Eqn. 29.65, radius of curvature
r= t [3(1 + m)2 + (1 + znn)(n? +1 / mnf]
6(a^ -aB)(T2-T1)(l + m)2
= 711 mm
Example 29.34 A bimetallic strip element has one end
fixed and other free, with the length of cantilever being
40 mm. The thickness of each metal is 1 mm, and the
element is initially straight at 20°C. Calculate the
movement of the free end in a perpendicular direction from
the initial line when the temperature is raised to 180°C. One
of the metals is Invar with a negligible thermal expansion
co-efficient while the second is a nickel chrome alloy with an
expansion co-efticient of 12.5 x 10~6/°C.
Solution. Thickness of bimetallic element
t = 2 x 1 = 2 mm. The co-efficient of expansion of one of
the metals is negligible and hence the radius of
curvature is given by Eqn. 29.84.
t ________ 2_________
r-2(T2-T1)aA ~2(180-0)x 12.5xlO’6
= 500 mm
Referring to Fig. 29.76
0 = 40/500=0.08 rad =4.58°
.-. Vertical displacement
y - r (1 - cos 0) = 1.6 mm
Fig. 29.76 Diagram of Example 29.34.
29.35 RADIATION PYROMETERS
When temperatures being measured are high and
physical contact with the process to be measured is
impracticable or impossible, use is made of thermal
radiation methods or optical pyrometers are used.
These pyrometers are used under conditions where
corrosive vapours or liquids would destroy thermo­
couples, resistance thermometers and thermistors if
made to come in contact with the measured medium.
These pyrometers find applications for temperatures
which are above the range of thermocouples and also
for rapidly moving objects.
Radiation pyrometry measures the radiant heat
emitted or reflected by a hot object. Thermal radiation
is electromagnetic radiation emitted as a result of
temperature. Thermal radiation lies in the wavelength
region from about 0.1 to 100 pm. Practical radiation
pyrometers are sensitive to a limited band of radiant
energy although the theory indicates that they should
be sensitive to entire spectrum of energy radiated by
the object. The operation^ of thermal radiation
pyrometers is based upon blackbody concepts. The
total thermal radiation emitted by a blackbody is :
qb = gT4W/ m2 ...(29.69)
where o = Stefan Boltzmann constant
= 57.2 x IO-9 W/m2-°K
and T = absolute temperature ; °K
In practical applications for thermal pyrometers,
the transfer of thermal energy takes place at
temperatures above absolute zero. Prevost's theory of
exchange states that for two black bodies in sight, each
will radiate energy to the other, and
^ = o(T4-T24) W/m2 ...(29.70)
and T[ and ?2 are absolute temperatures with > T2
If Tj is much higher than T2, it is safe to preserve
that the radiation is proportional to T^, as, the term T4
becomes insignificant. For example, suppose that the
hot body temperature is 600°C and the instrument is at
room temperature of say 30°C then T4 is only about 1.5
per cent of and hence can be neglected.
In general a rough black surface radiates more
heat than a smooth bright surface. This effect is called
emissivity and is expressed as :
e = ^/^
q - heat radiated by a gray body, W/m2
...(29.71)
= e oT4 W / m2 ...(29.72)
The value of emissivity from 0 to 1.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities I 105
The energy is radiated over a wide range of
frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
distribution for any particular wavelength, X is given
by Planck's radiation law,
qr5
...(29.73)
where q and q are constants.
Energy distribution curves for perfect black
bodies are drawn in Fig. 29.77 for three different
temperatures. The small band of visible radiation is
indicated.
Pyrex Transmi
bonds ofssileonsn
materials
Fig. 29.77 Distribution of constant for black bodies.
If a vertical line is drawn at a particular frequency
value, it represents a particular intensity at each
temperature. If a vertical band representing a range of
frequencies is drawn, the energy radiated at a
particular temperature is given by area in the band
under that temperature curve. The values given in
Fig. 29.85 are for perfect black bodies. These values
should be multiplied by emissivity in order to get
results for actual surfaces. Actual surfaces frequently
exhibit highly variable emissivities over the
wavelength spectrum. For the purpose of analysis, the
actual surface is approximated as a gray body. A gray
body is one which has constant emissivity for all
wavelengths.
It is apparent that the intensity of radiation varies
appreciably with wavelength. Also it is observed that
the point of maximum radiant intensity shifts to the
shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases. The
point of maximum radiant intensity is given by Wien's
displacement law :
\,T = 2900 ...(29.74)
where = wavelength at which maximum
intensity occurs ; pm
This is a common phenomenon observed in the
change of colour of a body being heated. A metal
gradually heated changes its colour from red, which
has a long wavelength to yellow and white as the
intensity of radiation increases at the shorter wave
lengths of the visible spectrum.
29.36 PRINCIPLE USED FOR RADIATION
TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES
There are two principles used for construction of
radiation temperature measuring devices
1. Total Radiation Pyrometery. In this case the
total radiant energy from a heated body is measured.
This energy is represented by the area under the
curves of Fig. 29.77 as explained earlier and is given by
Stefan-Boltzmann law. The radiation pyrometer then,
is intended to receive maximum amount of radiant
energy at widest range of wavelengths possible.
2. Selective (or Partial) Radiation Pyrometery. In
this case, we may measure the spectral radiant
intensity of the radiated energy from the heated body
at a given wavelength. For example, if a vertical line is
drawn on Fig. 29.77, the variation of intensity with
temperature for given wavelength can be found. The
optical pyrometer uses this principle.
Actually it is difficult to build a practical
pyrometer that is responsive to radiation of all wave­
lengths or to spectral radiation of one wavelength.
Therefore practical radiation pyrometers respond to a
wide band of radiation of approximately 0.1 to 8 pm
width in the visible and infrared band of radiation
spectrum.
29.37 BLACK-BODY CONDITIONS
The realization of good black-body conditions under
actual working conditions is not difficult ; as
otherwise radiation methods of temperature measu­
rement would never have become practical. One of the
foremost reasons for this is that the radiation from
many types of surfaces and certain cavities is almost
indistinguishable from black-body radiation.
Where a hot body is totally enclosed by walls at
the same temperature, then both walls and body
radiate and absorb heat at the same rate. If a small hole
is made in the container, this area will behave as a
perfect blackbody, since rays leaving the enclosure
would have been reflected many a times.
This principle applies very closely to a furnace
with a small hole through which a radiation
pyrometer may be sighted either on the body as
shown in Fig. 29.78 or on the ceiling A? ifiF furnace.
 1 1 06 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

If the apparent temperature is taken as measured

value, the error in temperature due to non-black-body
conditions is :

