INTRODUCTION

• Radiopharmaceuticals are the radioactive substances or radioactive drugs for

diagnostic or therapeutic interventions.

• Radioactive substances have a property of emitting rays or particles which affect

the photographic plate.

• The Main Group of These compounds are the radiotracers used to diagnose

dysfunction in body tissues.

• The elements are known as radioactive because they are unstable and undergo

decomposition along with emission of radiations or rays.

• Any nuclides which is not radioactive in nature is regarded as stable. To be stable, a

nuclide may possess appropriate energy.

• Those nuclides which undergo spontaneous nuclear change so as to attain stability

by emitting change so as to attain stability by emitting radiations are called

radionuclides.

Alpha Rays

• These rays or particles have least penetrating power, positive charge and can be

deflected by a strong imagistic field.

• They carry two positive charges. They have a mass of 4amu.

• These particles produce about 30,000 ion pairs per cm of path when they pass

through the air.

• Because of low penetrating power of alpha particles, elements which emit alpha rays

do not find use in biological applications because they cannot penetrate tissue.

226 222
Ra
86 86 Rn +42He
 • All alpha particles are having the same energy.

• The penetrating power of alpha particles is less as compared to other emissions.

Beta Rays

• These are of two types: -

i. Electrically positive particles, called ‘positrons’.

ii. Electrically negative particles, called ‘negatrons’.

• They have greater penetrating power than that of alpha rays.

• They have negligible mass, about 1/1836 that of the hydrogen ion.

• Beta particles have less ionizing power than alpha particles.

• These particles are accompanied with gamma radiations.

Gamma Rays

• They have more penetrating power than alpha and beta rays.

• They are having the same character as that of very short electromagnetic waves

called X- rays.

• The penetrating power of gamma radiation has been found to depend on atomic

weight of absorber and wavelength of radiation.

• They are uncharged and have poor ionizing power.

• They have no mass or charge.

• They are produced during disintegration of radioactive substances along with beta

radiation and during nuclear fission.

 Isotopes
Nuclides having the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are

termed as isotopes. The isotopes have been differing in nuclear masses and thus in atomic

weights and also in nuclear properties.

Radio isotopes have been those that undergo nuclear changes or rearrangements

that cause the emission of radioactive radiations. Just as atoms and molecules undergo

chemical reactionsso do nuclei with one another and with neutrons which are termed as

nuclear reactions.

When the radioactive isotopes undergo nuclear reactions, they produce alpha, beta,

and gammaparticles.

The nucleus obtained after the nuclear changes or rearrangement may be that of a

different element which may be stable. The original nuclide is called the parent and the

product is called the decay or the daughter nuclide.

This phenomenon of nuclear changes is termed as disintegration or radioactive

decay.

Stability of isotopes.
The naturally occurring nuclides are having favorable ratio of protons and neutrons

in most elements. Any deviation from the natural ratio, i.e., increase or decrease in the

number of neutrons alters the atomic number, and the stability of the nucleus.

Thus, the stable ratio for potassium is 1:1.115. If one more neutron is added to the

nucleus, this ratio is disturbed and the nuclide becomes unstable.

Similarly, any addition or removal of a neutron from the nucleus of iodine causes

instability.

Most isotopes of elements with Z no. 83 or less are stable and are described as

stable isotopes. However, some of the naturally occurring nuclides with Z no. less than 83

are unstable. All the nuclides with Z no. above 83 whether naturally occurring or

artificially prepared, are unstable.

 TYPES OF RADIONUCLIDES
Nuclide that is not radioactive is considered stable or for stability a nuclide must possess

appropriate energy. In order to attain stability, nuclides which undergo spontaneous

nuclear change by emitting radioactivity are called radionuclides or radio-isotopes.

RADIONUCLIDES TYPES–

1)Natural Radionuclides - consists of 40 high atomic weight elements like U, 226Ra (could
238

be alpha, beta or gamma emitters) and moderate atomic weight elements like K &37Rb.
40

2)Artificial Radionuclides- also known as synthetic radionuclides, are not found in nature

&are very unstable hence decayaway in a short period of time. For example, 95Tc and 146Pm

etc.All radionuclides get disintegrated at a characteristic rate by emitting energy in

characteristic electromagnetic radiation form.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIONUCLIDE-

1) Disintegration Rate/Decay Constant

2) Half life

3) Type of energy of radiation emitted

 The above have been employed to identify a radionuclide.

