Table of contents

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………1
Chapter 1: Welcome to the World of Ants
The Amazing Prehistory and Evolution of Ants…………………………………………3
Myrmecology and Ant Classification……………………………………………………8
The Incredible World of Ant Biology…………………………………………………….10
The Stages of Ant Life………………………………………………………………………14
The Ant Caste System………………………………………………………………………15
The Ever Diverse Ant Reproduction Cycle……………………………………………..17
Chapter 2: The History of Ant Keeping
The Pioneer of Ant Keeping: Uncle Milton Industries, Inc……………………………25
An Underground Hobby: Europe & Asia………………………………………………..26
How YouTube Helped Ant Keeping Go Mainstream: AntsCanada………………27
Chapter 3: Pre-Pet Research
Is A Pet Ant Colony Right For You?............................................................................30
The Global Ant Keeping Community Online…………………………………………..33
Chapter 4: Getting All Set Up
Creating the Perfect Home for Your Ants………………………………………………34
The Formicarium……………………………………………………………………………..34
The Basin………………………………………………………………………………………43
Two in One Ant Homes (Formicarium + Basin)…………………………………………47
Natural Nests………………………………………………………………………………....50
Additional Supplies…………………………………………………………………….……54
Chapter 5: Starting Your Ant Colony
It Starts with A Queen………………………………………………………………………55
Researching the Species in Your Area………………………………………………….61
Queen Ant Hunting Tips……………………………………………………………………63
Chapter 6: The Colony Founding Process
The Test Tube Setup…………………………………………………………………………68
Queen Colony Founding Setups…………………………………………………………70
Warmth: The Secret to Growing Your Colony Quickly……………………………….73
 Catching Unmated Queen Ants…………………………………………………………..74
How To Tell Your Queen Has Mated……………………………………………………...75
Egg-laying and Colony Founding Timeline……………………………………………...77
Brood Boosting………………………………………………………..………………...…….78
Feeding the Growing Colony………………………………………………………...…....79
Changing Dried Out Or Moldy Test Tubes……………………………………………….81
When to Move Queen and Colony into a Formicarium…………………….………..82
Polymorphism and Alates………………………………………………………….………..83
Chapter 7: Feeding Your Ant Colony & Ant Nutrition
What Happens When An Ant First Discovers Food…………………………………….86
Ant Nutrition: Protein + Carbs + Water………………………………….………………..89
Chapter 8: The Right Ant Environment
Moisture and Humidity………………………………………………………………………95
Heating…………………………………………………………………………………………97
Space and Satellite Nests/Basins………………………………………………………….98
Chapter 9: Annual Hibernation/Brumation
Why Brumate Ant Colonies?.......................................................................................102
When to Start and End Brumation……………………………………………………….104
How to Brumate Ant Colonies…………………………………………………………….104
Chapter 10: Nest Hygiene
You Are The Ant Garbage Man and Undertaker……………………………………..108
Cycling Nests Every Few Years…………………………………………………………....108
Beneficial “Nest-Cleaning” Creatures………………………………………………..…109
Chapter 11: Conservation, Preservation, and Education
How People Can Save Ants……………………………………………………………….114
Myrmecology and Websites Ant Keepers and Contributions to Science………..116
Chapter 12: Species-Specific Ant Information
Nuptial Flight Schedules and Distribution Chart……………………………………….118
Basic Care Sheets of Commonly Kept Ant Species…………………………………..137
Glossary………………………………………………………………………………………………..154
 Introduction
Greetings, fellow ant lover! Welcome to the amazing world of ants!

My name is Mikey and I’ve had the unique opportunity to keep hundreds of
animals as pets growing up, but none fascinated me more than the humble and
hard-working ant. I know I’m not alone in this sentiment of ant love. Ants have
captivated the minds of kids and adults alike for generations.

Perhaps the “id factor” ants possess among all other insects, and all other animals
for that matter, is that behaviorally ants are the most like human beings. As a
myrmecologist friend of mine “Doctor Bugs” Mark Moffett once pointed out, apes
and monkeys indeed may share the most DNA as we humans, but lifestyle-wise,
they aren’t as similar to us as ants are. Ants, like people, live in massive societies,
metropoles within complex structures built by the ants. They have daycare, where
the young are cared for in specific chambers, organized according to age. Ants
set up graveyards for their dead, bathroom areas for defecating, and even have
a pheromonal ant language system, that much more resembles human social

Rhytidoponera sp. From Australia

media. They go out and collect food, process it, and effectively distribute it
throughout their cities.

Some ants like leaf-cutter ants are farmers, farming crops of fungi fertilized by
rotting vegetation and their own poop. Some ants rear ‘ant livestock’, milking
plant insects of their sweet secretions called honeydew. Ants reproduce, eat,
sleep, grow up, go to war, and die. Their lives are programmed to operate based
on a hybrid system of democracy and communism.

The similarities between ants and humans is strikingly undeniable, and being able
to watch ants live out their epic lives within a captive setup is one of the most
inspiring, eye-opening, and fulfilling experiences ever. In learning about ants, we
acquire valuable insights about ourselves and our very place on the planet. I look
forward to you discovering how incredible ants are and all the immense joys (and
challenges) of ant keeping.

Whether you’re an aspiring or new ant keeper doing research or an advanced

ant keeper seeking information, this book will give you all the necessary
information you need to ensure you get the most out of your ant keeping
experience. You can either read this book from start to finish or skip over to
specific chapters as needed.

I would also like to take this opportunity to acknowledge and thank nature
photographer and biologist Alex Wild of www.alexanderwild.com for the
incredible photographs of ants and other critters throughout this book. Special
thanks, as well, goes out to fellow ant keeping friend Andrew Smith of
Formiculture for his invaluable contribution of mating flight and distribution
information chart by species.

It’s ant love forever,

Mikey
Founder/CEO of AntsCanada

2
 Chapter 1: Welcome to the World of Ants

The Amazing Prehistory and Evolution of Ants

The earliest fossils of ants have been carbon dated as far back in
prehistory as the Cretaceous period 92 million years ago. They have
been roaming the Earth since the age of the dinosaurs.

Experts theorize, that ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors

some 110 to 130 million years ago, and gradually developed over
time into the ants we know today around the same time flowering
plants had begun to dominate the world.