Error=Li=12L=1_s« ...(29.79)
T T

29.38 RADIATION RECEIVING ELEMENTS

The purpose of a radiation temperature
measuring device is to convert the radiant energy into
Fig. 29.78 Heated body inside a furnace. a suitable form for indication of temperature. For this
purpose the following devices are used.
This can be explained as under :
1. Vacuum Thermocouple. A vacuum thermo­
The walls and the heated body are at the same couple comprises of a thermo-junction of extremely
steady temperature. The body absorbs a part of thin strips which are blackened. The thermocouple is
radiation from the walls and reflects the rest. That is, enclosed in an evacuated housing with a suitable
a + p + T=l ...(29.75) window to admit the radiant energy. The heat loss
where a, p, t are respectively the absorption, from the thermocouple due to conduction and
reflection and transmission factors. convection is greatly reduced because cf the
evacuated envelope. This results in appreciable
The transmission factor for most solids is zero
temperature rise of the detecting junction and
and, therefore.,
therefore a measurable emf can be obtained even for a
t =0 ...(29.77)
small radiant energy received at the detecting
or a+p = l junction. Since the thermocouple has a low mass and
Kirchhoffs identity gives an additional is placed in vacuum, it can respond to rapid changes
relationship : in radiant energy.
£=a ...(29.78) 2. Thermopile. In industrial applications in which
When the heated body is viewed from outside, the a vacuum thermocouple is needed for its speed of
reflected radiant energy is seen. Since e = a for response, it is current practice to assemble several
black-body radiation, the heated body must radiate thermocouples in series to form a thermopile. A
the same amount of energy that it absorbs otherwise thermopile consists of a group of very small thermo­
temperature equilibrium will not be established. couples as shown in Fig. 29.79 so connected in series
Therefore, when heated body is viewed from outside, that their emfs are additive. This gives an increased
the absorbed part of energy is received as well as the sensitivity. The tiny thermocouples junctions, about
reflected part. Since these two parts constitute the total pin point size, are flattened and blackened so that they
black-body radiation, then the heated body inside the absorb all the radiant energy reaching them.
walls having the same temperature produces
black-body radiation. Thus, the heated body is
considered to be a black-body.
Where the temperature of an object in the open is
measured, due regard must be made to the emissivity
or the surface. In case the body cannot be approxi­
mated as black-body, its temperature may be measured
by determining the total radiation energy emitted
Fig. 29.79 Mirror type radiation receiving device.
from the body and the calculating the temperature.
Now, cj-ecT4 or T=(tj/£o)1/4 Pyrometers incorporating thermocouple or
thermopiles do not require compensating cable
and therefore in order to determine temperature value
between the pyrometery and the display devices. The
of emissivity £ must be known.
sensitive element is required to measure its own
The apparent black-body temperature is the value
temperature change due to radiant energy received
calculated with £ = 1, or
relative to the temperature of the immediate
apparent temperature Tfl = (<?/cr)I/4 = e~1/4T ...(29.78) surroundings i.e., the body of the instrument. This is
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 1 07
achieved by locating the reference junction or
junctions within the body of the instrument, in a
position shielded from direct radiation from the
heated body.
Varying ambient temperatures, which may affect
the thermopile, are compensated for by a nickel
resistance spool. This spool provides a variable shunt
across the emf produced. As the ambient temperature
increases or decreases, the corresponding resistance
changes of the nickel coil vary the emf output of the
head resulting in accurate compensation over the
entire range of the instrument.
A thermopile has longer speed of response but
normally speech of response of less than several
seconds are not important in most industrial
applications. Typical response time is 2 s and higher.
3. Bolometer. A bolometer is a thermal device that
changes its electrical resistance with temperatures.
The resistance of the bolometer changes in response to
the thermal radiation focused on it. A bolometer is
made of thin ribbon or platinum or nickel depending
upon the response required. The change in resistance
is measured by a Wheatstone bridge. In fact two thin
strips are used which form two arms of Wheatstone
bridge. One strip is exposed to the radiation. The other
strip is shielded and compensates for any change in
the ambient temperature. Absorption of radiant
thermal energy by the exposed strip results in increase
of resistance of the strip which is measured by the
bridge which is calibrated in terms of temperature.
Bolometers are expensive to construct and are less
rugged than other detectors but have a fast response.
4. Photo-electric Transducers. Photo-electric
transducers are discussed in details in Chapter 19.
Photo-electric transducers used for detection of
radiant energy are photo-emissive cells, photo-
conductive cells and photovoltaic cells. The output of
these cells varies with the amount of radiant energy
incident on them. In general the photo-electric
transducers are sensitive to given portions of the
spectrum and therefore they are used with partial
radiation and optical radiation pyrometers.
These detectors are very rugged and also have a
ver,' fast response.
29.39 TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETERS
The total radiation pyrometer receives virtually
all the radiation from a particular area of hot body and
focusess it on a sensitive temperature transducer like
thermocouple, thermopile, bolometer etc. The term
total radiation includes both the visible (light) and
invisible (infra-red) radiations.
The total radiation pyrometer consists of a
radiation-receiving element and a measuring device
to indicate the temperature directly.
The mirror type radiation receiver is shown in Fig.
29.79. Here diaphragm unit along with a mirror is
used to focus the radiation on a radiant energy sensing
transducer. The lens to transducer (a vacuum
thermocouple or a thermopile) distance is adjustable
for proper focus. The mirror arrangement has an
advantage that since there is no lens, the absorption
and reflection effects are absent.
The mirror type of radiation receiver shown in
Fig. 29.79 is so arranged that the image of the front
diaphragm is focused on the thermocouple by the
mirror. Therefore, the temperature measurements are
independent of the distance of the target if the field of
view is filled.
Presence of any absorbing media between target
and the transducer reduces the radiation received
therefore the pyrometer reads low. Substances like
smoke, dirt and gases absorb radiation and therefore
cause negative static errors. On the other hand,
presence of heat sources like hot gases, high
temperature particles and flame cause the meter to
read high.
Due to the fourth power law (r? a T4) the
characteristics of total radiation pyrometer are
non-linear and the device exhibit poor sensitivity in
the lower temperature ranges. For example, any
output voltage 2 mV for temperature change of 0°C to
500°C is typical. Inspite of this lower sensitivity, total
radiation pyrometers are used for low temperature
applications instead of partial radiation pyrometers
which give better results in applications involving
measurement of high temperatures. Total radiation
pyrometers cannot be used for temperatures lower
than 600°C since at lower temperatures error may be
introduced by the fact that the temperature of the
pyrometer itself may not be negligible as compared
with that of hot body. Therefore total radiation
pyrometers are used for a temperature range of
1200°C to 3500°C.
The output from a total radiation pyrometer
whether applified or not, is usually taken to a PMMC
instrument, or to a self-balancing potentiometer.
Digital displays are also being increasingly used. The
output may be fed to a recorder for recording or to a
controller for control purposes.
 1 1 08 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
29.40 INFRA-RED PYROMETERS
Infra-red pyrometers are partial or selective
radiation pyrometers. Infra-red energy is invisible to
the human eye, but can be felt. There is a proportional
increase in infra-red energy as the temperature of the
surface radiating body increases. Above temperatures
of approximately 550°C, a surface starts to radiate
visible light energy and simultaneously there is a
proportional increase in the infra-red energy. This
proportional increase in infra-red energy with surface
energy makes infra-red pyrometry possible by
combining a suitable detector, electronic circuitry, and
means of indication and/or control. The infra-red
spectrum ranges from 0.22 pm to 17 pm and the
commonly used portion is 2 to 7 pm. Some
manufacturers use only 5 to 7 pm portion of the range
for the purposes of pyrometry.
cell
Fig. 29.80 Infra-red pyrometer.
Infra-red principles using vacuum thermo­
couples, thermopiles and bolometers have been
successfully employed in infra-red spectrometers as
well as in total radiation pyrometers.
Various types of photo-electric transducers are
most commonly used for Infra-red transducers. The
most successful transducer used for industrial
applications is photo-voltaic cell. The cell used in
radiation pyrometers, in fact, responds to
wavelengths in infra-red region, rather than to visible
light, and may be used to measure temperatures down
to above 400°C.
An outstanding feature of the pyrometers based
on photo-voltaic cells is their high speed of response.
The time to reach 98% of full response to a step input
are of the order of T ms, as compared with several
seconds for a total radiation pyrometer.
The infra-red radiation is focused on to a
photo-voltaic cell and therefore it is necessary to
insure that the cell does not become overheated. A
radiant energy receiver is shown in Fig. 29.80. The
cone of radiation passing ultimately to the photo-cell
is defined by the area of the first diaphragm. The
protective window is made of thin glass and serves to
protect the cell and filter from physical damage. The
filter is used in the range of 1000 °C to 1200°C in order
to reduce the infra-red radiation passed to the
photo-cell. This helps in preventing the photo-cell
from getting overheated.
All infra-red systems depend upon the
transmission of the infra-red radiant energy being
emitted by a heated body to a detector in the
measuring system through surroundings. There is no
direct contact with the surface whose temperature is
being measured. The sensor head is focused on the
object whose temperature is being measured and/or
controlled. The infrared energy falling on the detector
either changes the detector resistance in proportion to
temperature, as in the case of a thermistor, or
generates an emf in the detector, such as a thermopile.
The change in resistance or generated emf is then
indicated on a meter or a digital display or is used to
operate a controller for the process.
29.41 OPTICAL PYROMETERS
The radiations from a heated body at high
temperatures fall within the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. For a given wavelength in
the visible region the energy radiated is greater at
higher temperatures. Within the visible region a given
wavelength has a fixed colour and the energy of
radiation is interpreted as intensity or brightness.
Therefore if we measure brightness of the light of a
given colour emitted by a hot source, we can have an
indication of temperature. This is the principle on
which an optical pyrometer works.
In an optical pyrometer the wavelength of
radiation accepted is restricted by means of a colour
filter and the brightness is measured by comparison
with a standard lamp.
Disappearing Filament Optical Pyrometer
The most common type of optical pyrometer is the
"Disappearing Filament Pyrometer". The schematic
diagram of this pyrometer is shown in Fig. 29.81.
An image of the radiating source is produced by a
lens and made to coincide with the filament of an
electric lamp. The current through the lamp filament is
made variable so that lamp intensity can be adjusted.
The filament is viewed through an eye piece and a
filter. The current through filament is adjusted until
the filament and the image are of equal brightness.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities $ 07
PMMC
Battery meter
Fig. 29.81 Disappearing filament type
optical pyrometer.
When the brightness of image produced by the
source and brightness produced by the filament are
equal, the outline of the filament disappears as shown
in Fig. 29.82(c).
(a) Filament (c) Equal
too bright brightness
Fig. 29.82 Field view of disappearing-filament
pyrometer.
However, if the temperature of the filament is
higher than that required for the equality of brightness,
it (filament) becomes too bright as shown in Fig. 29.82(a).
On the other hand, if the temperature of filament is
lower, it becomes dark as shown in Fig. 29.82(b).
Since the intensity of light of any wavelength
depends upon the temperature of the radiating body
and the temperature of filament depends upon the
current flowing through the lamp, the instrument may
be directly calibrated in terms of the filament current.
However the filament current depends upon the
resistance of the filament,, therefore modern
pyrometers are calibrated in terms of resistance of
filament circuit.
The range of temperature which can be measured
by instruments of this type is governed by the
maximum allowable temperature of the lamp which is
of the order of 1400°C. The range can be extended by
using an absorption type screen near objective lens.
Thus as known fraction of radiant energy enters the
pyrometer for comparison. The range can be extended
to 3000°C by adopting this technique.
The optica] pyrometer is widely used for accurate
measurement of temperature of furnaces, molten
metals and other heated materials.
Example 2<).‘j6 The lens of an optical pyrometer is
clouded so that the transmission factor is 0.8. The
instrument indicates a temperature of 1480°C. What is the
true temperature ?
Solution. Apparent absolute temperature indicated
Tt =1480 + 273=1753 °K
Using Eqn. 29.78 (which can be used for the
purposes of calculation of actual temperature by using
emissivity in place of transmission factor) true
absolute temperature
T = e-1/4 Tn = (0.8) ~1/4 x 1753 =1853.7 °K
True temperature =1853.7-273 =1580.7 °C
Example 29.37 The emitted radiant energy from a
piece of metal is measured and the temperature is found to be
1065°C assuming a surface emissivity of 0.82. It was later
found out that the true emissivity is 0.75. Calculate the
error in temperature measurement.
Solution. Absolute temperature with emissivity
of 0.82
= 1065 + 273=1338 °K
:. Apparent absolute temperature is,
Ta = (0.82)~1/4(1338) = 1273°K
Actual absolute temperature when the emissivity
is 0.75,
Tn = (0.75)-1/4 (1273) =1368 °K
Actual temperature = 1368 -273 = 1095 °C
Hence error in temperature measure
= 1065 - 1095 = -30 °C
29.42 MEASUREMENT OF FLOW
There are a number of devices for sensing the rate
of fluid flow. They mainly operate on the principle of
placing an obstruction in the path of fluid causing a
change in fluid pressure which is dependent upon the
rate of flow. Thus by measuring the difference in
pressure before and after the obstruction by means of
a differential pressure sensor, the rate of flow may be
determined. They are, in fact, mechanical means of
measuring rate of liquid flow. The examples of these
flow meters are : Orifice plate, venturi tube and Rota­
meter. Some of these methods have been explained in
Chapter 25. These are indirect means of measuring
fluid flow. However, there are some direct methods of
measuring fluid flow which are described below.
These methods employ electrical means directly.
29.42.1 Turbine Meters
There have been extremely rapid developments in
turbine meters in recent years, partly because of the
 I i Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
advances in electronics technology and the case with
which the output may be used to indicate rate of flow
or be integrated to give total flow. An exploded view
of the meter is shown in Fig. 29.83.
Turbine flow meters are volumetric flow meters
and are available in wide ranges. The output is usually
in the form of a digital electrical signal whose
frequency is directly proportional to flow rate and
whose total count is proportional to the total quantity,
as each pulse represents a discrete volume.
Fig. 29.83 Turbine flow meter.
Figure 29.83 shows a magnetic pickup type of
turbine flow meter. A feature of this turbine meter is a
hydraulically supported turbine rotor. A permanent
magnet sealed inside the rotor body is polarized at 90°
to the axis of the rotation. As the rotor rotates so does
the magnet and therefore rotating magnetic field is
produced. This produces an a.c. voltage pulse in the
pick-up coil located external to the meter housing. The
frequency of this voltage is directly proportional to the
rate of flow. The pulse can be totalized by a counter to
give the value of total flow over a particular interval of
time.
Advantages :
(z) The output is in electrical digital form which
lends itself admirably to line or radio
telemetry for recording or control at a distant
point.
(ii) Passage of rotor past the pick up coil
produces an emf which can be converted to a
d.c. analog voltage by a D/A converter for
indication on a conventional d.c. instrument
or recorded on a potentiometric recorder.
(iii) The pulse output may be summed on a
simple counter giving totalized flow without
loss of accuracy. The error is approximately
± 0.5%.
Limitations :
(z) Errors may be caused by excessive frictional
torques. Also errors arise on account of wear
and corrosion of bearings. This calls for
special design of bearings.
(ii) The turbine is subject to variations in
performance caused by the characteristics of
the liquid, friction or bearings, etc. When the
flow rates approach zero, the slippage may
amount to 100%, i.e., the turbine stalls and
registers zero output. Therefore, at low flow
rates, there is a possibility of large errors.
29.42.2 Electromagnetic Flow Meters
Electromagnetic flow meters are particularly
suitable for the flow measurements of slurries, sludge
and any electrically conducting liquid.
A schematic diagram of an electromagnetic
flowmeter is shown in Fig. 29.84. It consists basically
of a pair of insulated electrodes buried flush in the
opposite sides of a non-conducting, non-magnetic
pipe carrying the liquid whose flow is to be measured.
Fig. 29.84 Electromagnetic flow meter.
The pipe is surrounded by an electromagnet which
produces a magnetic field. The arrangement is
analogous to a conductor moving across a magnetic
field. Therefore, voltage is induced across the
electrodes. This voltage is given by :
E = Blv volt
where B = flux x density ; Wb I m2,
I = length of conductor - diameter of pipe ; m,
and v = velocity of conductor (flow); m/s
Thus, assuming a constant magnetic field, the
magnitude of the voltage appearing across the
electrodes will be directly proportional to velocity.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1111
Non-conducting pipe has to be used as the output
voltage gets short circuited if metallic pipes are used.
This is true when liquids of low conductivity are being
measured. But when liquids of high conductivity are
measured the short circuiting has no effect. Stainless
steel pipes can then be used. The voltages produced
are small specially at low flow rates. Therefore, the
meter relies greatly on a high gain amplifier to convert
the induced voltage into a usable form.
Advantages :
(?) The electromagnetic flow meters may be
manufactured to measure flow in pipes of
any size provided powerful magnetic field
can be produced.
(??) The major advantage from a fluid handling
point of view is that with the electro-magnetic galvanic action of dissimilar metals used in meter
flow meter there is no obstruction to flow that construction may be of the same order as the signal.
may cause pressure drops.
(ii i) The output (voltage) is linearly rated to the drifts of very low frequency, the 50 Hz a.c. system can
input (flow rate).
(iv) The output is unaffected by changes is
characteristics of liquid such as viscosity,
pressure, and temperature.
Limitations :
(?) The operating costs are high particularly if
heavy slurries are handled.
(ii) The conductivity' of the liquid being metered
should not be less than lOpQ/m. As a
general rule it will be found that most
aqueous solutions are adequately conductive
while majority of hydrocarbon solutions are
not sufficiently conductive.
Comparison of D.C. and A.C. Excitation
The magnetic field used in electromagnetic now
meters can either be d.c. or a.c. giving rise to d.c. or an
a.c. output signal respectively. The d.c. is used in
limited applications due to many reasons :
(?) When d.c. excitation is used for materials of
very low conductivity and flowing at slow speeds, the
output emf is too small to be easily read off. This has to
be amplified for display and recording purposes. The
d.c. amplifiers have many inherent problems
especially at low levels. High amplification can be
more easily cheaply and more reliably done with a.c.
than with d.c. Therefore these applications require the
use of a.c. excitation of electromagnet to produce a.c.
emfs which can be easily amplified by a.c. amplifiers
and then fed to the display units.
(ii) Many hydrogen bearing or aqueous
solutions exhibit polarization effects when the
excitation is d.c. The positive ions migrate to the
negative electrode and disassociate, forming an
insulating pocket of geseous hydrogen. There is no
such action when a.c. is used.
(???) Another phenomenon which happens with
use of d.c. is that the d.c. field may distort the
flu id-velocity profile by magnetohydrodynamic
(MHD) action. An a.c. field (50 Hz) has little effect on
velocity profiles because fluid inertia and friction
forces at 50 Hz are sufficient to prevent any large fluid
motions.
(iv) Since the output of electromagnetic flow
meters is quite small (a few mV), interfering voltage
inputs due to thermocouple type of effects and
Since the spurious interfering inputs are generally
use high pass filters to eliminate them.
(v) While a.c. systems predominate, d.c. type of
systems have been used for flow measurements of
liquid metals like mercury. Here, no polarization
problem exists. Also, an insulating pipe linear or a
non-metallic pipe is not needed since the conductivity
of the liquid metal is very good relative to an ordinary
metal pipe. (Usually stainless steel pipes are used.)
This means that the metal pipe is not very effective as
a short circuit for the voltage induced in the flowing
liquid metal. When metallic pipes are used as with d.c.
excitation no special electrodes are necessary. The
output voltage is tapped off the metal pipe itself at the
points of maximum potential difference.
29.42.3 Hot Wire Anemometers
The hot wire anemometer is a device that is most
often used in research applications to study varying
flow conditions.
When a fluid flows over a heated surface, heat is
transferred from the surface and therefore its
(surface's) temperature reduces. The rate of reduction
of temperature is related to flow rate.
In a hot wire anemometer, heat is supplied
electrically to a fine wire placed in the flow stream.
The temperature of wire is determined by measuring
its resistance with a Wheatstone bridge. One method
involves adjusting the current through the wire so that
the temperature remains constant, and measuring the
heating current. In this way the bridge remains always
balanced. The current is measured by finding the
 1112 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
voltage drop across a standard resistor connected in
series with the heating wire (See Fig. 29.85). The
voltage drop is found by using a potentiometer.
Fig. 29.85 Measurement of rate of fluid flow using a
hot wire anemometer.
It can be shown that the loss of heat from the
heated wire :
= a(vp + b)1/2 J/s
where v - velocity of heat flow,
p = density of fluid,
and a and b are constants.
Constants a and b depend upon dimensions and
physical properties of wire and fluid. The values of
these constants are found by calibrating the
instrument against a static pitot tube.
Now supposing a current I flows through the wire
having a resistance R. Therefore under equilibrium
conditions,
heat generated = heat lost
or I2 R = a(vp + b)^2
Thus if the resistance and the temperature of the
wire are kept constant, the rate of fluid flow can be
measured by measuring current, I, through the heater
wire.
The transient conditions may be studied with an
oscilloscope. Time constants of the order of 0.1 ms are
obtained by using 0.0025 mm diameter platinum and
tungsten wires.
29.42.4 Flow Meter using Thermistors
Flow can be measured by using two thermistors
connected in two separate arms of a bridge circuit as
shown in Fig. 29.86. One thermistor is sealed in a
cavity in a brass block and the other thermistor is
mounted in a small pipe. When air flows through the
pipe, the temperature of the thermistor (place inside
the pipe) decreases because of conduction of heat. This
thermistor is thus cooled, and its resistance increases
which unbalances the bridge causing a current to flow
through the meter. The amount of cooling is
proportional to the rate of flow of air and the meter
may be calibrated to read directly the rate of flow in
the pipe.
Fig. 29.86 Flow measurements using a bridge circuit
having two thermistors.
This instrument can be designed to measure flows
as low as 15 x 10-12m3 / s. The instrument can measure
flow rates over a range of 100,000 : 1 by switching the
resistance in series with the output meter.
When the sensing thermistor of the flow meter is
placed in free air, the instrument becomes an
anemometer which measures velocity of air. It can be
calibrated to measure velocities of air from light
breeze to supersonic speeds.
Example 29.37 An electromagnetic flow meter is used
to measure the average flow rate of an effluent in a pipe of
50 mm diameter. The velocity profile is symmetrical and can
be assumed uniform. The flux density in the liquid has a
peak value of 0.1 Wb/m2, the output from the floiv meter
electrodes is taken to an amplifier of gain 1000 and
impedance betioeen the electrodes is 250 kQ. The input
impedance of the meter is 250 MCI.
(a) Determine the effluent average velocity when the
peak to peak voltage at the amplifier output is 0.2 V.
(fi) Given that the effluent conductivity decreases by
20 percent with the same flow rate, determine the
percentage change in reading at the amplifier output.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1113