Half Life of Radioelements

The 'half-life' of a radioactive nucleus is known to be as one of its main features where it
carries out the process of emission along with the nature of radiations.
 The half-life in the radioactivity, in which the interval of time is required for

the decay of the individual atom, i.e., atomic nuclei of the radioactive substance (which

means there is occurrence of spontaneous changes of particles and energy emitting into

other nuclear species) which has been found to be irregular where half of a given number

of radioactive nuclei decay and half of them remains un-decay. After a certain amount of

time, when the measurement of number of disintegrations per second is done along with

taking a certain amount of radionuclide, it is seen that, half of the total amount of original

atoms would have got disintegrated, whereas, the other half of the original active atoms

would be left behind. Hence, in this way, the number of disintegrations per second will

equivalently also now be the half of the original value. Irrespective of the quality is

present, the decay time of the radionuclide has been constant to its half and this time has

been given a term that is 'Half-life of Radionuclide

Half-life, t = 0.693 (Where, λ = is the disintegration constant in the unit of sec -¹,

And, t = is the time of the half-life of radionuclide

Half-lives vary very considerably for various radionuclides. Let us consider some examples

for the same; Polonium-212 has half-life of 3 × 10-⁷ seconds.

● Iodine-131 has half-life of 8 days.

● Phosphorus-32 has half-life of 14.3 days.

● Zinc-65 has half-life of 150 days.

● Sodium-32 has half-life of 2.6 years.

● Uranium-238 has half-life of 4.5 × 10⁴ years.

In the case of medicines, the T½ of a nuclide will decide its utility. Inconvenience can be

caused for setting up satisfactory experiments if the T½ is too short. On the other handit

it is considered to be an absolute property of nuclide which is also unaffected by the

chemical as well as biological conditions if the T½ is too long.

 Production of Radio isotopes
Radio isotopes are produced either with reactors or by cyclotrons. We are going to discuss

about each one below in detail:

1) Reactor Irradiation: Reactors allow the production of majority of radio isotopes in

greater quantities, and at a lower cost. A reactor is having an arrangement of

fissionable material in a moderator, which slows down the fast neutrons to thermal

energies. The fissionable material like uranium is taken in the form of rods which

are arranged in a lattice pattern. A heavy water moderated reactor using enriched

uranium for example: Harwell reactor DIDO is having a maximum neutron flux of

1014 neutrons cm-2 s-1.

Some examples of isotopes produced in nuclear reactors are:

59 1 60
27 Co + 0 n 27Co + ɣ

Cyclotron Irradiation: In this, charged particles usually protons are accelerated to a high

velocity so as to overcome the repulsion from nucleus. The beam of the particles are

generally small and the cost is high, the number of samples that can be irradiated at a

time has been limited and the yield is also low. But on the other hand, many isotopes which

otherwise cannot be produced in a reactor could be produced in the cyclotron and also it

allows immediate use.

Some examples of isotopes produced in cyclotron are:

 24
12 Mg + 21H 22
Na +
11
4
He
2

Measurement Of Radioactivity
In order to measure the radiation of alpha, beta, and gamma particles, many techniques

involving detection and counting of individual particles or photons have been available. The

gas ionisation devices include pulse Ionisation Chamber, Proportional Counter and Geiger-

Muller Counter. Scintillation methods are specially employed for counting gamma

radiations.  

The method selected for the measurement of radioactivity depends upon the extent of

energy dissipation and penetrability of radiation. 

Ionisation Chamber - The ionization chamber is the simplest of all gas-filled radiation

detectors and is widely used for the detection and measurement of certain types of

ionizing radiation; X-rays, Gamma rays and beta particles. 

a) Proportional counters – The proportional counter is a type of gaseous ionization

detector device used to measure particles of ionization radiation. The key feature is

its ability to measure the energy of incident radiation, by producing a detector output
 pulse that is proportional to the radiation energy absorbed by the detector due to an

ionizing event hence the detector’s name. It is widely used where energy levels of

incident radiation must be known, such as in the discrimination between alpha and beta

particlesor accurate measurement of X-rays radiation dose .