Some might
argue that ants are
Earth's true rulers, in
light of the fact that
today they inhabit all
parts of the planet
except Antarctica,
Greenland, and
Iceland. They are said
to form 15-20% of the
terrestrial animal
biomass in ecosystems
globally.
An ants fossilized in amber

At the time of writing, according to Antweb.org, a website

which curates the species and subspecies of ants globally, humans
have named over 16,000 species (but the number also includes
subspecies) of ants, with thousands still yet to be named and
catalogued, and many more constantly being discovered.

3
In actuality, before humans ever came into existence, ants were said
to be:

● actively farming vegetation (e.g. leafcutter ants)

● tending and milking livestock "ant cows" (e.g. aphid-tending
ants)
● engaging in war using chemical warfare (i.e. formic acid shot
from rear end of many ants)
● having raids (e.g. army ants)
● building massive cities and erecting great architectural
structures

Atta texana queen and workers (leaf-cutter ants)

And talking about the unthinkable, there are ant species that have:

● suicide bombers (i.e. a species of carpenter ants that literally

self-destruct at will into an acidic mess when in contact with
enemies)
4
 ● child labour (e.g. weaver ants that use their young's silk to glue
leaves together for their nests)
● making slaves out of other ants (i.e. slave-making ants)

For millions of years, ants have been creating highways and

highway tolls (e.g. ant soldiers of some species that allow those of the
other genera to pass only by surrendering food), setting up restroom
facilities, a daycare center for the children, food distribution,
cemeteries and even garbage disposal systems.

Ants have even had to contend with various forms of zombie-ism

by way of fungal parasites called Ophidiocordiceps, flatworm larvae,
and certain species of fly maggots which make their way into the
ants’ brains and control them. Very interesting stuff if you’re into
zombie movies!

5
 Like humans, ants also exercise democracy and members of the
colony cast votes on their colonies' varying issues and life choices. For
instance, they decide on where to create nesting quarters and where
to place their young. Ants don’t have vocal chords, so they
communicate through the use of pheromones, biological chemicals
that communicate very specific messages to other ants of their
colony. Interestingly, every pheromone carries a unique message. This
pheromonal language is perfect, considering there are no misheard
nor ambiguous instructions, which can cripple or hinder a colony’s
initiatives and projects.

These pheromonal messages are comparable to "Twitter posts" and

members of the colony have the option of "re-tweeting" these posts
by releasing the same pheromone message. In the Antiverse, the
most common trending topics would be hashtags #FoodThisWay,
#EnemySpotted, #ItIsRainingNowMoveTheKids, #QueenIsReadyToLayAnEggHelpHer.

Worker ants, as their name suggests, live to be in constant work-

mode, contributing what they can to complete the colony’s daily
tasks, and in the busiest of ant colonies, worker ants are said to take
hundreds of fleeting two-minute power naps to recharge throughout
their 24-hour work shift. In many cases, an ant colony can reach
numbers into the millions, and depending on the species, can all
come from a single stay-at-home queen mother.

Ants from temperate regions hibernate during winter (the correct

term is “brumate”, but more about that later), many in sub-zero
temperatures which would normally be fatal for insects. Ants,
however, have the ability to produce glycerol in their blood, an
effective anti-freeze during these cold periods, resulting in complete
recovery year-after-year in the spring.

In the book The Leafcutter Ants: Civilization by Instinct written by

entomological icons B. Hölldobler and E.O.Wilson, it was mentioned
that had extraterrestrials visited Earth a million years ago before
humans existed, these aliens would have concluded that leafcutter

6
 ants were the most advanced societies this planet would ever be
able to produce. The book likewise stated that these ants are the
greatest super organisms on the planet to date.

Having evolved with other plants and animals through their millions
of years of existence, the plethora of ant behaviours can truly boggle
the minds of those who are given the unique opportunity to watch
and learn about their ways… the complexities, the sheer diversity, and
uniqueness of every single ant is astounding. This is why ant keeping is
naturally a rewarding and enjoyable hobby. Ants are highly-
advanced civilizations in their own right, discreetly, and sometimes
indiscreetly, working right under our very noses and ruling the world.

Crematogaster sp. Leaf nest

7
 Myrmecology and Ant Classification
Myrmecology is a branch of entomology focusing on the
scientific study of ants. Most myrmecologists refer to themselves more
generally as biologists or entomologists (studier of insects), however,
seeing as ants are often so behaviourally and ecologically linked to
other plants and animals. Myrmecologists in effect often end up
studying other flora and fauna, in order to better understand their ant
subjects and their biological relationships to other animals.

Ants belong to a family of insects referred to as Formicidae found

within a greater order of insects known as Hymenoptera (which also
include bees and wasps).

8
 The family of ants Formicidae is further broken up into subfamilies
such as:

● Cerapachynae
● Dolichodeinae
● Ecitoninae
● Formiciinae
● Formicinae
● Myrmicinae
● Ponerinae
● Poneromorphs
● Pseudomyrmecinae

As mentioned, there are over 16,000 species + subspecies of ants to

date, each identified by a unique scientific name or code, but there
are still thousands more ants species awaiting identification. Every
year, new ant species and even ant genera (or groupings of various
related species) are being named and discovered around the world.

An interesting thing to note,

however, is that even if an ant
species is categorized and named,
it doesn’t mean it is set in stone. It is
very common for already identified
ant species or groups of ant
species to be regrouped,
renamed, and/or merged with
other previously identified species
or groups. In many cases,
taxonomists have a difficult time
agreeing on classification and
groupings of ants. An example of
this is seen in the ant species
commonly known as pavement
ants in North America. There was much debate as to whether the
pavement ants found nesting around the urban sidewalks of North

9
America, were the same species commonly found in Europe and
Asia, known scientifically as Tetramorium caespitum. So until
myrmecologists were able to confirm speculations that the two
pavement ant species (i.e. the North American and the European-
Asian pavement ants) were indeed different species, they decided to
tentatively name the North American pavement ants Tetramirium sp
E. After many years of analysis, they finally decided quite recently
that, yes, the North American pavement ant is indeed a different
species from the European-Asian kind, so they renamed the North
American pavement ant Tetramorium immigrans. As the name
suggests, they immigrated from Europe and Asia, and eventually
became their own distinct species… at least until myrmecologists
decide otherwise!