Solution, (t?) Peak to peak voltage at amplifier d

=~ ...(29.81)
output = 0.2 V
Peak voltage at amplifier output = 0.2/2 = 0.2 V Similarly, a sinusoidal signal of frequency f Hz
This is the voltage under loaded conditions. travelling in the flow direction has a phase shift of:

From Eqn. 2.37, page 35, we have : AA 2nfd J

M = —— rad ...(29.82)
Voltage under loaded conditions c+v
El=-§L_ and that travelling against the direction of flow has a
1+ZOZL
phase shift of:
2nfd
or peak open circuit voltage rad -.(29.83)
EQ= El(1 + Zq/Zl) Velocity can, therefore, be determined by either
= 0.1 [1 + (250x103)/2.5x106] = 0.H V measuring the transit time or the phase shift.
The peak open circuit voltage at the amplifier Figure 29.87 shows a system which can be used
output terminal is : external to the pipe carrying the liquid. T and R are
respectively transmitting and receiving crystals. They
Eq = Blvx gain
are either pressed to the exterior of pipe or are
.-. Average flow rate immersed in the liquid so that the signal is transmitted
0.11 through the liquid.
v =---------------- z------T = 0.0002 m/s
0.1 x 50 x 10-3 x 103
(b) The effluent conductivity decreases by 20 per
cent and therefore its impedance increases to :
Zo = 1.2 x250x 103 =300x 103 Q =300 kQ

Therefore, for the same flow rate, the peak to peak

of voltage under loaded conditions
Fig. 29.87 Ultrasonic method for measurement of flow.
________ 2x0,11________
= 0.1964 V
[lx (300x 103)/(2.5x 106)] The oscillator provides a sinusoid signal of about
100 kHz to crystal T whereas crystal R acts as the
Percentage decrease in voltage receiver. The functions of T and R are reversed
0.2-0.1964 periodically by a commutating switch. The difference 29
x 100 = 1.78%
0.2 in transit times is,
2 dv
29.42.5 Ultrasonic Flow Transducer Af = Af2-Af1=^---- y ...(29.84)
(7 — V
Basically an ultrasonic transducer for flow rate
This is measured by a phase sensitive detector
consists of two piezoelectric crystals in the liquid or
driven synchronously with the commutator. Usually
gas separated by a distance. One of the crystals' acts as
c » v.
a transmitter and the other as a receiver.
The transmitter emits an ultrasonic pulse which is ...(29.85)
received at the receiver a time Af later. The transit time (7