III. Geiger counter – A Geiger counter still the most popular radiation detector They
do not the use of a high-gain amplifier and they can detect alpha, beta and gamma
radiation. It used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation. It I widely used in
applications Such as radiation dosimetry, radiological protector, experimental physics
and the nuclear industry. 

IV. Scintillation counter – A scintillation counter is an instrument for detecting and

measuring ionizing radiation by using the excitation effect of incident radiation on a
 scintillation material, and detecting the resultant light pulses.

V. Autoradiography – A technique using X-ray film to visualising molecules or

fragment of molecules that have been radioactively labelled. It is more useful in
detecting and determining gamma radiations in physiological studies of plants and
animals.

Solid-state semiconductor – These are radiation detector which employs a semiconductor

material as the detecting medium. These detectors produce pulse of electric current by

means of pairs of charge carriers, electrons and holes, generated when the detectors

come in the contact

Geiger-Muller Counters.
These are still the most popular radiation detectors. They do not need the use of a high-

gain amplifier and they can detect alpha, beta, and gamma-radiation

A G-M counter is having the ionising gas and is also having a quenching vapour whose

functions have been to prevent the spurious pulses that may get produced due to the

positive ions reaching the cathode and to absorb the photons emitted by excited atoms

and molecules returning to the ground state. Both chlorine and bromine are generally

employed as quenching agents. Ethyl alcohol are used as organic-quenching agents. The

filling gas pressure has been much below the atmospheric pressure for avoiding the use of

high operating voltages

Construction of Geiger-Muller counter

 It consists of a hollow metal case enclosed in a thin glass tube. This hollow metal

case acts as a cathode.

 A fine tungsten wire is stretched along the axis of the tube and is insulated by

ebonite plugs. This fine tungsten wire acts as anode.

 The tube is evacuated and then partially filled with a mixture of 90% argon at 10

cm pressure and 10% ethyl alcohol vapours at 1cm pressure.

 The fine tungsten wire is connected to positive terminal of a high-tension battery

through a resistance R and the negative terminal is connected to the metal tube.

 The direct current voltage is kept slightly less than that which will cause a

discharge between the electrodes.

 At one end of the tube a thin window of mica is arranged to allow the entry of

radiation into the tube.

 
Principle of Geiger-Muller counter

The basic principle of the Geiger Muller counter can be understood as follows. When an

ionizing particle passes through the gas in an ionizing chamber, it produces a few ions. If

the applied potential difference is strong enough, these ions will produce a secondary ion

avalanche whose total effect will be proportional to the energy associated with the

primary ionizing event.

If the applied potential difference is very high, the secondary ionization phenomenon

becomes so dominant that the primary ionizing event loses its importance. In other words,

the size of the final pulse produced depends only on the triggering off of ionization by an

ionizing particle but independent of the energy of this particle.

A high energy particle entering through the mica window will cause one or more of the

argon atoms to ionize. The electrons and ions of argon thus produced cause other argon

atoms to ionize in a cascade effect. The result of this one event is sudden, massive

electrical discharge that causes a current pulse. The current through R produces a voltage

pulse of the order of 10μV. An electron pulse amplifier accepts the small pulse voltage and

amplifies them to about 5 to 50 V. The amplified output is then applied to a counter. As

each incoming particle produces a pulse, the number of incoming particles can be counted.

Working of Geiger-Muller counter

The chamber is filled with an inert gas (helium, neon, or argon) at low pressure. Ahigh

voltage is applied to this chamber. The metallic chamber will conduct electricity. When

radiation enters the chamber through the window, the photons in the radiation will ionize

the inert gas inside the chamber. This will make the gas conductive. The electrons
produced due to ionization are accelerated due to the potential that we applied and these

electrons cause even more ionization. The ionized electrons travel towards the anode. The

anode is connected to a counter. The counter counts the electrons reaching the anode.

This is how we measure radiation.

Radiopharmaceutical

Handling and storage of Radioactive material.

Storage and handling us extremely important inavoiding the exposure to radiation/emission

and thus preventing hazardous effect on human and environment.

A care should be taken to protect the person from harmful radiation of radioactive during

storage and handling of radioactive material. In order, to have protection from hazard of

radiation, radioactive material must be stored in a separate area where not frequently

visited by people and usually provide sufficient shielding in a thick glass. Similarly, in order

to protect from gamma radiation, lead shielding has to be used and must be regularly

checked its storage area for radioactivity. Or when radioactive liquid to be handled it

must be carried in trays, so that, spillage will get absorb in absorbent tissue paper. And

rubber gloves also have to be used compulsory.