The Incredible World of Ant Biology

Ants, like all insects, are composed of three major body
segments and six legs. But what separates them from most other
insects anatomically is the existence of a waist segment known as the
petiole. This waist segment creates a very unique morphological
shape in ants, as well as bees and wasps, and thereby sets ants, bees,
and wasps in their own suborder of insects called Apocrita. Also, it
turns out this petiole waist segment, anatomically makes things a heck
more complicated when
talking about the ant’s
main body parts, so the
three body parts of an ant
are technically referred to
as head, mesosoma and
gaster (or metasoma),
rather than the usual
head-thorax-abdomen
sequence in most insects.

10
 Furthermore, ants are cold-blooded (also known in biology as
poikilothermic), which, in a nutshell, means they are unable to
produce their own body heat like us humans, other mammals, and
birds. Their body temperature fluctuates with that of their
environment. Why this is important is because, thousands of
mandatory chemical reactions required for nearly every facet of life
(e.g. food digestion, brain activity, muscle movement, cellular
respiration, cell division, etc.) require a certain amount of heat to
occur properly. In many cases, the more heat that is applied to such
chemical reactions, the faster they happen. Generally speaking, to
speed up reactions, all that's needed is more heat. It is why ants that
are kept warm develop from egg to adulthood faster, move faster,
work faster, grow in population faster, and eat more than ants that
are kept much cooler.

Evolutionally, being poikilothermic is advantageous to ants and

other poikilothermic animals because, in the event of cold weather or
periods of decreased daily sun which might naturally cause food to
become scarce, the ants' bodily functions slow down to correspond
with that decrease in resources. Their activity conveniently follows the
seasons, while conversely, warm-blooded (non-hibernating) animals
must contend with the pressures of having to still find food during
these cold, resource-scarce periods, in order to maintain that
constant body temperature needed to keep those vital chemical
reactions going in their bodies. Poikilothermy can be seen a biological
hack of sorts!

Ants, like most insects, don't really have a brain like humans. Their
"brain" activity happens within brain-like groupings of nervous tissue
called ganglia, which run down the centre of their body. It is why
many insects still manage to move body parts, even after
decapitation. Their other mini “brains”, their ganglia, are still intact!

11
 Ants possess two stomachs: a social stomach or ‘crop’ which is
reserved for eaten food to be shared with other members of the
colony; and a personal stomach which is for their own personal food
digestion. When an ant consumes food, it gets stored in their social
stomach where it is processed into a soup-like brew. When the ant
comes in contact with another ant that maybe hungry, a sort of
kissing position is assumed, and the full donor ant transfers a portion of
its pre-digested food from its social stomach into the mouth of the
hungry receiving ant. To communicate a desire for food from a donor
ant, a hungry receiving ant will move in to "kiss" the other and rub its
cheeks and mouth parts with its antennae to stimulate regurgitation
and perhaps to taste the goods as they are being disgorged. This
process of transferring food from mouth to mouth is known as
trophallaxis, and is also performed by other social insects like bees
and wasps.

12
 Trophallaxis is the perfect mode of food distribution throughout
an ant colony, considering ants typically live in moist environments
underground or in wood, and any food material lying around for an
extended period of time can be breeding grounds for harmful
bacteria, fungi, and microbes. Food transport within the crops of ants
ensures the food is stored in a sterile way. It also means that not all the
members of the colony will need to leave the nest in order to eat, as it
could be 'delivered' by their siblings! It’s ant room service at its best!

Honey-pot ant repletes

Some ants have taken this internal storage of food to another

level, where select members of the colony, known as ‘repletes’, act
as living food stores, as is seen with honeypot ants (Myrmecocystus
sp.). Workers transfer food to these repletes, filling them up to the
point that their gasters resemble turgid water balloons. Similarly, some
species of ants even have ‘aquapletes’, select colony members who
act as living water stores. Repletes and aquapletes tend to be found
most in ant species that live in arid regions, where food and water

13
isn’t always available. The ants can collect food and water during the
short periods they are actually available in abundance.

Other than using their mandibles to seize and slice up enemies

and prey, ant warfare usually falls into two main categories: ants that
sting and ants that spray formic acid. Stinging ants deliver their painful
attacks by way of a physical retractable stinger and injection of
venom produced by a venom gland in their body, like bees and
wasps. The sprayers, eject formic acid which can deter or injure an
animal within its range, or deliver a powerful punch if combined with
a deep bite from the mandibles.

The Stages of Ant Life

Similar to many insects, ants undergo complete metamorphosis
where they begin life as an egg, which then hatches into a worm-like
larva, which grows and molts along the way, and eventually

14
becomes a pupa. Some ants have naked pupae, which appear as
white, seemingly mummified ants, while others have pupae encased
in cocoons. These cocoons which are formed with the larva's silk (and
often requires the help of adult ants who bury the larvae with debris
to give the larva a framework in which to spin their cocoon) and have
a black dot on one end of the cocoon called the meconium which,
believe it or not, is the larva's one and only fecal pellet, built up over
the entire course of the ant’s larval life.

During the larval stage of an ant, they don’t poop at all, which
helps keep the nest clean, as ant larvae are generally unable to
crawl far distances to
get to the colony
bathroom area. Thus, ant
larvae poop is excreted
only once in the larva's
entire life, expelled inside
the cocoon right at
pupation. After some
development in the
pupa, the ants emerge
as full-grown ants; a
process known as
eclosing.

The Ant Caste System

Ants are social insects that have a caste system of different
specialized forms that take on various unique functions within the ant
society. All ants are born into their respective caste and remain in that
state for their entire lives. There are worker ants, which most people
see wandering around above ground. They handle the bulk of the
colony's duties, including cleaning, food collection, tunnel digging,
caring for their young, defense and more. They are all female and are
barren.

15
 There are also female alates which are young virgin queens born
in the nest and have wings. These become the new founding queens
of their own colonies after they mate during a nuptial flight (more
about Nuptial Flights coming up). There are also male ants which tend
to look more like wasps but are typically smaller than queen alates.
Their only job is to mate with the female alates during nuptial flight,
after which they die. There are also other denomination of workers in
some species, like ‘majors’ (or soldiers) which are specialized larger
worker ants with larger heads packed with biting muscles, often used
to defend the colony from attacks or to aid in the cutting up of food
items, and minors which are smaller worker ants frequently used for
caring for the young. Some highly specialized species of ants have
additional worker denominations like sub-majors (smaller majors).