in the direction of flow is, Hence, time Af is linearly proportional to flow

AR = —
c+ v
where d - distance between transmitter and
receiver; m,
c = velocity of sound propagation
in medium ; m/s,
v - linear velocity of flow ; m/s.
When the signal is travelling in the opposite
direction against the flow
velocity v. This system, though gives a linear
...(29.80) relationship, is subject to an error on account of
uncertainty of the value of c.
A system based upon frequency may be evolved.
Figure 29.88 shows two self-excited oscillating systems
created because of using the received pulses to
trigger the transmitted pulses in feed back arrange­
ment. The pulse repetition frequency in the forward
propagating loop is 1 / Af ( while that in the backward
loop is 1 / Af2.
 1114
d t (c+ucosO)
d r (c-ucos0)
AL =--------------- or L = -------------- -
2 (c+ycos0) d A Inductive, and
Hence difference in frequency,
V = /t-/2=^^ ...(29.86)
Equation 29.86 shows that the output is
independent of c, and is, therefore, not subject to
errors on account of errors involved in the value of c.
Fig. 29.88 Ultrasonic meter using feedback.
Also the output is linearly proportional to the
flow velocity v. Ultrasonic flow meters are presently
used for mainly liquids. The advantages are that there
is no obstruction to the flow, they are insensitive to
variations in viscosity, density and temperature, there
are no moving parts, there exists a linear relationship
between input and output, their dynamic response is
excellent and they lend themselves to bidirectional
flow.
However the complexity and relatively high cost
limit the use of this instrument for individual
applications.
The range is 0 -80 km/h for air with an accuracy of
± 0.5%.
29.43 MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID LEVEL
Electrical Methods
The direct conversion to liquid level position to
electrical signal is used in many instances. The
measurement is generally done by two conversions, so
that the liquid level is determined indirectly. The first
conversion usually is liquid level to a displacement
through a float in a liquid or a spring loaded plate in
contact with the surface in the case of granular solids.
This displacement is then converted into an electrical
signal by a secondary transducer connected to float or
plate. There are, however, many applications where
this is not possible and hence other methods like
optical or acoustic means or gamma rays are used.
Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
The electric transducers used for level measure­
ments are :
A Resistive,
A Capacitive.
29.42.1 Resistive Method
This method uses mercury as a conductor as
shown in Fig. 29.89. A number of contact rods are
placed at various liquid levels. As head h increases, the
rising level of mercury above the datum, shorts
successive resistors R and increases the value of h
directly.
Fig. 29.89 Measurement of level of liquids by
resistive method.
Advantages :
(z) Where there is a need for a fairly continuous
record of the level, more and more contact
rods can be added, with separate signal
outputs for each contact rod. The signal can
be used for indication and also for initiating
some control action to actuate valves or
pumps as well as warning lights and alarms
depending upon the level.
(zz) The system uses low voltage to eliminate
danger to the operators and to prevent arcing
at the contact points.
(iii) The signal can be transmitted to any desired
point.
(iv) These transducers can be used in pressurised
containers without packing glands or shafts.
(v) The unit is simple to calibrate since the
distance between the levels of contact rods
can be accurately measured and the indicated
value may be checked for each measured
value.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities I 1 « 5
Disadvantages :
(?) Due to arcing at the contact points, it is not
safe to use this transducer in explosive
atmosphere.
(zz) In order to have a stepless indication of the
liquid level, an extremely large number of
contact rods are needed.
(zzz) The contact rods are corroded by corrosive
liquids. In addition, the electric charges
promote corrosion.
(iv) These systems also present difficulties when
there is saturated vapour above the liquid
phase.
(v) Any changes in the conductivity of the liquid
causes serious errors.
29.43.2 Inductive Methods
The inductive level transducers are mainly used
for measurement of level of conductive liquids
employing variable permeability method. The
arrangement shown in Fig. 29.90 uses two coils and
L2 wound around a steel tube containing the liquid.
The coils are connected in series through a resistance
and the circuit is energised by an alternating current
source. The inductance of each coil is initially equal
say about 250 pH One coil say Lj acts as the search
coil. It can be set at a predetermined level. The
inductance of the search coil changes rapidly as the
conducting liquid moves into the plane of the coil. The
method works well because the tape material is
weakly magnetic and the liquid metal is a conductor
which allows eddy currents to flow in it. The
relationship between the output voltage and the liquid
level is essentially non-linear.
Fig. 29.90 Measurement of liquid level with variable
permeability method.
Another method uses the loading of secondary
winding of a transformer. This method is applicable to
good electrical conducting materials like mercury.
This is shown in Fig. 29.91.
Fig. 29.91 Liquid level determination by loading of
secondary winding.
A coil is wound round one core of a two limbed
transformer. The mercury column surrounding the
iron core forms the secondary of the transformer. The
resistance of the secondary winding depends upon the
height of the mercury column and therefore the power
consumption as monitored on the primary side is
indicative of the liquid level.
29.43.3 Capacitive Methods
1. Variable Area Method
The variable area capacitive transducer is used for
measurement of levels of both solids and liquids. The
electrical conducting container containing the materials
is used as one connection point of the transducer. The
other point is a metal rod completely covered by
insulating material inside the container. The
insulating material acts as the dielectric medium and
the capacitance varies linearly with the height of the
material.
The relationship is given by :
_ 2 Tt&h „
C =---------------- F ...(29.87)
loge(d2/di)
where £ = permittivity of the insulator : F/m
d^ = diameter of the metal rod ; m,
h = height of material; m,
and d2 = external diameter of the insulator ; m
The container should be earthed to avoid any
danger of electric shock to the personnel and to
prevent any errors due to external metallic objects.
2. Capacitive Voltage Divider Method
In case, the conductivity of a liquid is high, its
surface can be used as one electrode of the capacitor.
The other electrode is a fixed reference plate parallel to
the surface of the liquid. A system incorporating these
features is shown in Fig. 29.92. This uses an auxiliary
electrode P^ placed at a fixed distance above the
reference electrode P2. The two electrodes P1 and P2
are electrically insulated from each other. An a.c.
voltage is applied between the liquid and the
electrode Pv
 1116 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Fig. 29.92 Capacitive voltage divider method for
measurement of level of high conductivity liquid.
Potential of electrode P2 with respect to earth
Eo = E. —C1 - V
0 'c1 + c2
Capacitance C2 is inversely proportional to the
distance between the liquid surface and P2. Thus the
output voltage decreases with rise of liquid level and
therefore the relationship between them is non-linear.
3. Variable Dielectric Constant Method
If the liquid is non-conducting it can be used as a
dielectric in a capacitor. Article 25.28.5 on page 819
explains the measurement of liquid level with
variation of dielectric constant.
The arrangements for measurement of liquid level
for non-conducting liquids are explained below :
Figure 29.93(a) shows an insulated metal electrode
firmly fixed near and parallel to the metal wall of the
C * To measurement
or control circuit
Insulated metal
electrode
Tank
Fig. 29.93 Measurement of liquid level using
capacitive transducers.
tank. If the liquid is non-conductive, the electrode
and the tank wall form the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor with the liquid in between them acting as
the dielectric. If the liquid is conductive the rod
and the liquid form the plates of the capacitor, and the
insulation between them is the dielectric.
The capacitance of this capacitor depends, among
other factors, upon the height of the dielectric between
the plates. The greater the height, the greater the
capacitance. The lesser the height, the smaller is the
capacitance. Thus, the capacitance is proportional to
the height of the liquid in the tank.
Where the tank is not of metal, two parallel
insulated rods (electrodes) kept at a fixed distance
apart are used as shown in Fig. 29.93(b). The two rods
act as two plates of a parallel plate capacitor. The
higher the liquid level, the greater is the capacitance.
X^The capacitance in the above cases may be
measured and this measured capacitance is an
indication of liquid levels.
29.43 .4 Measurement of Liquid Level with
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are being increasingly used for
detection of liquid levels. A source of gamma rays is
placed at the bottom of the tank. A sensor of gamma
rays like a Geiger Muller tube is placed outside the
tank near the top. (See Fig. 29.94.)
Fig. 29.94 Measurement of liquid level using
Gamma rays.
As the gamma rays can penetrate the tank walls,
the tube senses the rays and greater the intensity of
other rays, the greater will be the output of this tube.
Now the intensity of the rays will depend upon the
liquid level. Maximum radiation will reach the Geiger
Muller tube if the tank is empty. But if there is some
liquid in it, some of the rays will be absorbed by the
liquid and the radiations reaching the tube will be
small, and hence its output is small. The higher the
level of the liquid, the greater is the absorption and
hence lesser will be the output of the Geiger Muller
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1117
tube. Thus the output of the Geiger Muller tube is
inversely proportional to the liquid level. The output
of the Geiger Muller tube is in the form of pulses
which may be counted by a counter. Thus the counter
may be directly calibrated in terms of the liquid level.
29.43 .5 Ultrasonic Method
An ultrasonic transmitter receiver can be
mounted on the top of for measurement of level of
either solids or liquids as shown in Fig. 29.95. The
beam is projected downwards by the transmitter and
Fig. 29.95 Measurement of level by ultrasonic method.
is reflected back by the surface of the solid or liquid
contained in the tank. The beam is received by the
receiver. The time taken by the beam is a measure of
the distance travelled by the beam. Therefore, the time
't' between transmitting and receiving a pressure
pulse is proportional to the distance 'h' between the
ultrasonic set and surface of the contents of the tank.
Or t a h’ a (H -//) x.
Since distance H between ultrasonic set and the
bottom of the tank is fixed, time 't' is measure of
level 'h'.
i^.43.6 Measurement of Liquid Level
using Float
A float operated voltage potential divider is
shown in Fig. 29.96. As one liquid level rises in the
1g 29.96 Float operated voltage potential divider for
liquid level measurements.
tank, the float, which is generally a hollow ball, is
raised. Its arm causes the wiper to move over the
potential divider whose output terminals are con­
nected to a voltameter. As a float rises, a greater part
of the potential divider is included in the output
circuit giving an increased output voltage.
The output voltage V is proportional to the
liquid level h.
The output terminals from the potential divider
may also be taken to a remote location for display and
control.
29.44 MEASUREMENT OF THICKNESS
The electrical methods of measuring thickness
are :
A Resistive,
A Inductive,
A Capacitive,
A Ultrasonic and
A Nuclear.
29.44.1 Inductive Methods
Inductive methods of thickness measurement
use : (z) reluctance variation transducers, and (zz) eddy
current transducers. Figure 29.97(zz) shows the
measurement of thickness of a magnetic material
using a reluctance variation transducer. This
transducer has a U-shaped magnetic core over which a
coil is wound. The test piece completes the magnetic
circuit. Inductance of the coil depends upon the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit. The reluctance, in
turns depends upon the thickness of the test piece.
Higher the thickness, lower is the reluctance and
higher is the inductance. Therefore, the inductance of
the coil provides a measure of the thickness of the
magnetic test piece.
Transducer I Coil
Hnnri
magnetic base
(a) Magnetic material (b)Non-magnetic
Fig. 29.97 Measurement of thickness using reluctance
variation transducer.
 1118 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
The thickness of non-magnetic materials can also
be measured by the reluctance variation transducer.
The non-magnetic material is deposited or placed on a
magnetic base as shown in Fig. 29.97(b). The
ferromagnetic base is so thick that the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit is determined by the distance
between the ends of the U core and the base plate, i.e.,
by the thickness of the test piece. An increase in
thickness causes an increase in reluctance and a
decrease in inductance. Thus by measuring
inductance, the thickness can be known.
The measurement of thickness of conducting and
non-conducting materials using eddy current
transducers is shown in Figs. 29.98(a) and (b). The
eddy current transducer used for measurement of
thickness of non-magnetic but conducting materials
consists of a coil wound on an insulated core. The coil
is excited by an alternating current supply. The
alternating magnetic field produces eddy currents in
the test piece or its backing. The magnetic field
produced by eddy currents opposes the magnetic field
of the coil and therefore the inductance of the coil is
reduced. This system is suitable for measurement of
thickness of both magnetic and non-magnetic
materials, as well as non-conducting coatings like
paints on a metal backing. In the case of conducting
material as shown in Fig. 29.98(a), the higher the
thickness of test piece, higher will be the eddy currents
and lower would be the inductance of the coil.
(b) Non-magnetic
(a) Non-magnetic
conducting material non-conducting material
Fig. 29.98 Measurement of thickness using
eddy current transducers.
The measurement of thickness of a commonly used. When a voltage is applied to a
non-conducting material is done by depositing it on a
metal backing. If the thickness of the non-conducting
test piece is large the eddy current transducer head
and the metal backing are separated by a larger
distance and therefore the eddy currents are small and
consequently the inductance of the coil is large.
Metal coatings of thickness as low as 50 or 75 nm
and aluminium films down to a thickness of 125 - 500 pm
can be measured with the help of eddy current
transducers.
29.44.2 Capacitive Method
If the material is being tested is an insulator,
capacitive method using an arrangement shown in
Fig. 29.99 may be used. Two metal electrodes are
placed on the two sides of the insulating material
being tested. This arrangement forms a parallel plate
capacitor, the two electrodes acting as the two plates
with the insulating material acting as the dielectric.
The capacitance, naturally depends upon the
thickness of the insulating material under test. Thus
by measuring the capacitance of this arrangement, the
thickness of the insulating material may be
determined.
Insulating
Electrodes —
Fig. 29.99 Measurement of thickness of
insulating materials.
29.44.3 Measurement of Thickness using
Ultrasonic Vibrations
Ultrasonic vibrations are mechanical vibrations
employing a gas, liquid or solid as medium, and
whose frequencies are above the audio frequency
range. These vibrations are produced by a transducer
which converts the electrical output of an oscillator to
ultrasonic vibrations of corresponding frequencies.
There are two types of such transducers :
(z) Magnetostrictive type and
(zz) Piezoelectric type.
1. Magnetostrictive type. This transducer consists
of magnetic rod placed in coil. The coil is excited by an
oscillator. The alternating field produces deformations
in the magnetic rod, making it longer and shorter
alternatively. This results in corresponding vibrations
produced in a medium nearby (say air).
2. Piezoelectric type. This transducer is more
piezoelectric crystal, it becomes mechanically
deformed. Thus when alternating voltage from an
oscillator is applied to it, the piezoelectric crystal
changes its shape alternately in one direction and then
in the other at the frequency of the oscillator. In this
way, ultrasonic vibrations are produced.
The way ultrasonic vibrations are used to
measure thickness is shown in Fig. 29.100. The
transducer is placed on top of the test piece, and the
ultrasonic vibrations pass through it. When the
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities I1 19
frequency of the oscillator is varied and standing
waves are set up of at certain frequencies. The value of
these frequencies depend upon the thickness of the
test piece. The setting up of standing waves is
indicated by a sudden sharp rise in power absorbed
from the transducer. Thickness t - c/2f where c is the
velocity of sound in the test piece, and f is the lowest
frequency at which standing waves occur.
Ultrasonic method can be used for measurement
of thickness of steel ranging from 3 mm to 30 cm.
Variable frequency
ultrasonic oscillator
Voltmeter
Fig. 29.100 Measurement of thickness by
ultrasonic transducer.
29.44.4 Nuclear Radiation Methods
Nuclear radiation methods use either alpha, beta,
gamma or X-rays as radiation obtained from
radioactive sources. The radiation source is shielded
all around except in the direction of the detector. A
radiation detector such as a Geiger Muller tube
ionization chamber or a scintillation counter explained
in Arts. 29.52 and 29.53 are used for measuring the
amount of radiation reaching the detector.
A method using X-rays for measurement of
thickness is shown in Fig. 29.101. The X-ray source
radiates to two detecting cells through a sheet of
known thickness and through a similar sheet whose
thickness is to be measured. The detecting cells are
electron multiplier cells modified to respond to X-rays
only. When the thickness of two sheets i.e., the thick­
ness of sheet of known thickness and the thickness
of the sheet under test are equal, the amplifier input is