The following precautions have to be taken during handling and storage of Radioactive

substance÷
Direct contact should be avoided. It should be handled with forceps
or suitable instruments.
Smoking, drinking and eating should be avoided in

working area. Sufficient protective clothing or shielding

must be used.

It should be stored in suitable labelled container and shield by lead brick in remote

corner. A regular monitoring of radioactivity emissions should be done in storage

area.

Disposed of radioactive material should be carried out.

APPLICATION OF RADIOISOTOPES
The radioisotopes have numerous applicationsin medicine,agriculture,industry and pure

research.Many applications employ a special technique known as “tracer techniques”.

A small quantity of radioisotope is introduced into the

Substance to be studied and the path is traced by means

of Geiger- Muller (G.M) counter.

APPLICATION OF RADIOISOTOPES IN MEDICAL

USES:
Nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide diagnostic information about the functioning a

person’s specific organ or to treat them.

 The main two uses of radioisotope are the following:

1. Diagnosis diseased-states

2. Therapeutically treating diseased tissues.

Radioisotopes and their formulations find varied application in the diagnosis therapy and

healthcare. The radiations given out by some and very effecting in curing diseases.

 When diagnosing a diseased state,minimum amount of radioisotope is admitted.

 The isotope is for detection only and should have minimal effect on body tissue.

Application of radioisotope in agricultural uses:

Radioisotopes are also havingan important role in the field of agriculture. Radioisotope

were used for producing high yielding crop seeds to increase the agricultural yield.

Radiation from certain radioisotope were also used for killing injects which damage food

can be stored for longer periods by gently exposing them to radiation.

Fertilizers labelled with radioactive isotope such as phosphorus-32 and Nitrogen-15 have

been used to study the uptake, retention and utilization of fertilizers. Excessive use of

fertilizers effect biodiversity and damages the environment. The radiation helps to

improve food production and packaging.

 Commercially sterilize food destroying all microorganism of public health

concern (i.e.,diet for people with weak weakened immune system).

 It delaysmould growth on strawberries and other fruits.

Application of radioisotope in industrial uses:

Radioisotopes have a major role in the industrial life.

Science and industry uses radioisotopesin a variety of way to improve productivity and in

some cases to gain information that cannot be obtained in any other way.

Sealed radioactive sources are used in industrial radiography gauging application and

mineral analysis.

Short lived radioactive material is used in float racing and mixing measurements. Various

radioactive decay series are used to measure the edges of materials incorporating them.

Gamma sterilization is used for medical supplies some bulk commodities and increasing

leave for food preservation.

The use of radioisotopes in industry in shows good quality products and bring down the

costs of manufactured by ways of sensitive non-destructive testing and efficient in

process control.Radio traces are also used in the oil and gas industry to help determine the

extent of oil fields.

 Automobile industry radioactive is used to test Steel quality in the manufacture of

cars and to obtain the proper thickness of tin and Aluminium.

 In aircraft industry radioisotope is used to check for flaws in jet engines.

 In construction Radioisotopes is used to gauge the density of road surfaces and

subsurface.
Application of radioisotope in biological sciences:

Radioisotopes are frequently used for tracing metabolic pathways. Mixing Radiolabeled

substrates and sample of the experimental material and collecting samples at various

Times extract and separate the products by chromatography. Radioactivity detector can

be attached to gas liquid chromatography for HPLC columns to monitor radioactivity

coming of the column during separation.

Cesium-137 and Cobalt-60 are both used to shrink the size of tumors within the bodies

of Cancer patients.

Cobalt-60 is also used to sterilize medical instruments.

Radio isotopes are used to diagnose and treat other disorders such as Chromium-51, which

helps doctors determine the survival rate of red blood cells.

Radioisotope is used for labelling of cells all entities for identification for tracing specific

molecule in an organism. Radioactive carbon-14 decay could be used to the age of organic

materials.

Stabilization of surgical instruments such as strangers close clothing and instruments

using gradient nuclides including Cobalt- 60,Cs-137.