A queen (top), male (left), and worker (bottom) carpenter ant

16
 The Ever Diverse Ant Reproduction Cycle
Ants are a very diverse collection of insects. Therefore, it should
come to no surprise that the ways in which various ants reproduce
can also be quite diverse. Here are a few common ways.

Reproduction via Monogyny (Solo Queen)

The term “monogyny” describes ant species with colonies that

only have a single egg-laying queen ant. Once this queen ant dies,
there is no other queen that can be created to lay eggs, and so the
workers live out their lives, dying out normally, which ultimately leads
to the death of the colony as a whole.

The typical monogynous ant life cycle starts with reproductive ants
called the alates. They are the reproductive young, virgin males and
queens. These alates appear in the colony seasonally, developing
from special eggs laid by the main egg-laying queen. These alates
are larger than the worker ants and are born with wings.

17
 During what is referred to as a "nuptial flight", which normally
takes place at a specific time of the year depending on the species,
all the alates take off and mate with each other on wing. A female
can mate with several males in a single mating flight. After these
mating flights, the male alates die, while the female alates drop to
the ground, break off their wings (upon which they are called
dealates), and venture off on their own in search of a suitable place,
usually underground to start their new colony alone. These now
wingless queens become the egg-laying queens of their own
respective colonies. The workers born from this new queen, care for
her and her proceeding young for the rest of their lives. Eventually,
when the new colony gets big enough, the queen will begin to lay
eggs which will turn into alates, and the cycle starts all over again.

It is amazing to imagine that only one day of mating is enough

for a queen to continue laying eggs for the rest of her life, which can
translate to around thirty long years! A secret special organ in her
body, called the spermatheca, keeps the sperm from her mates
during her nuptial flight viable for all the years of her life.

18
Reproduction via Polygyny (Multiple Queens)

Some ant species reproduce through polygyny, where a colony

is formed with multiple egg-laying queens. Reproduction in
polygynous species is similar to that of monogynous species with the
exception that polygynous species do not found colonies alone after
nuptial flight.

It is thought that newly

mated queens of some
polygynous species of ants, like
those belonging to the genus
Myrmica, come together after
mating and form collective
queen groups. These queens
then begin to lay eggs and
raise all their young
cooperatively. Polygyny is a
very advantageous method to
found an ant colony because it ensures more workers are produced
faster which better increases the chances of colony success.

Some of the most globally invasive ant species like black crazy
ants (Paratrechina longicornis), argentine ants (Linepithema humile),
and pharaoh ants (Monomorium pharaonis) are polygynous and can
form great supercolonies, where two or more unrelated ant colonies
can fuse together peacefully, something that is a bit rare in the ant
world.

Perhaps in some polygynous ant species, mated queens return

to their birth colonies to start egg-laying. Some believe the alates of
some species of polygynous ants actually mate within their birth nests,
skipping a nuptial flight event entirely. It is not exactly known how
every polygynous ant species gets their multi-queen colonies started,
but somehow having multiple queen ants all laying eggs has worked
well for many species.

19
Reproduction via Gamergate

There is a very different type of ant reproduction which eliminates

the need for a queen. Take ant species like Diacamma rugosum, for
instance, whose colonies are composed of all worker ants. Yes, their
colonies are queenless! The way they reproduce is interesting. One of
the workers, usually the most dominant one, called the ‘gamergate’,
assumes the role as colony egg-layer. As the gamergate, she lays all
the eggs of the colony, while all other ants remain barren and take
care of her young. Males who have wings, fly in from neighbouring
colonies to enter the nest and mate with this gamergate, thereby
ensuring she lays fertilized eggs. Likewise, the gamergate will also
produce male ants, which eventually leave the nest in search of
gamergates in other nests. When the gamergate dies, another
dominant ant will take on the role as egg-layer. It is also suspected
that some colonies can regroup and branch out to new locations to
form new colonies, where a new gamergate is established.

Diacamma sp. gamergate

20
Reproduction via Social Parasitism

Some species of ants fall into the less studied category of “social
parasites” like citronella ants, Lasius claviger. A citronella ant queen
mates in a nuptial flight like many ant species, but instead of going off
to start her own ant colony by herself, she penetrates the nest of a
host colony of another species (usually another Lasius species) and
ends up replacing the original queen. It is thought she manages to
infiltrate the host nest by either mimicking their colony scent or by
releasing pacifying pheromones. Some research states that the
citronella queen ant finds the host queen ant and assassinates her,
followed by the rubbing of her dead body all over her own body to
acquire the queen’s scent. It’s pretty crazy stuff! Once the colony is
fooled to think that this foreign citronella queen ant is their actual
biological queen, they go on to take care of her young and raise
them until the entire colony is composed of citronella ants.

21
Reproduction via Slave-Making

There is even a form of ant social parasitism, that is observed in

slave-making ants (Polyergus sp.), whose mated queens somehow
manage to infiltrate a host ant colony and either take over the
colony like regular social parasites, or kidnap the host pupae (it’s still
not known exactly which of the two actually transpires), from which
emerge host worker ants that believe the slave-maker queen is their
real queen. Now here’s the interesting part: the slave-making adult
worker ants which develop from the slave-making queen ant’s eggs
are incapable of taking care of themselves and can’t even feed on
their own. So these slave-making ants need to continually abduct
host pupae from host nests. The host workers emerging from these
abducted pupae go on to do all the work in the nest for the slave-
making ants, including feeding the slave-making ants. They are a
species which evolved to literally enslave another ant species and
cannot survive otherwise. Isn’t that just mind-boggling?!

22
Reproduction via Branching

Some ants like the driver ants (Dorylus sp.) of Africa reproduce via
branching. The queens are born wingless and are much too heavy to
fly. Their bodies are designed to be massive egg-factories. However,
the males do fly and are born with wings. These flying males leave
their birth colonies and locate other established colonies containing
virgin queens. The males enter the nests (technically called ‘bivouacs’
since driver ants are nomadic and don’t create permanent nests like
most ants, but rather sheltered camps) to mate with a virgin queen.
The males die after mating, and the now mated driver ant queens,
branch off from the main colony, taking with her a big group of
worker ants (her sisters) to form an independent colony of their own.