zero and hence the indicating instrument reads
zero. (The indicating instrument is a centre zero
instrument.) The indicating instrument may be
directly calibrated in terms of the relative thicknesses
of the two sheets.
X-ray source
Fig. 29.101 Measurement of thickness using
X-ray methods.
The advantages of using X-rays system are :
(?) It measures thickness without contact with
the material under test.
(ii) This method is well-suited to measurement of
thickness of sheet in rapid motion like in
rolling etc.
Gamma and X-rays are normally used for heavy
metals and thick test pieces. Beta rays are used for thin
metal sheets or foils, paper, rubber and plastics.
Alpha-rays are used for very thin foils whose
thickness is of the order of mm.
Beta, Gamma and X-rays may be used in the
examination of hidden flows in castings. In this case
the penetration power of different X-rays may be used
advantageously.
29.45 MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY
Humidity. Humidity is the measure of water
vapour present in a gas. It is usually measured as
absolute humidity, relative humidity or dew point
temperature.
Absolute humidity. It is the mass of water vapour
present per unit volume.
Relative humidity. It is the ratio of water vapour
pressure actually present to water vapour pressure
required for saturation at a given temperature. The
ratio is expressed in percent. Relative humidity (RH)
is always dependent upon temperature.
29.45.1 Hygrometers
A hygrometer measures the value of humidity
directly. Generally, the output of a Hygrometer is
used to indicate relative humidity.
 1 1 20 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Several materials exhibit changes in electrical
properties that are caused by humidity. These are
frequently used in transducers that are designed and
calibrated to read relative humidity directly.
1. Resistive Hygrometer
Some hygroscopic salts exhibit a change in
resistivity with humidity. The most common is
lithium chloride. This, with a binder, may be coated on
a wire or on electrodes. Resulting resistance changes
cover a wide range, e.g., 104 to 109 Q as the humidity
changes from 100 to 0 percent. This makes it
impractical to design a single element to operate from
1 to 100 percent relative humidity. Instead several
elements are used, each in a narrow range, with
provision for switching elements. Resistance is
measured either with a Wheatstone bridge or by a
combination of current and voltage measurements.
Most of these must not be exposed to conditions
of 100 percent humidity as the resulting condensation
may damage the device. Either they must be operated
in a constant temperature environment or
temperature corrections must be made. These are
accurate to within ± 2.5 percent or ± 1.5 percent in
some cases. Response times are typically of the order
of a few seconds. These are currently the most
common electronic hygrometers.
A typical resistive hygrometer is shown in
Fig. 29.102. It shows a mixture of lithium chloride and
carbon which acts as conducting film. This is put on an
insulating substrate between metal electrodes.
Fig. 29.102 Resistive hygrometer.
The resistance of the element changes when it is
exposed to variations in humidity. The higher the
relative humidity, the more moisture the lithium
chloride will absorb, and lower will be its resistance.
The resistance of the sensing unit i$a measure of
the relative humidity. Resistance should be measured
by applying a.c. to the Wheatstone bridge. D.C.
voltage is not applied because it tends to breakdown
the lithium chloride to its lithium and chlorine atoms.
The current flow is a measure of the resistance and
hence of the relative humidity.
2. Capacitive Hygrometer
Some hygroscopic materials exhibit a change in
dielectric constant with humidity changes. In
addition, the presence of water vapour in air changes
the dielectric constant of the mixture. In either case,
the changes are small, and the change in capacitance is
usually measured by including it as the
frequency-determining element in an oscillator,
heterodyning this signal with a beat frequency
oscillator, and measuring the resulting difference
frequency. These transducers have response time of
about 1 s.
3. Microwave Refractometer
For secondary standards, a system consisting of
two cavities, each of which is coupled to a klystron,
may be employed. One cavity contains dry air, the
other contains the mixture to be measured. The
change in dielectric constant changes the frequency of
one oscillator. This difference is measured
electronically. The complexity of the devices
precludes their use except in very special situation.
4. Aluminium Oxide Hygrometers
The aluminium-oxide coating on anodized
aluminium exhibits a change in dielectric constant and
a change in resistivity with a change in humidity. A
hygrometer that uses this is built by using the base
aluminium as one electrode and depositing a very thin
electrode — usually gold — on the opposite side of the
oxide as shown in Fig. 29.103.
Fig. 29.103 Aluminium oxide hygrometer.
This thin electrode is porous to the air-vapour
mixture. The resulting changes in resistivity and
capacitance lead to a complex impedance changes,
which is measured with a bridge or related methods.
Errors are less than ± 3 percent and response times are
about 10 s. The changes are large, but often only one
sensing element is needed for the entire range to be
covered. This hygrometer is rapidly becoming a very
important component in electronic systems.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities I '' 2 1
5. Crystal Hygrometer
Some crystals are hygroscopic, and others may be
coated with a hygroscopic material. The coating
materials are hygroscopic polymers. The crystals are
used as frequency determination elements in
electronic oscillators. Frequency shifts with humidity
as the mass of the crystal changes with amount of
water absorbed by coating are measured
electronically. These transducers are useful if a
telemetry system is needed because the frequency
range can be chosen as a standard telemetry
frequency.
A crystal hygrometer using quartz is shown in
Fig. 29.104.
Fig. 29.104 Crystal hygrometer.
29.46 MEASUREMENTS OF SOUND USING
MICROPHONES
29.46.1 Microphones
A microphone is a special type of pressure
transducer converting acoustic energy — pressure
waves — into electrical energy for measurement.
Invariably the sensing element is a diaphragm. A
variety of transduction elements are available. The
range of pressure to be measured is normally small
compared with ambient (atmospheric) pressure, even
for the most intense sounds. Desirable characteristics
include linearity over a wide range of amplitudes and
frequencies. Directional patterns must be considered.
Sound pressure levels are commonly expressed in db.
The commonly used pressure reference being
20 x 10-5 N/m2.
This reference corresponds to the lowest audible
sound in a normal human ear. A pressure of 90 db or
0.632 N/m2 is normally the maximum sustained level
human beings can tolerate (threshold of pain).
The sensitivity of a microphone is a measure of
the voltage developed per unit sound pressure. It is
given by :
Sensitivity (db) =20 log10 (voltage output)
+ 74 db (applied sound pressure in db)
Thus a sensitivity of - 20 db means that a voltage
of 0.1 V will be developed by a sound signal of
pressure level 74 db which is the reference condition
of sensitivity.
29.46.2 Types of Microphones
1. Carbon Microphones
The moving diaphragm is mounted so as to
compress together grains of carbon, thus changing the
resistance in a circuit. The device is externally powered
from a constant-voltage source and the resulting
current is thus a function of the sound pressure. The
most common application of these is in telephones.
Their frequency range is limited to a maximum of
about 5 kHz. The output impedance is low, and the
sensitivity is high, about 400 db. These find little
application in the field of sound measurements.
2. Capacitive Microphones
The moving diaphragm is used as one plate of the
capacitor. A constant charge is maintained on the
plates from a 200 to 500 V supply. The changes in
capacitance cause a change in the capacitor voltage.
An emitter follower is usually located close to the
microphone, reducing the inherently high output
impedance and reducing the distortion caused by
noise. These are expensive, but accurate, instruments.
They are used for precision measurements, and as
standards. Their fre quency range is up to 50 kHz and
are reasonably sensitive. A typical sensitivity is
-50 db. The high voltage supply, however, is often
inconvenient to provide.
3. Dynamic Micropi s
These microphones use the electromagnetic
transduction principle. A dynamic microphone is
shown in Fig. 29.105. An a.c. voltage is generated
Permanent
Magnet
terminals
Fig. 29.105 Dynamic Microphone.
 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
when a coil is moved in a magnetic field. A membrane
is mechanically linked to a moving coil surrounded by
a permanent magnet. The membrane and the coil are
suspended so that they can move back and forth. The
sound pressure waves force the membrane towards
the magnet, moving the coil across the magnetic field.
The voltage developed across the coil terminals is a
direct result of the motion of the coil, which clearly
depends upon the force of pressure waves. They are
self-generating and have low sensitivity, typically
- 80 do and a low output impedance. Their frequency
response is limited to about 20 kHz. These find field
application but are seldom used in precision
measurements.
4. Inductive Microphones
The diaphragm causes changes if the magnetic
properties of certain materials. In turn, these changes
appear as changes in dimensions, which are sensed by
displacement transducers. These have low output
impedance low sensitivity (- 100 db), and operate in
the ultrasonic region. They find application in
underwater transducers.
5. Piezoelectric Microphones
These self-generating microphones have been
developed for use in a wide variety of situations. The
problems of piezoelectric devices in general apply.
These problems include high output impedance,
temperature dependence, and vibration sensitivity.
Microphones built with this transduction element
have a frequency response extending to the ultrasonic
region, above 100 kHz, and they have a low sensitivity
-50 to - 100 db. They also are very linear over a wide
range of amplitudes and are widely used in sound
measurement systems.
29.47 MEASUREMENT OF pH VALUE
Many industrial processes require that the acidity
or alkalinity of solutions be measured and controlled
if the process is to proceed effectively and efficiently.
The degree of acidity or alkalinity of aqueous solution
is determined by the relative concentrations of
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the solution.
When the hydrogen ions predominate, the
solution is acidic. Where the hydroxyl ions are in the
majority, the solution is alkaline. Since the product of
the hydrogen ion and hydroxyl-ion concentration in
any such solution has a constant value, measurement
of the hydrogen-ion concentration indicates not only
the acidity of a solution but its effective alkalinity as
well.
The dissociation constant is the product of
hydrogen (H’) ions and hydroxyl (OH)“ ions and this
product is always equal to ICT1 .
Hydrogen ion concentration is measured on a
scale called pH scale.
pH value of a solution is defined as the negative
logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration or
pH= - log10 (H+)
This scale ranges from 0 to 14.
For example, suppose the hydrogen ion
concentration is IO”14. Therefore, hydroxyl ion
concentration is 10° as the product of two has to be
10 . The pH value for such a solution is :
pH = -log10 (10-14) = 14.
On the other hand, suppose the hydrogen ion
concentration is 10°. This means that the pH value for
this solution is :
pH = -log(10°) =0
Therefore the hydrogen ion concentration can be
measured on a pH scale which varies from 0 to 14. In a
neutral solution, the concentrations of both hydrogen
and hydroxyl ions are equal i.e., both are 10-7.
Therefore, for a neutral solution :
pH = -log(10~7) = 7
Thus a neutral solution like pure water has a pH
value of 7.
Suppose the solution is acidic. Therefore the
hydrogen ion concentration is more. Suppose it is 10~5,
therefore the hydroxyl ion concentration is 10~9.
The pH value for this solution is :
pH = -log1(1(H+) = -log10(10-5) = 5
Thus for acidic solutions the pH value lies
between 0 to 7. In case of alkaline solution the pH
value is between 7 to 14.
For alkaline solutions the hydroxyl ion concen­
tration is more. Supposing hydroxyl ion concentration
is 10 and hence the hydrogen ion concentration is
10”12. The pH value for this solution is :
pH= - log10 (10-12) = 12
Thus we conclude that hydrogen ion
concentration is measured on a scale (the pH scale)
that ranges from 0 to 14. On this scale, neutrality is 7.0,
the value obtained when the hydrogen and
hydroxyl-ion are equal and balance each other, as is
the case with pure water. As the solution becomes
more acidic, its pH scale reading decreases below 7.
As the solution becomes more alkaline, its pH scale
reading increases above 7.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 123
The measurement of pH value is obtained by
immersing a pair of electrodes into the solution to be
measured and measuring the voltage developed
across them. The action is somewhat similar to that of
a voltaic cell where a pair of dissimilar electrodes are
immersed into an electrolyte.
In the pH cell, one of the electrodes, called the
reference electrode, is at a constant potential
regardless of the pH value of the solution under test.
The potential of the other electrodes, called the
measuring electrode, is determined by the pH value
of the solution. Thus the potential difference between
the two electrodes depends upon the pH value of the
solution.
The reference electrode [See Fig. 29.106(a)] is
made of glass and consists of an inner assembly
containing a solution of calomel (mercury chloride)
and mercury. This assembly is surrounded by a larger
glass tube, and the space between the two contains an
accurate solution of potassium chloride (KC1). A tiny
opening in the bottom of the electrode permits the
potassium chloride to diffuse very slowly into the
solution under test. In this way, electrical contact is
made between this solution and the calomel solution
of the electrode.
(«) Reference electrode (b) Measuring electrode
Fig. 29.106 pH cell.
The measuring electrode (also known as the glass
electrode') is somewhat similar to the reference
electrode [See Fig. 29.106(b)]. However, the mercury
calomel element is surrounded by a buffer solution of
constant pH. The bottom of the outer tube has no
opening. Instead, it tapers down to a tip made of thin
glass of special composition. At this tip a potential
difference is developed between the buffer solution
and the solution under test because of the difference in
the pH value of the two solutions. Since the pH value
of the buffer solution is constant, the net potential of
this electrode is a function of the pH value of the
solution being tested.
Both electrodes are mounted to form an assembly
that is inserted into the solution. The difference of
potential between the electrodes, which is a function
of the pH value of the solution under test, may be
measured by a voltmeter calibrated, units of pH value
or, after amplification it may be employed to actuate
some control device.
29.48 MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL-CONDUCTIVITY
(GAS ANALYZER)
When the chemical purity of a gas is to be
measured, the thermal conductivity gas analyzer is
used. The operation of this type of analyzer is based
on the vast difference in heat conductivity among
gases. Figure 29.107 shows the basic circuit for a
thermal conductivity gas analyzer.
29
gas analyzer circuit.
Note that a balanced bridge circuit is formed with
two sensing resistors acting as balanced legs of the
bridge. One sensing resistor is surrounded by the gas
to be analysed, whereas the other resistor is
surrounded by a reference gas (such as oxygen, pure
atmosphere etc.). Where practical, both gases are
maintained at the same pressure, water content, and
so forth.
The bridge is first balanced by exposing both
resistors to the same gas. Current flows through both
sensing resistors, as well as through resistors P and Q.
Resistor Q is adjusted for a "balance" or "zero set"
condition on the meter. Then the resistors are exposed
to the reference sample and gas sample.
 1124 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
If the gas sample contains elements having a
different thermal conductivity than the reference
sample, the bridge will be unbalanced. In some cases,
the meter reads out in terms of the thermal­
conductivity, whereas in other analyzers, the
indication is on a go-no go or good-bad basis.
Measurement of Thermal Conductivity
using Thermistors
For this application two thermistors are connected
in the adjacent arms of a Wheatstone bridge as shown
in Fig. 29.108. The bridge supply is high enough to
raise the thermistors above ambient temperature,
typically to about 150°C. One thermistor is mounted in
a static area to provide temperature compensation
while the other is placed in the medium to be measured.
Fig. 29.108 Measurement of thermal conductivity
with thermistors.
29.49 NUCLEAR INSTRUMENTATION
A lot of instrumentation is needed to measure the
amount of radioactivity encountered in nuclear
research work and for tracking of radiated alpha, beta
and gamma particles. The energy of these particles is
absorbed by other molecules, producing chemical
changes, ionization, or other reactions that produce
visual evidence of the presence of other particles.
These processes are used to detect, count and trace the
movement of such particles.
29.50 TYPES OF RADIATIONS
Radioactive materials emit nuclear radiations
which mainly consist of four parts :
1. Alpha-particles. The alpha-particle is a helium
nucleus consisting of two protons and one neutron. It
has a mass of 62 x IO-27 kg and carries a positive
charge of 3.2 x IO-9 C. The alpha-particle is the
heaviest and the slowest, travelling at speeds of from
1/10 to 1/100 of the velocity of light. Since it has the
greatest mass and slowest speed, it is least
penetrating. It penetrates about 0.02 mm of
aluminium foil.
2. Beta-particles. The beta-particle is an electron
with a mass of 9.03 x 10 kg and a charge of 1.6
x 10“19 C. Since beta-particle is much lighter than
alpha-particle and has a speed approximately equal to
that of light, it can penetrate much farther than
alpha-particle - about 100 times the penetration of
alpha-particle.
3. Gamma-particles. Gamma-particles or gamma
rays, are an electromagnetic radiation with a
wavelength of approximately 0.03 to 3 angstrom.