Thyroid Glands
The thyroid, or thyroid gland, is an endocrine gland in vertebrates. In humans it is in

the neck and consists of two connected lobes. The thyroid is located at the front of the
neck, below the Adam's apple. Microscopically, the functional unit of the thyroid gland is

the spherical thyroid follicle, lined with follicular cells (thyrocytes), and

occasional parafollicular cells that surround a lumen containing colloid. The thyroid gland

secretes three hormones: the two thyroid hormones – triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine

(T4) – and a peptide hormone, calcitonin. The thyroid hormones influence the metabolic

rate and protein synthesis, and in children, growth and development. Calcitonin plays a role

in calcium homeostasis.[1] Secretion of the two thyroid hormones is regulated by thyroid-

stimulating hormone (TSH), which is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland. TSH is

regulated by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which is produced by the

hypothalamus.

6 Common Thyroid Disorders &

Problems
Hyperthyroidism - Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid)

occurs when your thyroid gland produces too much of the hormone thyroxine.

Hyperthyroidism can accelerate your body's metabolism, causing unintentional weight loss

and a rapid or irregular heartbeat. Several treatments are available for hyperthyroidism.
 Hypothyroidism - Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) is a condition
in which your thyroid gland doesn't produce enough of certain crucial hormones

 Hashimoto's disease - Hashimoto's disease is an autoimmune

disorder affecting the thyroid gland. The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland located at
the base of the neck just below the Adam's apple. The thyroid produces hormones that
help regulate many functions in the body

Graves' disease. Graves' disease is an immune system disorder that

results in the overproduction of thyroid hormones (hyperthyroidism). Although a number
of disorders may result in hyperthyroidism, Graves' disease is a common cause.Thyroid
hormones affect many body systems, so signs and symptoms of Graves' disease can be

wide ranging

Goiter -A goitre, or goiter, is a swelling in the neck resulting from an enlarged
thyroid gland. A goitre can be associated with a thyroid that is not functioning properly.
Worldwide, over 90% of goitre cases are caused by iodine deficiency. The term is from
 the Latin gutturia, meaning throat.

 Thyroid nodules - Thyroid nodules are solid or fluid-filled lumps that

form within your thyroid, a small gland located at the base of your neck

Radio pharmaceuticals: -
Radio pharmaceuticals are the radioactive substances or radioactive Drugs for diagnostic

or therapeutic interventions.

Composition: -
A radioactive isotope that can be injected safely into the body, and a carrier molecule

which delivers the isotope to the area to be treated or examined.

Radio isotope: -

A version of chemical element that has an unstable nucleus and emits radiation during its

decay to a stable form.

Work: -

The radiotracer, injected into a vein, emits gamma radiation as it decays. A gamma camera

scans the radiation area and creates an image.

Uses: -

o Therapeutic:Designed to deliver therapeutic dose of ionizing radiation to

specific disease site, such as cancerous tumors, with high specificity in the

body.Historically, used to treat Thyroid cancer, Graves

disease,Hyperthyroidism, and bone pain palliation associated with skeletal

metastasis.

o Diagnosing:Used to derive detailed description of the morphology and

dynamic functioning of the various internal organs of the body.

Advantages: -

 It can be used as diagnosis and treatment of patients.

 It is common cure to cancers.

 Can treat multiple disease sites.

 Widely available mode of treatment.

 Directly treats tumor, especially useful for bone metastasis.

 Can provide fast onset of pain relief.

 Single dose is effective for some patients.

 Nuclear medicine tests can be performed on children.

 Nuclear medicine procedures are cost effective and painless.

 Nuclear medicine procedures have no side effects and are complete ly safe.

Disadvantages: -

Nuclear medicine tests are not recommended for pregnant women because unborn babies

have a greater sensitivity to radiation than children or adults.

Filling in patient’s teeth, dental braces and permanent bridges may cause some distortion

around the mouth area.