23
Reproduction via Double Cloning

There are various other very peculiar methods of ant reproduction.

An example can be seen in species like black crazy ants
(Paratrechina longicornis). Not only can the species form
supercolonies where unrelated colonies can come together and join
forces, but a recent study revealed that black crazy ants can
produce by way of double cloning. Imagine this: black queens can
produce male alates that are genetic clones of males she previously
mated with, while also producing female alates that are genetic
clones of herself. Along with this, black crazy ant male and queen
alates can have their mating sessions inside their nests. This means
then that black crazy ant males can mate with their biological sister
alates inside their nests, while evading genetic incest due to the male
alates being genetically unrelated to their biological sister alates. It’s
a very strange and interesting way to reproduce, but is
advantageous for black crazy ants because they don’t need to have
nuptial flights and can simply keep reproducing at home forever. A
black crazy ant colony can have thousands if not millions of egg-
laying queen ants, their colonies technically capable of lasting
forever. The species does also have nuptial flights, however, and
black crazy ant queens can be adopted in by unrelated black crazy
ant colonies. Black crazy ants essentially break all ant reproduction
rules! We will talk more about ant reproduction in Chapter 5 when we
discuss starting your ant colony.

24
 Chapter 2: The History of Ant Keeping

The Pioneer of Ant Keeping: Uncle Milton

Industries, Inc.

The earliest known

record of the ant
keeping hobby can be
traced back to 1956. A
man named Milton
Levine began creating
homes for ants and
selling these pet ant kits
at a circus fair.
According to Levine,
from the moment they opened, these plastic homes for ants, were
selling like crazy, and their popularity grew so quickly. The ant home
consisted of gravel, sandwiched between two clear panes of
plexiglass, as well as the depiction of a farm in the background. The
ants would dig through the gravel, making for excellent viewing into
the lives of how ants lived and worked. These ant keeping kits were
called ‘ant farms’, a term which to this day is still trademarked by
Uncle Milton Industries, Inc. based in Westlake Village, California.
Since opening, Uncle Milton Industries, Inc. has shipped over 20 million
ant farms worldwide. The company also began mailing live worker
ants to customers that would send in a coupon obtained from the ant
farm package. The educational toy was a global hit, and soon Uncle
Milton Industries began selling a whole line of educational toys like
“Sea Monkey” kits which allowed one to rear brine shrimp in water.

25
 Milton Levine, who many consider the father of the ant keeping
hobby, passed away in January 16th, 2011 from natural causes at the
age of 98. Uncle Milton Industries, Inc. has since released new ant
farm products like gel ant farms and other educational toys.

An Underground Hobby: Europe & Asia

Around the 1980’s and 90’s a more serious, less novelty-type

approach to pet ant keeping emerged. It is hard to say whether
serious ant keeping started in Europe or Asia, but the hobby quickly
began to grow, perhaps shortly after herpetoculture (the captive
rearing of exotic reptiles and amphibians) and tarantula keeping
began to make their first appearances in the global pet trade. Ant
keeping supply stores in various Asian and European countries began
offering pro ant keeping equipment and formicariums (the technical
term for ‘ant farms’) designed specifically for housing ant colonies.
They began to even sell entire colonies with a queen, which was a
new thing seeing as Uncle Milton only offered worker ants in the mail
and no queen due to shipping laws.

Soon even the upright gravel sandwich design of the original ant
farm was revolutionized, as new types of formicariums began to rise in
popularity for use with housing pet ants including formicariums made
of plaster-of-paris, cork, and a water absorbent brick known as
automated aerated concrete. By the late 1990’s to 2000’s pet ant
keeping had evolved into a flourishing underground craze in Europe
and Asia, and the body of knowledge circulating among hobbyists
on the captive care and husbandry of ant colonies evolved,
improved, and grew.

26
 How YouTube Helped Ant Keeping Go Mainstream:
AntsCanada

A personal account from Mikey Bustos, CEO/Founder of AntsCanada

I have always loved ants my entire life and created simple ant
farms as a child in bottles filled with sand, but every ant colony I dug
up for my ant farms never included a queen, so the colony always
lasted no longer than a couple of months at most. No matter how
thoroughly I dug into an ant nest, I could never seem to find the
elusive queen in my collections. I also owned a few Uncle Milton ant
farms as a kid and enjoyed my mailed in worker ants for the few days
that they lasted before dying out. Overall, however I assumed
keeping an ant colony with a queen was something that only the rare
and lucky, who somehow managed to find a queen ant in an ant
nest, ever got to experience. Due to this discouragement, I stopped
ant keeping somewhere in my teens.

27
 That was until in 2009 in my twenties, I was shocked to see
YouTube videos of ant keepers in Europe, which portrayed entire ant
colonies with a queen housed in more naturalistic captive ant setups.
It brought my childhood ant love rushing back in a huge,
overwhelming wave. It was winter at the time I had discovered the
ant keeping world in Europe, but all I knew was that I had to have my
own ant colony with a queen!

I began researching and joining ant keeping forums online and

was shocked to see the wealth of knowledge that had been
accumulated over the years on serious ant keeping. I was also
shocked to see how established the ant keeping communities were in
Europe and Asia, and the evident lack of one in North America.

Inspired by all of this, come spring time, I went on to capture my

first mated queen ants during nuptial flight, something I never realized
one could do, and established my own collection of ant colonies
thereafter. This eventually lead to birth of the AntsCanada Ant
Channel on YouTube, which I created to document on video the
development and lives of my personal ant colonies, as well as to
create tutorials on how to properly keep and house ants for those
who may have been like me, loving ants as a kid but clueless to the
idea of raising an ant colony from just a mated queen.

Eventually, I became so invested in the spread of serious ant

keeping that I began to create original designs of ant homes using
ordinary home materials, which I began to offer for sale on my
AntsCanada website. My hopes were to see ant keeping become a
legit, widespread hobby, and not just some remote underground
activity in Europe and Asia. I wasn’t going to stop until it was.

28
 Today the AntsCanada YouTube channel is one of the highest-
subscribed independent nature channels on YouTube.
AntsCanada.com has gone on to become the world’s #1 trusted ant
supply shop. We are now a global team of ant keepers and
enthusiasts who design and offer top of the line ant keeping supplies
to hobbyists and museums around the world, as well as help ant
keepers both new and old, obtain locally caught/raised ant colonies
with a queen for their ant farms, through an online ant Uber system,
we call the Global Ant Nursery Project (or simply the “GAN Project”).