Gamma-particles travel at the speed of light, and
because of their shorter wavelengths, have very great
penetrating power. Gamma rays can penetrate about
20 cm through a mass of lead.
4. Neutrons. The mass of the neutron is
intermediate between that of alpha and beta-particles,
having the same mass as a proton. The speeds of
neutrons may be high or low depending upon the
source from which they are emitted. Because neutron
has no charge it is very difficult to detect. However, its
penetrating power is small.
The above mentioned properties and other
properties of these particles must be considered in the
methods and processes for their detection and
measurement. In the following pages, a few methods
of detection and measurement of the above mentioned
particles are described.
29.51 GEIGER MULLER TUBE
The Geiger Muller tube or simply Geiger tube are
frequently used for detection and measurement of
alpha, beta and gamma-rays. This tube is a diode,
consisting of a cathode which is a long metal cylinder
and an anode which is a fine wire running through the
centre of the cylinder. Both of them are mounted in a
thin walled, an tight, glass envelope, sealed by an
extremely thin window through which radiations may
pass at one end (See Fig. 29.109). The air is evacuated
from the envelope and a small amount of an inert gas,
such as Argon, is added.
Fig. 29.109 Geiger Muller tube.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 125
The voltage of the battery is kept below the
ionization potential of the gas. Now if radiation
penetrates through the window and enters the
envelope it would ionize some of the gas atoms. The
resulting negative ions go towards the anode and
positive ions towards the cathode. In their passage,
the ions collide with some of the gas atoms, causing
them to be ionized in turn. This process continues till
whole of the gas atoms are ionized. In fact complete
ionization takes place in no time. A pulse of current
thus flows through the tube. This current flows
through the resistance, R, which is connected in the
anode circuit. The resulting voltage drop across R is
the output voltage.
Once ionization is established, it is expected to
continue indefinitely. However, since resistor R,
which has a high resistance, is connected in series with
the anode and the battery, when the gas ionizes a
heavy current flows through resistance causing a large
voltage drop. This voltage drop is sufficient to reduce
the anode voltage below the ionization potential and
therefore ionization ceases.
As long as the gas is not ionized no current flows
through the resistance R and hence there is no output.
Thus when the gas deionizes, the current ceases to
flow through resistance R and so there is no output.
Now if radiation again enters the tube, the
ionization starts and a current again flows through
resistance R giving an output voltage. This way, a
series of alpha or beta-particles or bursts of gamma
rays, cause a series of current pulses to pass through
the anode circuit of the tube and hence through
resistance R. The output pulses from resistance R may
be amplified and registered by a counting device. By
counting the number of pulses, we can know the
number of particles entering the Geiger Muller tube in
a particular interval of time. The number counted
gives the intensity of radiation. The pulses may be
stored in some cases and the total count may be
calibrated directly in terms of radio-activity.
The counting rate of this tube is seldom greater
than 103 counts per second.
29.52 IONIZATION CHAMBER
This is quite similar to the Geiger Muller tube as
shown in Fig. 29.110. The ionization chamber is a
metal cylinder (the outer electrode) sealed at one end
by a window. The other end of the cylinder is closed,
and a metal rod (the centre electrode) protrudes
outside the cylinder on this end.
Window
~\ Rod (Central-7 Insulation
Radiationn \ electrode) / rrJ;
Kl
Output
Metal cylinder -
(outer electrode)
Fig. 29.110 Ionization chamber.
The central electrode is grounded through
resistance R. Resistor R has a very high resistance. A
large positive potential is applied to the outer
electrode. The chamber contains a gas which may be
air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, argon or methane.
The action of this ionization chamber is similar to
that of Geiger Muller tube.
Let us consider that the chamber is filled with air.
When a nuclear radiation enters the chamber through
the window, some of the atoms of the air are ionized,
the resulting ions travel towards their respective
electrodes i.e., positive ions towards the central
electrode and the negative ions towards the outer
electrode. In the process of rushing electrodes, these
ions collide with other atoms of air causing ionization
of these atoms. The action is instantaneous.
As the positive ions collect on the central
electrode (which is at ground potential), the d.c.
potential of this electrode is increased. This increased
potential, which is the output signal of the chamber,
may then be amplified and measured. Since the
increase in this potential is a function of the number of
radiation particles that have entered the chamber, the
intensity of the nuclear radiation may be determined.
The main use of this chamber, is to detect and measure
alpha-particles.
29.53 SCINTILLATION COUNTERS
Certain crystals such as zinc sulphide, sodium
iodide, anthracene and naphthalene etc., produce a
brief flash of light each time they are struck by an
alpha or beta or gamma-particles. The production of a
flash of light by striking the crystals mentioned above,
with alpha or beta or gamma rays is called
Scintillation.
This principle is employed in a nuclear radiation
sensor called "Scintillation Counter".
 I 1 26 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
The construction of a scintillation counter is
shown in Fig. 29.111. Now every time a radiation
strikes the scintillation crystals, a tiny flash of light is
produced. The flash of light is amplified by a
photomultiplier incorporated in the scintillation
counter. Thus each particle produces a pulse of anode
current at the output of the photomultiplier. The
output of the photomultiplier is applied to a high
speed electronic counter which counts each tiny flash
generated by the scintillization crystals. Thus by
counting the number of pulses in a given period of
time, the intensity of radiation may be detected.
Fig. 29.111 Scintillation counter.
The advantages of a scintillation counter are :
(z) This is more sensitive than the Geiger Muller
tube and hence can detect lower levels of
radiation.
(zz) The crystals used in this device produce a
flash of light when struck by X-rays. Hence
this transducer may be used to detect X-rays
as well.
(zzz) Counting rate is very fast. Pulses of as short a
duration as 2 ns may easily be recorded.
Review Questions
1. A strain gauge having an unstrained value of
Rg = R is cemented to a cantilever [Fig. 29.112(zz)]
and is connected in bridge circuit where R3 = R4 =
R3 = R$ =R [Fig. 29.112(F)], The input voltage to the
bridge is e.
Calculate the output voltage when the strain is c
and the gauge factor for the strain gauge is Gy
Calculate also the gauge sensitivity.
29.54 SOLID STATE IONIZATION SENSING
ELEMENTS
A system for counting the number of particles or
photons whose energy level exceeds about 1,000
electron volt is built by using extrinsic semi­
conductors mounted so that the radiation ionizes an
atom in the crystal, and a pulse appears in the output
circuitry. Operation is normally at liquid nitrogen
temperatures. Counting rates as high as 10 per
second are possible.
29.55 DETECTION OF NEUTRONS
The neutrons do not carry any charge and hence
are very difficult to detect. Thus we have to adopt
indirect methods to detect them. Neutrons detecting
methods require an arrangement where alpha or
beta-ray particles are produced by neutrons and these
particles detected by the methods described above.
An indirect method of detection of neutrons is
described below :
A neutron is made to strike the atom of a certain
isotope of uranium. The uranium atom splits into two
or more parts on account of fission. This releases, in
the process, nuclear radiation in the form of alpha,
beta and gamma-rays, which may be detected by
methods described above. Thus, by measuring the
intensity of the radiations, the intensity of neutron
beam producing them maybe detected.
Only slow moving neutrons will produce fission
of uranium atoms. Where fast moving neutrons are to
be detected, a layer of paraffin is put on top of the
uranium layer of detector. The paraffin converts the
fast moving neutrons to the slow moving neutrons
required for fission.
(«) (b)
Fig: 29.112 Diagram of Example 29.1.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities
Two strain gauges, each having an instrained value
of R = R are cemented to a cantilever as shown in
Fig. 29.113(a). They are connected in a bridge
circuit as shown in Fig. 29.113(F)- Calculate the
output voltage when they are subjected to a strain
£. They have a gauge factor of and the input
voltage to the bridge is e and Ry - R% = R.
gteiiatKMiSM
pig. 29.113 Diagram of Example 29.2.
3. Four strain gauges each having a strained
resistance R^ = R = R^-. = R§4 = R are cemented to
a cantilever. They are subjected to a strain e. They
are connected in a bridge circuit as shown in
Fig. 29.114. Calculate the output voltage and also
the gauge sensitivity.
Pig. 29.115
10.
pig. 29.114 Diagram of Example 29.3.
4. Why are dummy gauges used ? In what way do
they affect the output of a strain gauge bridge ?
5. Derive the expression of output from the following
types of strain gauge bridges. Assume that the
bridge is equiarmed :
(/) quarter bridge, (zz) half bridge, (iii) full bridge.
6. Describe the different methods used for
compensation and cancellation the effects of
temperature changes which affect the resistance
elements used in strain gauge bridges. Assume
that all the four arms of the strain gauge have the
same value of resistance.
7. Explain the method of calibration of strain gauges.
8. Derive the expressions for stress in an element
subjected to bi-axial stress.
9. In a half bridge, the two strain gauges are
connected in Poisson's configuration. The
unstrained resistances of the two gauges Rand
R,t are equal as shown in Fig. 29.115 to the
resistances connected in the rest of two arms i.e.,
R . = R , = R. = R . = R. Calculate the bridge
gl X’3
sensitivity.
(«)
Diagram of Example 29.9.
Explain the function of Rosettes. Explain the
working of :
(/') Rectangular strain gauge rosettes,
(ii) Delta type strain gauge rosettes.
Derive expressions for :
(i) minimum and maximum stresses and strains,
(u) angle of principal stress,
(iii) shear stress,
in each case.
 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
11. Describe the method of measurement of
differential pressure using an inductive transducer.
12. Describe the methods of measurement of pressure
using
(zj Capacitive transducers,
(z’zj Photo-electric transducers.
13. Describe the following methods used
measurement of low pressures using :
(zj Thermocouple vacuum gauge,
(ii) Pirani gauge,
(iii) Ionization type vacuum gauge.
14. Explain the working of strain gauge type of torque
transducers. Explain its advantages and
disadvantages.
15. Explain the working of strain gauge type of torque
transducers. Explain its advantages and dis­
advantages.
16. Explain the following methods of measurement of
torque :
(i) digital methods, (ii) magnetostrictive methods.
17. Explain the construction, working and theory of a
drag cup type tachogenerator.
18. Describe the functioning of a stroscope and explain
how speed of a rotating shaft can be measured by
single pattern and multipattern disc. How is this
method used for measurement of slip of an
induction motor ?
19. Derive the expression for steady state amplitude of
output displacement of accelerometer.
(zj the frequency ratio u = cn, / co; versus ampli-
hide ratio —-characteristics.
Xml
(ii) the frequency ratio zz = cOj / co/; versus accelera-
(x7 - x.) co2
tion parameter —----- 1 m ■— characteristics.
where
(x2 ~x-l)m - steady state amplitude displacement
x2 = output displacement,
x1 = input displacement = xwl cos oij t,
xm} = amplitude of input displacement,
coj = angular frequency of input,
con = angular natural frequency,
aQ - maximum acceleration
Draw some important conclusions from the above
curves with regards to operation of accelerometers
working in,
(zj displacement mode and
(n) acceleration mode.
20. Describe the construction and working of the
following types of accelerometers :
(zj Potentiometric type, (zz) LVDT type,
(iii) Piezoelectric type.
Describe their advantages and disadvantages.
21. Describe the construction and working of a
for
resistance type thermometer. Describe the
advantages of 3 wire and 4 wire constructions.
22. Describe the construction and principle of working
of thermocouples. Describe the thermo-electric
laws and their applications.
23. Describe the construction and working of
Bimetallic thermometers. Derive the expression for
radius of curvature when the bimetallic element is
used as a cantilever. Describe the methods of
construction used for increasing their sensitivity.
Explain their applications, temperature range,
advantages and disadvantages.
24. Explain the theory of radiation pyrometers.
Describe the different radiation receiving elements.
25. Describe the construction and working of (zj total
radiation pyrometers (ii) infrared pyrometers
(iii) disappearing filament optical pyrometers.
List their fields of application, temperature range,
advantages and disadvantages.
26. Describe the construction, working and theory of
an electromagnetic type flow meter. Compare the
operations of this meter when it is excited by
(zj d.c. and (ii) a.c.
27. Describe the working of an nemometer when used
for measurement of flow of fluids.
28. Describe the working and theory of an ultrasonic
flow meter. List its advantages.
29. Describe the different electrical methods for
measurement of liquid level. Compare their
advantages and disadvantages.
30. Describe the different methods used for
measurement of thickness. Describe their
advantages and disadvantages.
31. Explain the different methods used for
measurement of humidity.
32. Describe the different sound transducers in use.
Describe their applications.
33. What is p-H value ? Describe the working of a p-H
meter.
34. Describe the working of a gas analyzer.
35. Describe the properties of (zj Alpha-particles,
(ii) Beta-particles, (iii) Gamma-rays and, (iv) Neutrons.
Describe the. different methods used for their
detection.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 1 29
Unsolved Problems
1. A strain gauge having an unstrained resistance of
350 Q and a gauge factor of 2 is connected in series
with a ballast resistance across a 10 V supply. The
ballast resistance is designed to give maximum
sensitivity. The gauge is subjected to a dynamic
strain of (10 + 20 sin 314 t) microstrain.
(zz) Find the expression for the change in output
voltage on account of strain.
(b) If a capacitor is connected in one output leads
and if the voltage is read by a true rms reading
voltmeter of infinite impedance, find the
output voltage.
[Ans. (a) [50 + 100 sin 314 t] pV, (b) 70.7 pV]
2. The resistance of a strain gauge is R - 120 Q and
its gauge factor is 2. It is connected in a current
sensitive Wheatstone bridge in which all
resistances are 120 Q. The input voltage is 4 V-
Calculate the detector current in gA for
1 microstrain. The resistance of the galvanometer is
100 Q.
Calculate the voltage output if 1 microstrain is
, applied to the gauge and the voltmeter has an
infinite input impedance. [Ans. 9.1 nA, 2 gV]
3. A strain bridge uses a strain gauge of 100 Q
resistance. Under no strain condition all the bridge
arms have equal resistance. The resistance R} has
to be changed to a value 100.52 Q (Figs. 29.2 and
29.3) to obtain balance when the gauge is subjected
to strain. The gauge factor is 2. Find the value of
strain.
[Ans. 0.0026]
4. A strain gauge having a gauge factor 2 is connected
in a bridge circuit having an excitation voltage of
8 V. The resistances are all equal. It is subjected to a
strain of 0.006. If this output is to represent 2/3 of
full scale deflection of a recorder, what should be
the gain of the amplifier. The full scale input
voltage of recorder is 1 V.
[Ans. 28]
5. A single strain gauge of gauge factor of 2 is used in
a Wheatstone bridge where each resistance is 120 Q.
If the bridge exciting voltage is 8 cos 1000 t and if
the gauge is subject to sinusoidally varying strain
of 300 pm / m peak value and a frequency of 10 Hz
(z) find the equation for the output voltage as
observed on a CRO (assuming infinite imped­
ance for the CRO,
(zz) reading of rectifier type voltmeter having an
infinite impedance and using full wave rectifi­
cation. Assume that the scale is calibrated in
terms of average value of voltage.
[Ans. (z) 1.2 cos 1000 t sin 20 n t mV,
(zz) 0.76 mV)
6. A bridge circuit has two fixed resistors and two
strain gauges all of which have a value of 120 Q.
The gauge factor is 2.04 and strain applied to twin
strain gauges, one in tension and the other in
compression is 165 x 10-6. If the battery current is
50 mA, determine the
(zj voltage output of the bridge,
(zz) the sensitivity in volt per unit strain.
If the galvanometer connected to output terminals
reads 100 pV per scale division and if l/10th of a
division can be read with confidence, determine
the resolution.
[Ans. (i) 0.202 V, (zz) 1.225 mV / ps, 0.008 ps]
7. In order to measure strain in a cantilever, two
gauges are used one on top of the cantilever and
the other at the bottom of the cantilever. The
resistance of strain gauges is 1 kfl each. The other
two resistances in the circuit have resistance of
100 Q each. The bridge detector resistance is 100 Q
and it sensitivity is 10 m/pA. Calculate the
deflection of the galvanometer for 0.1% strain. The
bridge supply voltage is 10 V. [Ans. 154 mm]
8. A gauge is made of a material having a resistance
temperature co-efficient of 12xlO-6/°C It has a
resistance of 120 Q and a gauge factor of 2. It is
connected in a bridge circuit having resistances of
120 Q each. The bridge is balanced at ambient
temperature. Supposing there is a change of 20°C
in the temperature of the gauge.
(zz) Find the output voltage of the bridge if the
input voltage is 10 V.
(b) What is the equivalent strain represented by
change in temperature ?
[Ans. (zz) 0.55 mV, (b) 120 ps]
9. Calculate the fractional change of resistance of
strain gauge made of nichrome V material
2
(zz) due to a stress of 200 MN/m in the metal to
which it is bonded,
(b) for a temperature change of 100°C when
bonded to steel,
(c) when bonded to Duralumin.
 1 1 30 Electrical and Electronic Measurements qnd Instrumentation