Sodium iodide I-131

 These are prepared by evaporating an alcoholic solution of sodium

radioiodide directly on the wall ofthe capsule or on the inert capsule filline
material

Radionuclide Identification
 The spectrum of iodine-131 has been complex but the most abundanttype of
photon is having an energy of 0.364 McV.
 The gamma-ray scintillation spectrum of the sodium iodide 1-131solution is
same as specimen of 1-131 of known purity, which exhibits major
photoelectric peak having an energy of 0.365 MeV.
Radiochemical Purity
 The test for radiochemical purity has been performed in such a way that all
the radioactivity of the solution has been due to iodide ion and not due to
iodate ion.
 It is carried out by preparing a chromatogram and showing that the
radioactive part of the paper chromatogram has been coinciding with the
position of the iodide ion and that the site of the iodate ion has been
inactive.
 solution has to be diluted with water until its activity has been equivalent to
about 20,000 counts per minute.
 It is mixed with an equal volume of a solution having 0.1% w/v of KI, 0.2%
w/v of KIOg and 1 per cent w/v of NaHCO3. Two drops of the above mixture
are put on a strip of chromatographic paper and allowed to dry
 On the same paper separate drops of a l% w/v solution of K1 and a 2% w/v
solution of KIOg, are placed and allowed to dry. The chromatogram is
developed by ascending chromatography by employing a mixture of 3 volumes
of methyl alcohol and I volume of water.
 the positions of inactive potassium iodide and potassium iodate spots could
be determined by the application of two filter papers one impregnated with
acetic acid and potassium iodate solution to detect the iodide, and the other
impregnated with acetic acid and potassium iodide solution to detect the
iodate. lodine will get liberated at the site of the spot and would be seen.
 It is possible to detect the radioactivity distribution by autoradiography or
by scanning with a collimated Geiger-Muller counter
 Potassium salts, iodide and iodate, have been acting as carriers for the
iodide ions and for any iodate ion present in the Sodium Iodide I-i3l solution.

Assay
 It is possible to determine the activity by a suitable counting equipment by
comparison with &standardize 1:131 solution or by measurement of an instrument
 Iodine-13i has been emitting both beta particles and gamma rays in its decay
process.

Packaging and Storage

 The solution has to be prepared in single dose or multiple dose containers that have
been previously treated to prevent absorption. So as to avoid absorption of
 radionuclides on the walls of the containers including laboratory vessels, it has been
recommended that containers used to handle sodium iodide I-131 solutions should
be first of all rinsed with a solution having approximately 0.8 per cent of sodium
bisulfate and 0.25 percent of sodium iodide and then with water until the last
rinsing has been neutral to litmus.

Other requirements
 labelling and expiration date have been almost similar to those for other radioactive
solution
 expiration date for Sodium Iodide Solution has been not later than one month after
the date of standardization.

Uses
 the most common isotope and chemical form in use and a diagnostic aid for studying
the functioning of the thyroid gland
 involves the measurement of the uptake of radioactive iodine in a 24 hour period.
 The euthyroid (normal) patient will be taking up from 1% to 45% of the
administered dose in 24 hours.
 If the uptake has been found to be less than 10% the patient has been hypothyroid,
and an uptake of over 50% has been an indication of hyperthyroidism. Other
measurements may be carried out for confirming the results of uptake procedures,
i.e., plasma clearance and urinary excretion of the isotope.
 Scanning procedures can be carried out with iodine- 125 which is having the
advantage of lower radiation exposure to the patient due to the lower energy.
 Sodium Iodide 1-131 is also used therapeutically for destroying thyroid tissue or at
least to alter the function of the tissue cells.
 The disease states in which this isotope is being used are hypothyroidism
(thyrotoxicosis) thyroid carcinoma, and severe cardiac disease.
 The tissue effect has been primarily due to the beta radiation which is of relatively
short range. Therefore, the isotope must get concentrated in the iodine storage
areas (colloid) of the gland so as to have any effect on cells synthesizing thyroid
hormone (thyoxine) or on any adjacent tumor cells.
 The using of sodium iodide I-131 in the treatment of hyperthyroidism is carried out
with the intention of impairing the hormone synthesizing capability of the apex of
the thyroid cells.
  Radioactive iodine in thyroid carcinoma has been at best only palliative, offering no
direct cure. The isotope has to be used most frequently after surgical removal of a
cancerous thyroid as a means of treating any residual tumor tissue.
 It is possible to ease severe cardiac diseases through the use of sodium iodide I-
131, which is used to induce a hypothyroid state as a means of reducing the work
load on the heart.