The vision for AntsCanada has never changed since the start.
We aim to make serious pet ant keeping simple, accessible, and
enjoyable to all, thereby promoting an appreciation for nature and
inspiring conservation. Our main office is located in Toronto, Canada
with its warehouse facility in Salt Lake City, Utah, with the star ant
colonies featured on the AntsCanada YouTube channel housed in
Manila, Philippines, where I now live.

29
 Chapter 3: Pre-Pet Research

Is a pet ant colony right for you?

The great advantages of ant keeping are that ants are small
and require less space than a dog, cat, or rabbit; ants do not make
noise; if their enclosures are cleaned properly they are odorless; they
don’t require visits to a vet; other than their home, there are few
expenses associated with their care; they do not require constant
grooming; a queen ant caught from outside is free; ants don’t require
constant handling, socialization or interaction with their owners; they
can be left to care for themselves for a few days if need be; unless
someone is allergic to their bite, ants aren’t dangerous; they are also
very educational pets for kids, teens, and adults alike, and are a
great way to learn about nature, biological relationships,
organization, and responsibility.

30
 Before owning any pet, it is important to ask yourself if your
lifestyle is suitable for pet ant keeping. Whether they be just a queen
with her first round of young or a mature colony with millions of
individuals, the ants will depend on you for food, water,
environmental conditions, garbage disposal, and so on, and the
responsibilities do take time and effort depending on the ant colony
size.

Here are some questions to consider before getting into serious pet
ant keeping:

● A full grown ant colony can require a minimum of about 1 m X 1

m of space. Do you have enough space to accommodate a
setup of this size?
● A queen ant can survive for as long as 30 years of age. Are you
willing to commit to caring for an ant colony for that long, or do
you know anyone who might want to take them home in case
you need to rehome them? Or do you know of an undisturbed,
natural area, unoccupied by another ant colony where you
could release the ants (assuming they were caught from your
area) if you can no longer care for them?
● Most ant species require an insect food source. The demands of
food of a very old, mature ant colony can be pretty
overwhelming for someone who is not used to buying live
crickets or mealworms from a pet store on a regular basis. Many
ants will not accept dead or dried crickets, nor raw or cooked
meats. This requires funds and time. Are you willing to spend $10
a week on crickets or mealworms? Are you willing to make the
travel to and from the pet store to pick them up? Are you ok
with handling live insects?

31
● Ants require a sweet food source like honey and fruits. Are you
able to spend the funds and time providing your ant colony with
a sugary food source?
● A large mature ant colony can produce a lot of garbage and
piles of dead ants. Are you willing to take the time to clean up
their refuse and dead bodies on a weekly basis?
● Does your place of residence allow pets, and furthermore insect
pets? Are there other members of the family that might despise
ants? Do you have other pets like a cat or dog that can mess
with your ant setup? Are there small children around that might
get into your ant setup and possibly hurt themselves or your
ants?
● If you have to leave your home for whatever reason, is there
someone who can and is willing to care for your ants’
maintenance?

32
 ● Ants require room temperature in the least and do not do well in
a cold air conditioned room. Is there a place in your home in
which you can place the ant setup? If in an air conditioned
room, are you willing to spend $25 on heating equipment to
keep the nest heated?
● Are you willing to take a few minutes every week to keep
watering tubes clean and full of fresh water on a weekly basis?

Review these questions before making the decision to own a pet ant
colony. If you answer yes to all of them, you’re ready to start ant
keeping!

The Global Ant Keeping Community Online

It is highly recommended that any new or aspiring ant keeper

make use of the wealth of information from the global online ant
keeping community. The body of knowledge on captive ant
husbandry is constantly evolving and growing, with new information
on ant care always emerging. www.AntsCanada.com offers an
extremely helpful forum for ant keepers to exchange information and
discuss everything and anything about ants. There are even regularly
updated journal entries of ant keepers from around the world posting
about their growing ant colonies. The forum also offers a very helpful
section on Starting Your Own Ant Colony and Ant Care. It is also highly
recommended that you subscribe to the AntsCanada YouTube
Channel at www.Youtube.com/AntsCanada for many helpful ant
tutorials, insights on ants, interviews with myrmecologists, and scenes
of ant colony life within a nest. You can also follow AntsCanada on
Twitter, www.Twitter.com/AntsCanada to acquire useful ant keeping
tips.

33
 Chapter 4: Getting All Set Up

Creating the Perfect Home for Your Ants

When you’ve decided that ant keeping is indeed something

you are ready to explore and commit to, the next step is to ensure
you have all the necessary equipment. Let’s take a look at choosing
and creating an ideal living space for your ant colony. This is certainly
one of the most fun parts of ant keeping.

There are two basic components to an ant colony’s setup:

The Formicarium

Formicarium is the technical term

used by ant keepers to refer to the unit
used to house an ant colony. For the
purposes of this book, formicarium will
be used to describe the simulated
nesting area of the colony. It is in this
nesting area where the queen and
young reside, as well as where the
workers live, rest, and perform
construction duties.

The following are qualities of a good formicarium:

● It must provide enough space for the colony to create areas for
storing the young, food items, and for congregating, but not too
spacious that the ants feel too exposed and unprotected.

34
 ● It must also retain moisture well, particularly for those ant species
which prefer a humid and moist nest (see Chapter 12 for
species-specific details).
● It must allow for ample ventilation, and for the purposes of the
ant keeper good visibility of the ant colony.
● It must be chemical-free (e.g. paint or lacquers)
● It must be mold resistant

Ant keepers have several options when selecting a formicarium

for their ant colony.

Upright Dirt Nests

Most are familiar with the upright dirt formicaria (based on the
original Uncle Milton ant farm design) involving sand or gravel
sandwiched between two panes of glass or acrylic. The advantages
of these formicaria are that they offer the ants a chance to dig their
own tunnels and generally retain water well. They can also make for
excellent observation of the colony if the correct thickness of dirt nest
is chosen, in relation to the size of the ants.