The modulus of elasticity for steel is^ 200 GN/m

while that for Duralumin is 70 GN/m . The gauge
factor is 2.5. The coefficients for linear expansion
are :
Steel : 12xlO-6/°C, Duralumin • 23x10 6/°C,
Nichrome V : 11.9 xlO-6/°C.
[Ans. 2.5 x 10“3, 0.025 x 10’3, 7.15 xlO-3, 2.7 x!0~3] pig. 29.116 Diagram of Problem 29.16.
10. A Wheatstone bridge is shown in Fig. 29.6. If RI = If the gauge factor is 2, the bridge supply voltage
R2 = R3 - R4 at balance and if Rj and R2 are two 4 V, and the modulus of elasticity 200 GN/m , find
strain gauges subjected to equal strains but of the minimum unbalance voltage which will have
opposite nature such that ARj = -AR^ while to be found for the force range specified. Assume
AR2 = AR4 = 0, prove the voltage of the bridge is that the detector has an infinite impedance.
linear function ARj, no matter how large ARp gets.
[Ans. 375 mV]
11. A gauge has a resistance of 120 Q and a gauge
17. A point on a vibrating body has a simple
factor of 2.1. It is shunted by a resistance of 100 kQ.
harmonic motion. Determine at frequency of 10 Hz
What equivalent strain will be indicated when the
and 10 kHz,
gauge is shunted ? [Ans. 570 microstrain]
(a) the amplitude of acceleration if its displace­
12. A gauge of resistance 120 Q and a gauge factor of
ment amplitude is 1 mm,
2.1 is to provide an equivalent strain of 100
microstrains. Find the value of shunt resistance. (F) its displacement amplitude it the acceleration
[Ans. 571, 880 Q]
amplitude is 1 g.
[Ans. (fl) 0.4 g, 400,000 g, (F) 2.5 m, 0.005 pm],
13. For an electrical strain gauge of resistance 100 Q
and a gauge factor of 2, determine the value of 18. An inductive pickup operating from a 60 tooth
shunt resistance to calibrate for a strain of wheel is used with a digital frequency meter to
determine the speed of rotation of a shaft on which
(a) 0.001, (F) 0.0005, (c) 0.0001
the wheel is mounted. The gating period is set to
[Ans. (fl) 499900 Q, (F) 99900 Q, (c) 49900 Q]
10 gs and a reading of 0.024 is obtained on the
14. Calculate the hoop and longitudinal stresses in a
4 digit display. What shaft speed does this
cylindrical pressure vessel. The modulus of
represent in r.p.s. ? If the available gating periods
elasticity of the material is 100 GN/m . The hoop are 10 , 10 , 10 , 10 , IQ7 and 10 gs respectively,
and the longitudinal strains are 425xl0-6and
what would be the optimum setting of gating
15xl0”9 respectively. The Poisson's ratio is 0.28.
period for making this measurement ?
[Ans. 49.6 MN/m2, 25.4 MN/m2] [Ans. 40 r.p.m., 107ps]
15. A rectangular rosette is mounted on a steel^plate
19. In order to measure a speed higher than flashing
having modulus of elasticity E - 200 GN/m and rate of stroboscope the flashing rate was gradually
Poisson's ratio = 0.3. The three strains measured reduced from the highest noting all the speeds at
are : which single image is observed of a mark on the
= 72 x 10"6, e2 = 120 x 10"6 and e3 = 248 x IO"6 rotating object. These speeds are 20,000, 15,000,
Calculate the principal strains and stresses, the 12,000 and 10,000 rpm. Calculate the actual speed.
maximum shear stress and the orientation angle [Ans. 60,000 rpm]
for principal axes. [Ans. 256.5 x IO 6, 63.5 x 10“6, 20. A stroboscope projects 6000 flashes per minute on
60.6 MN/m2, 102.3°] a disc with 10 patterns mounted on the shaft of a
machine.
16. A transducer is intended to measure forces in the
(a) Find the speed of machine it the disc appears
range of 5 N to 40 N. This transducer consists of
stationary and has a single image of points.
four strain gauges mounted on a cantilever as
shown in Fig. 29.116. The dimensions of cantilever (F) What would be the two possible shaft speeds if
the 10 points appear to be revolving once in 12 s ?
are I = 50 mm and F = 10 mm.
[Ans. (fl) 600 rpm, (F) 605, 595 rpm]
Find the required thickness, t, of the cantilever if
21. For the purposes of checking the dial calibration of
the stress on section A-A is to be limited to
2 a stroboscope the dial was set to 1000 rpm and
75 MN/m . The stress, s, on the cantilever is given
flashes were allowed to fall on the shaft of a
bys = Fl / 6 Ff2.
synchronous motor running perfectly at 1000 rpm.
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1131