Preparations and Doses

 Diagnostic preparations having sodium iodide I-131 or 1-125 are available in capsule
or solution form under the named Isotope. Other names have been Radiocaps -131
(capsules) and Tracervial-1311.
 Oral or intravenous doses for uptake or general thyroid scanning have been ranging
from 5 to 50
 Therapeutic preparations of sodium iodide 1.131 have been available under the
names lodtope Therapeutic (capsule and solution).
 In hyperthyroidism, doses are calculated on the estimated weight of the gland
giving 80 to 120 c/g of tissue. Cancer of the thyroid will generally be treated with
doses ranging from 100 to 200 mc.

 Rose Bengal I-131

 Sodium Rose Bengal I-131 injection,C20H2Cl4I4Na2O5.Rose Bengal Is dye which was used
for many years as a colorimetric diagnostic aid in liver function detemination.

 When injected intravenously,the dye is rapidly and selectively taken up by polygonal
cells of the normally functioning liver after 30 min.
 After this time the dye is excreted into the intestine.

 Sodium rose Bengal labelled with I-131 is useful as a radioactive tracer in:
 1.The determination of liver function.
 2.Provided information about the hepatic blood follow in the liver.
 3.Used as indication of possible obstruction.
 4.This preparation remain in the liver long enough to provide radio active photo scan
of the liver by determining: The Size , location, and the presences of abscesses,
cysts, Tumor.

 Since the metabolism of the dye and its uptake by thyroid are possibilities, the
patient should be given(Lugol solution) at least 24 hrs before taking the preparation
, in order to make saturation of the thyroid by iodine from lugols solution.

 It is prepared by refluxing rose Bengal acid with,radioiodide produced by the action
of an oxidizing agent on sodium radioiodide for about 15-20 hours.

 The radioiodinated rose Bengal so produce is precipitated with acid,then washed
with water,and converted into its sodium salt by treatment with sodium hydroxide.

 The product may be sterilized by autoclave or filtration formulated with propylene
glycol, and preserved at refrigerated temperatures.

 SODIUM IODOHIPPURATE I-131 INJECTION USP

 It is a clear, colourless, sterile solution.
 It is having sodium-iodohippurate in which a portion of the molecule is having
radioactive iodine (I-131) in the molecular structure.
 Other chemical forms of radioactivity have been found to exceed 5% of the total
radioactivity. Other radionuclides have been absent.

Uses.
 Certain compounds get excreted exclusively through the kidneys if one of the two
kidneys has been functioning properly, each would excrete nearly the same amount
of the above substances when present in blood in excess of the renal threshold.
The sodium iodohippurate 1-131 injection when administered intravenously is
excreted quickly and exclusively by the kidneys. I-131 has been emitting beta-
particles of 0.608 MeV energy and gamma-rays of 0.364 MeV energy.

Detection.
  For external detection of the isotope, it becomes essential that the radionuclide
emits gamma-rays. As I-131 emits gamma-rays also, sodium iodohippurate 1-131 gets
administered intravenously and its relative concentration in each kidney may be
measured by using two identical crystal scintillation detectors, which have been
positioned one over each kidney.

 IODINE 131 AND IODINE 125

 Both have been found to occur as an isotope in numerous radiopharmaceuticals for

diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.

 IODINE-131
 Most frequently employed of the two isotopes

 Emits both b&c radiation for producing a rather complex emission spectrum

 Found in the products of uranium fission or it may get produced throughneutron

bombardment of tellurium-130, resulting the isotope along with c & b emission: Te (h, c) I.

 Important emissions from iodine-131 for medical purposes have been the

0.608 MeV beta & the 0.364 MeV c (from metastable xenon-131) & half-

life

has been 8.08 days.

131 80.8d 131
I
53 54 Xe + 0.608 MeV b- + 0.364 MeV c

 IODINE-125
 Has been emitting significantly lower energy radiation than iodine-131.

 In neutron reactor, isotope gets formed from the conversion of xenon , with
124
emitting c & K-capture X-radiation: Xe (n, g) K125 53I.
54

 The iodine-125 then decays having a half-life of 60 days first emitting 0.027

MeV c-rays produced by K-capture & producing Te.

  The metastable tellurium is decayed to the ground state Te, with the

emission of a 0.035-MeV c ray.

 When compared to iodine-131, there has been no b reduction from this

isotope.

 Both iodine-125 and iodine-131 can be produced in the reactor for producing

essentially carrier-free isotopes; i.e., they are free of, or have only trace

amounts of, non-radioactive isotope of the same element (iodine-127) in the

same chemical form.