35
 You see the disadvantage of upright dirt nests, is that if the ants
are too small in relation to the thickness of the dirt nest, the ants will
more likely than not, purposely hide their queen and young from view
and light, and start to pile the digging medium against the glass to
block all visual access into their nest. What ends up happening is the
ant keeper sees no tunnels nor chambers, and is left to look at an
upright dirt nest of sand. It is essential to choose (or create) an upright
dirt nest that is thin enough so that the ants cannot possibly hide from
view but thick enough to properly accommodate the piles of brood,
the population of ants, and free comfortable movement of the
queen. These measurements can be tricky if you’re inexperienced,
and even more difficult if you are obtaining your upright dirt nest
before actually getting your ants.

For a medium sized ant with a body length of around 5-8 mm,
like most species belonging to the genus Formica, I usually like to give
the ants about a 1 cm thick digging medium space between the two
panes of glass. Smaller ants like those belonging to the genus Lasius,
might do well in an upright dirt nest that offers 5-8 mm of digging
medium space between the glass, and larger ants like those
belonging to Pogonomyrmex or Camponotus, might require a
digging medium space significantly thicker, perhaps as much as 2-3
cm in thickness. It is important to note, however, that these estimates
still do not guarantee the ants will not pile digging medium against
the glass and hide from view. You kind of just need to cross your
fingers.

Also, due to most up right nest designs, lack of drainage can be

a problem. Some upright dirt farms create an additional risk of
drowning your ant colony if too much water is added. Also, if the
digging medium dries out too much, cave-ins are very common in this
type of formicarium.

36
Gel farms (Warning: Not Suitable Ant Homes!!!)

There has been a recent trend of formicarium products which

subjects ants to live in a gel medium. They are often sold in toy or
science stores as for children and teens. They are known as gel farms.
The gel farm allows the ants to dig in a coloured, transparent
gelatinous substance, which is said to contain nutrients that nourish
the ants. This gel farm product was designed to house worker ants
mailed to the ant keeper. Its appeal lies in its user-friendly “set-it-and-
forget-it” feature, where you place the ants inside the gel farm and
there is no other maintenance required. While these gel farms may be
satisfactory for housing worker ants for several days, there are many
reasons why these nests are unsuitable for ant colonies. They are very
mold-prone and even though the product may claim that the gel
does contain a fungicide, mold will inevitably grow when the ants
begin to establish a restroom area, which the ants must do.

37
 Also, the gel only offers electrolytes which are enough to sustain
workers for the few weeks max, before the ants enter estivation then
later die from malnourishment. The gel simply does not contain the
necessary proteins and other nutrients needed to nourish the workers,
the queen, and growing young. Serious ant keepers know that the gel
farms are unsuitable homes for pet ant colonies. We recommend that
you never attempt to house your ants in a gel farm! They are the
fishbowls of the ant world!

Plaster Nests

Many ant keepers have found success using formicaria crafted

from plaster-of-Paris, an option commonly used in laboratories for
studying ants. A plaster nest essentially consists of a slab of plaster with
tunnels and chambers carved into it or created via a mold, with a
pane of glass or acrylic placed over the plaster slab to keep the ants
contained. Plaster nest formicaria make suitable homes for many ants
species. They are easy and cheap to make, easy to maintain, and
make for amazing viewing because there is no dirt for the ants to hide
in. They retain moisture well, as the plaster is very water absorbent
and retentive. Hydration is taken care of by creating a pit in the
plaster into which the ant keeper can drop water inside. The water
then seeps into the plaster, creating humidity within the nest.

The drawback with plaster nests is that the plaster does

eventually mold, especially when dead ants or food are left lying
around, or if the ants choose for their bathroom area to be located in
a damp part of the nest. The general rule with plaster nests is that the
more damp they are kept, the more easily they mold. In light of this,
plaster nests may not be the ideal choice for ant species that like very
humid or moist nests, like ants belonging to the genus Myrmica. The
most ideal plaster nest candidates are the more dry-loving ant

38
species, like those belonging to the genera Camponotus or
Pogonomyrmex, but then there is an additional problem to this: many
ants can actually chew through dry plaster. Plaster nest users beware!

Cork Nests

Widely used in Europe are formicaria made from cork. Cork nests
absorb water well and are slightly more mold resistant than plaster,
but they do eventually mold as well, and must be changed routinely.
They allow for great viewing of the ant colony, however since there is
no digging medium for the ants to hide in. It is also important to note
that some ant species can also chew through cork.

AAC Nests

Another material used widely in Europe and Asia is AAC or

autoclaved aerated concrete (and other names like Hebel Brick)
which is a type of brick used in construction, with millions of
microscopic bubbles giving the brick highly water absorbent
properties. Nests made from AAC are a popular option for ant
keepers because they are mold-resistant, make for easy nest
hydration, and with tunnels and chambers already carved out into
them, they offer unobstructed visibility.

AAC itself may be difficult to obtain, particularly if you live in

North America. Also, due to its porous structure, AAC can harbour
pockets of harmful bacteria or mold, so it is recommended that AAC
Nests be cycled, by moving the ant colony periodically to fresh new
and clean AAC Nests once the nest appears too dirty.

39
Hybrid Nest™ 2.0

The AntsCanada Hybrid Nest™ incorporates state-of-the-art

formicarium technology, designed to make the experience of ant
keeping easier and convenient for the ant keeper, while also catering
to the specific needs of the particular species of ant living inside. It is
currently AntsCanada’s most advanced formicarium.

The idea behind the Hybrid Nest is that it is Genus-Specific. With

tens of thousands of possible ants to house, it can make the ant
keeping experience easier for the ant keeper if they are able to
choose a design that best suits the ants the ant keeper is housing.