The single image took 15 s to complete a rotation
and it was seen moving in the direction of rotation
of the shaft:
(«) What should have been the dial reading
instead ?
(b) If the image had been moving opposite to shaft
rotation, what should have been the dial
reading ? [Ans. (a) 996 rpm, (b) 1004 rpm]
22. Calculate the frequency ratio for which the error in
acceleration is 1% if the damping factor is 0.7.
[Ans. 0.306]
23. A seismic accelerometer sensing displacement has
an undamped frequency of 20 Hz and a damping
ratio 0.7. Calculate
(a) its damped frequency
(b) the amplitude ratio and phase angle between
the motion of the seismic mass and the applied
gauge resistance change and shock. The mass is
0.02 kg. The force rod has a modulus if elasticity of
0.1 GN/m . The cross-sectional area is 0.2 xlO-3 m 2.
The strain gauge has an unstrained resistance of
120 fl and a gauge rector of 2.03.
[Ans. 2.39 x 10~3 fl / g]
27. A resistance wire thermometer with a fundamental
interval of 10 fl is connected by two copper wires
into a Wheatstone bridge, with no compensating
leads. Each of the connecting wires has a resistance
of 4 fl at the ambient temperature at the time of
calibration. If the range of the bridge indicator is
0 - 250 °C, find the approximate error, as a
percentage of f.s.d. which will be caused by a
change of 10°C in the temperature of leads. The
resistance temperature co-efficient of copper is
0.0044/°C. [Ans. 1.4%]

vibration if the later is a sinusoidal displace­ 28. The hot junction of a chromel alumel thermocouple
ment at a frequency of (i) 30 Hz and(iz) 1 kHz. is connected to a potentiometer terminals is at
24°C. The potentiometer whose terminals are 24°C
[Ans. (a) 14 Hz, (b) 0.92, 120° 46', 10.178°.24]
reads 25.76 mV. What is the temperature of the
24. A piezoelectric accelerometer has a transfer
thermocouple junction ? The calibration chart of
function of 61 mV/g and a natural frequency of
the thermocouple is :
4500 Hz. In a vibration test at 110 Hz, a reading of
3.6 V peak is obtained. Find the vibration peak Temperature °C Voltage, mV
displacement. [Ans. 1.21 mm]
20 0.8
25. An accelerometer shown in Fig. 29.33 consists of a
mass 50 g attached to a spring cantilever. The 24 0.95
spring is made from mild steel having an elastic 28 1.12
modulus of 206 GN/m and is of uniform
rectangular cross-section. The output is obtained
from a strain gauge bridge and amplifier. Two 480 26.25
29
active gauges are used, one is each side of 488 26.72
cantilever. The unstrained resistance of gauges is 493 26.04
200 fl each and the resistance of other two arms are
10 kQ each. Determine the horizontal acceleration [Ans. 488°C]
if the amplifier output is 1 V. The output of 29. A thermopile arrangement of the copper
amplifier is given by constantan thermocouple consists of free junction
e0 =30(1^/^) G/E parts and has the reference junction at 200°C. If the
The gauge factor is 2. output voltage is 3.3 mV, determine the
The dimensions of the frame are : / = 90 mm, temperature of the detecting junction. The
b = 10 mm, d = 0.5 mm. calibration chart for a thermocouple junction is :

26. An accelerometer for shock is designed as shown

Temperature °C Voltage, mV
in Fig. 29.117. Find the relation between strain
100 4.22
200 9.23
250 11.95

[Ans. 171.95°C]
30. A PMMC instrument has a resistance of 5 fl and is
calibrated to read correctly when the resistance of
Fig. 29.117 Diagram of Problem 26. the external circuit is 2 fl. Calculate the percentage
 1 1 32 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

error if the resistance of the circuit is changed to 33. The liquid level in a tank is to be measured using
4 Q. What would have been the error if the PMMC the upthrust from a float shown jn Fig. 29.118- The
instrument had a resistance of 500 Q ? upthrust deflects a cantilever orj which a float is
[Ans. 22.2%, 0.397%] mounted- The deflection is measured by a voltage
potential divider and a voltmeter. The sensitivity
31. The emf of an iron-constantan thermocouple is to
of the transducer is 10 V/mn. Jf the maximum
be measured by the potentiometer shown in
height h of the wafer in the tank is2 2 m and
Fig. 29.69. A potential difference of 1.0186 V is
cross-section area of the float is 0.2 m , calculate
applied over points AB and is standardized using a
the required stiffness of the cantilever in N/mm if
Weston cell. The current through the resistors is to
the meter range is 50 V-
be 2 mA, and the range of temperature measure­
ment is to be from 250°C to 850°C. Calculate the
value of resistance Rj, R2 and R3 for an ambient
temperature of 20°C. The emf of the iron
constantan couple with reference junction at 0°C
is :
emf at 20 °C = 1.019 mV,
emf at 250 °C = 13.553 mV,
emf at 850 °C = 48.716 mV
[Ans. Rj = 6.27 Q, R,_ = 485.5 Q, Rs = 17.58 Q]
32. In a radiation pyrometer, the energy emitted from
a piece of metal is measured. A surface emissivity
of 0.82 is assumed and the temperature is
determined as 1000 K. However, it is later found
that the emissivity is 0.76. Find the error in the
temperature determination. [Ans. 19°C] pig. 29.118 Diagram of Problem 33.

V
Objective Type Questions
sensitive Wheatstone bridge. This bridge configu­
1. In a ballast circuit, the resistance of ballast and the
ration is called :
strain gauge are 100 Q each. The input voltage is
10 V. The gauge factor of the strain gauge is 2 and a (a) a quarter bridge (b) a half bridge
strain of 10-6 is applied, the output voltage of the (c) a full bridge (d) a null bridge-
ballast circuit is : 4, Dummy strain gauges are used for j
(a) 0.25 pV (b) 1 pV (a) compensation of temperature changes
(c) 0.5 pV (d) 2 pV (b) increasing the sensitivity of bridge in which
2. When measuring strain, ballast circuits use a they are included
capacitor to act as high pass filter. This is done (c) compensating for different expansion
when :
(d) calibration of strain gauges.
(a) static strains are being measured
5. The output of a strain gauge bridge using two
(b) dynamic strains are being measured
active strain gauges used in Poisson's configu­
(c) both static and dynamic strains are being ration is
measured
v Gf£e: y GfEe-
(d) none of the above.
W-p ot-4-
3. Two strain gauges are used to measure strain in a
cantilever. One gauge is mounted on top of the
(l + v)Gfee- (l + v)Gfee-
cantilever and the other is placed at the bottom. w—w—
The two strain gauges form two arms of a voltage
Measurement of Non-Electric Quantities 1 1 33

where v = Poission's ratio, 13. In d.c. tachogenerators used for measurement of

Gy = gauge factor, speed of a shaft, frequent calibration has to done
because
8 = strain
(a) the contacts wear off
and e. = excitation voltage of bridge.
(b) the strength of permanent magnet decrease
6. Hoop stresses act:
with age
(a) in radial direction
(c) the armature current produces heating effects
(b) in axial direction
(d) all the above.
(c) in both radial and axial directions
14. In a drag cup type a.c. tachogenerator, the output
(d) none of the above.
voltage is :
7. Strain gauge rosettes are used
(a) sinusoidal
(a) when the direction of principal stress is known
(b) in the form of pulses
(b) when the direction of principal stress is not
(c) modulated waveform
known
(d) constant d.c. because rectifiers are used.
(c) when the direction of hoop stress is not known
15. A toothed type tachogenerator has 60 teeth. A
(d) when the direction of longitudinal stress is not
magnetic pick up is used in conjunction with it.
known.
The number of pulses generated per second in the
8. For a rectangular rosette shown in Fig. 29.17,
magnetic pick up is :
8j =20x10^, 82 =-40 x10-6 and e3 = 100xl0-6,
(a) 3000 (b) 1500
the angle of principal stress is
(c) 1800 (d) 1200
(fl) 34.1° (b) 68.2°
if the speed of the shaft to which the toothed wheel
(c) 248.2° (d) 124.1°
connected is 25 rps.
9. In a thermocouple pressure gauge, the temperature
16. An induction motor is rotating at a speed of
of heater element is a function of pressure for
1470 rpm. A disc marked with one star is attached
pressure ranges
to it. A stroboscope flashes light on it at a
(zt) above atmosphere frequency of 12.5 flashes per second :
(b) below 1 mm of Hg (a) it is observed that the star mark moves at a
(c) below 10-3 mm of Hg speed of 30 rpm in the direction of rotation
(d) below 1 pm of Hg. (b) it is observed that the star mark moves at a
10. Pirani gauge is useful for measurement of pressure speed of 30 rpm against the direction of rota­
(a) between 10-1 to 10-3 tion

(b) between 10-1 to 10-6 mm of Hg (c) it is observed that the star mark remains
stationary
(c) 10-1 to 10-9 of Hg
(d) it is observed the star mark moves against the
(d) between 10-1 to 10-12 mm of Hg.
direction of rotation at a speed of 60 rpm.
11. In ionization types of vacuum gauges, the pressure
17. When seismic transducers are used in the
is P is acceleration made they should be designed with
(fl)PxIG/Ip (a) stiff springs and small mass
(b) oc Ip / IG (b) heavy mass and weak springs
(c) °c I / Iq (c) weak springs and small mass.
(d) IP/IK 18. When accelerometers operate in the displacement
where IG = grid current, Ip = plate current and mode the ratio of forcing frequency to natural
Kk = cathode current. frequency should be
12. In strain gauge torque transducers, the strain (a) below 1 (b) below 2
gauges should be mounted at (c) above 2 (d) above 200
(a) 0° to the shaft axis 19. Piezoelectric accelerometers meters :
(b) at 45° degrees to shaft axis (a) should not be used for high frequencies above
(c) 90° to the shaft axis 100 Hz
(d) 60° to shaft axis. (b) should be used for low frequencies
 1 1 34 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

(c) should use a monitoring source of low input

impedance
(d) have a low natural frequency.
20. Law of intermediate metals in thermocouples
allows them to :
(a) use reference junction compensation
(b) use meters for measurement without
disturbing the circuit conditions
(c) use extension wires of materials other than the
one used for making thermocouples
(d) both (b) and (c).
21. A thermocouple :
(a) has a low time constant when it is bare
(b) has a low time constant if it is provided with a
sheath
(c) has the same time constant whether it is bare or
is provided with sheath
(d) none of the above.
22. A bimetallic thermometer is made of two metals A
and B as shown in Fig. 29.119. The thermal
co-efficients of expansion are :

aA =20x10"6/°C 23. If the temperature of a radiating body is 1500°C,

the wavelength at which the maximum radiant
and a g = 10 x 10”6/°C
energy occurs :
(a) 2.8 gm (b) 1.63 gm
Metal A —
(c) 1 gm (d) 20.8 gm
24. Radiation pyrometers are used in the temperature
Metal B —' range of
(fl) 0 - 500°C (b) 500 - 1000°C
Fig. 29.119 Diagram of question 22. (c) - 250 to 500°C (d) 1200 - 2500°C
25. In nuclear instrumentation which are the heaviest
The temperature of the metal strips when build is
and slow moving particles ?
01 = 10°C. Suppose the thermometer is raised to a
temperature of 02 = 30°. The thermometer will (a) beta-particles (b) gamma-rays
bend as : (c) alpha-particles (d) neutrons.

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4- («) 5. (d) 6. («) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9- (c) 10. (fl)
11- (b) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (fl) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18- (c) 19- (b) 20. (d)
21. (fl) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (d) 25. (c)