125 60-d 125m 125
53 I 52 Te + 0.027 MeV + 52 Te + 0.035 MeV c

IODINATED HUMAN SERUM ALBUMIN (I-131):

Introduction: Albumin Iodinated I-131 serum is a radiopharmaceutical diagnostic agent

indicated for use in the determination of total blood and plasma volume and other

diagnostic purposes. A simple methods involved in a reaction between albumin Glycine

buffer with I –131 released from a NaI – NaIO3 mixture by adding HCl . The reaction

occurs almost instantaneously at a pH of 9.3. The 3 atoms of I – 131 get incorporated per

molecule of albumin. The protein may be purified by passing the reaction mixture over an

anionic exchange resin, when unreacted iodine gets removed. The Iodinated albumin may be

sterilised by filtration through a milliopore filter. The finished product is preserved at

refrigerated temperature.

INDICATION :

 It is indicated for use in determination of total blood and plasma volumes, cardiac

output, cardiac and pulmonary blood volumes and circulation times, and in protein

turnover studies, heart and great vessels delineation, localisation of the placenta

and localization of cerebral neoplasms.

 It also include the determination of body fluid volumes and the imaging of certain

tissue.
  FERRIC CITRATE Fe-59

 Fe-59 is an isotope of iron. It has a half life of 44.5 days and it is a beta and a

gamma emitting isotope. Its occurrence is 0.33%. A soduim iodide crystal

scintitation detector is the preferred method for detecting Fe-59. Radiation

Monitoring badges should be worn by any person while handling open sources of Fe-

59. Moreover, it is prepared by neutron activation of iron-58.

 Ferric citrate Fe-59 in medicine is indicated by intravenous administration, and is

to determine various parameters of the kinetics of iron metabolism, including

plasma iron clearance, plasma iron turnover rate and the utilization of iron in new

red blood cells. The preparation is administered orally for studying the absorption

of iron from the Gastro-Intestinal tract. And injected intravenously for

determining plasma iron clearance and turnover, and the incorporation of iron into

erythrocytes.

 Ferric citrate Fe-59 is usually put in a sterile solution having about 30µc per ml.

The solutions are preserved in benzyl alcohol and they are having an antioxidant

called ascorbic acid.

59
 Fe
26 ---------»5927 Co + 0.462Mev β- + 1.30Mev ɣ + 1.10Mev ɣ

 Iron-59 is having sufficient gamma radiation energy for allowing scintillation

counting of the radioactivity in various tissues associated with erythrocyte

formation and destruction like spleen, sacrum and liver from outside the body. It

finds use in the diagnosing of haeatological disorders.

  Preparation and doses:- Ferric Citrate Fe-59 is sold under this generic name and

also under the trade name of Ferrutope. The usual oral and intravenous dose have

been 2 to 5µc, and may range as high as 10µc.

Sodium Phosphate P - 32

Sodium Acid Phosphate NaH2P³²O4 and Sodium Basic Phosphate Na2HP³²O4 are the two
forms in which the radioactive isotope of P - 32 is present. The emission of the Beta
Particles takes place. Radioactive isotope of P - 32 has a half-life of 14.3 days. It is used
in various kinds of treatments like;

● Treatment of Polycythemia Vera - In order to decrease the rate of the formation

of the erythrocytes.
● Treatment of Chronic Granulocytic Leukemia.

Neutron bombardment of element sulphur is from where Phosphorus-32 is

obtained where it also yields the radioactive isotope along with the emission of a proton S
(n,p) P. Beta emission which has a half-life of 14.3 days as well as maximum energy of 1.71
MeV decays the radioactive isotope.

³² ¹⁴ • ³ d ³²
P ––––––––––> S + 1.71 MeV β−
¹⁵ ¹⁶

Sodium phosphate P - 32 has been found to be suitable for the following

administrations;

● Oral.
● Intravenous.
 The solution and the glass container may gradually darken while standing due to the
radiation even though the solution is originally clear as well as colorless. The pH of the
solution lies between 5.0 and 6.0 which indicates that the chemical form of the
preparation for the solution has been proved to be the mixture of Disodium Hydrogen
Phosphate (Na2HPO4) as well as Sodium Dihydrogen Phosphate (NaH2PO4).

Sodium phosphate P - 32 has been found to be useful for the following;