The AntsCanada team

studied actual wild nests of
various popularly kept
genera of ants and
incorporated these wild nest
layouts and humidity profiles
into a number of Hybrid Nest
versions that the ant keeper
can choose from depending
on what ant species they
are housing:

40
Camponotus Hybrid Nest™

Design description: Horizontally linear, smooth, spacious tunnels and

chambers inspired by Camponotus ant nests within wood.
Hydration Level: 20%-40% humidity
Also suitable for: All common ant species, but may not be suitable for
moisture-loving ants like Myrmica. Best suited to large ant species
including but not limited to Carebara, Pogonomyrmex, and
Myrmecia.
Nest Area Dimensions: 8″ L x 8″ W x 1″ H

Tetramorium Hybrid Nest™

Design description: A maze-like, linear network of rectangular tunnels

connected by archways forming a network of spaces like those under
sidewalk blocks and pavement.
Hydration Level: 30%-50% humidity
Also suitable for: All common small ant species, including but not
limited to those belonging to Lasius, Solenopsis, Crematogaster,
Monomorium, Pheidole, Prenolepis, Iridomyrmex, and Temnothorax.
Not suitable for large ants like Camponotus or Pogonomyrmex.
Nest Area Dimensions: 8″ L x 8″ W x 1″ H

Lasius Hybrid Nest™

Design description: A network of spacious rounded chambers

separated by thin walls and tight passageways.
Hydration Level: 50%-60% humidity
Also suitable for: All common small ant species, including but not
limited to Tetramorium, Solenopsis, Crematogaster, Monomorium,

41
Pheidole, Prenolepis, Iridomyrmex, and Temnothorax. Not suitable for
large ants like Camponotus or Pogonomyrmex.
Nest Area Dimensions: 8″ L x 8″ W x 1″ H

Formica Hybrid Nest™

Design description: Large spacious oval chambers of varying depths

and moisture levels connected by narrow tunnels.
Hydration Level: 30%-50% humidity
Also suitable for: Most common ant species. May not be suitable for
moisture-loving ants like Myrmica.
Nest Area Dimensions: 8″ L x 8″ W x 1″ H

The AntsCanada team is working on releasing more Hybrid Nest

versions in the future. It should be noted that the designs are merely
inspired by the nests of the various genera, and ants from one genus
can indeed be housed in the Hybrid Nest versions of another genus;
the ant keeper just needs to adjust the watering frequency. For
example, a Lasius ant colony can be housed in a Camponotus Hybrid
Nest if desired, but nest waterings should be increased because the
Camponotus Hybrid Nest is designed to offer a lower amount of
humidity, and Lasius ants tend to prefer a bit more humidity.

The high degree of customization of the Hybrid Nest also

extends into its hydration system. A lower tub is situated at the bottom
of the nest. This hydration tub is to be filled with a hydration medium
of the ant keeper’s choice. Possible hydration media include cotton,
perlite, AAC, plaster, sponge, sand or soil. We prefer to use cotton as
this is easy and cheap to replace as needed.

42
If a colony is raised in an AC Test Tube (which is included in the Hybrid
Nest kit) from just a newly caught queen ant, it can be attached
easily to one of the four openings of the nest. For those needing to
heat their nest, there is a heating cable port which runs through one
side of the nest to create the perfect temperature gradient. It also
comes with a cover so the ant keeper can keep their ant colony in
the dark when not observing.

It has become a popular choice for beginner and pro ant

keepers alike.

The Basin

Also commonly known

in ant keeping as an
outworld, the basin is the
second component to an
ant setup and is usually an
open and airy area which
simply provides your ants a
space to forage for food
and offer a location to
dispose of the colony’s trash and dead ants, as they would in the
wild. In most basic setups, it is connected to your formicarium via a
tube. Worker ants will venture out of the formicarium and into the
basin in search of food or other ‘outdoor’ activities.

As the ant keeper, it is your job to make sure to provide the ants
with food and water in their basin, as you are the sole provider of
these resources in the outworld. It is also your job to make sure all

43
garbage and dead bodies dumped in the outworld aren’t left lying
around for long periods of time as they can breed bacteria, fungi,
and microbes harmful to your ants. They usually make it easy for you
by leaving their garbage and dead in neat piles.

The following are qualities of a good basin:

● It should create an ideal foraging space for your ants but

shouldn’t offer an attractive nesting space. The reason for this is
you will want to keep your ants from wanting to move their
colony out of your formicarium and into your basin. It occurs
often in ant keeping that an ant colony that is living in a

44
 formicarium will find a suitable, tight, and dark crevice under a
rock decoration, for instance, and one morning you’re left with
an empty formicarium and an entire colony hiding in the basin.
For this reason, live plants with soil are often impossible to keep in
a basin without the ants being able to move their colonies in.
● It should be spacious and allow for a good amount of surface to
forage
● It should be easy to clean
● It should be escape-proof
● It should allow for good ventilation. If there is little air flow in the
basin, the ants may even treat the entire basin as one giant ant
room.

Ant keepers have several options when selecting a basin for

their ant colony.

Basic Glass or Plastic Aquarium Basin

Some ant keepers prefer to have their ants forage in a glass or

acrylic aquarium that is very basically decorated, perhaps with a
shallow pebble ground layer and some sticks. A hole is drilled into the
glass or acrylic using a special drill bit designed for drilling holes in
glass or acrylic, through which a tube is connect and attached to the
formicarium. These basins are often left open without a cover and a
deterrent like petroleum jelly or baby powder mixed with alcohol is
smothered in a thick 2-inch band along the top of the aquarium to
keep the ants from escaping.

45
AC Outworld™ 2.0

This AC Outworld™ provides a great solution to an ant colony’s

basin needs. The specially designed AC Outworld™ 2.0 has a number
of features.

It is large, approximately 1
foot in length, 6 inches deep, and
6.5 inches tall which is a good
amount of ant real estate! And
despite the size, however, the AC
Outworld™ 2.0 still fits nicely on
any table top, counter top, desk
top, or shelf and is quite portable,
in case you need to transport or
relocate your colony.

One of the neatest features of the AC Outworld is the ant

deterrent lip, which allows ant keepers to keep an unobstructed view
of their ants, with no ant barrier getting in the way along the top. The
horizontal lip which runs around the top of the outworld provides an
ideal space for the application of the ant barrier. Using an ant barrier
upside down as opposed to vertically like on the top sides of a tank,
also makes the barrier more effective at keeping ants inside. Ants will
find it harder to hang onto an upside down surface than a vertical
one.

The top cover can be removed to access the inside of the AC

Outworld without having to remove the ant barrier lip. There is also a
small and convenient food chute, which can be easily opened, into
which the ants’ food can be inserted, so the ant keeper doesn’t need
to remove the entire cover.

46
 The AC Outworld is also elliptical-shaped to eliminate the
chance of ants clinging on to any corners that might help them
surpass the ant barrier. Escape artist ants have a hard time climbing
out of an AC Outworld. It is 100% clear for 360 degree viewing of the
ant colony. It also has a number of microholes for ventilation along
the cover and sides. Connection tubes can be attached to either of
two built-in connection points for making it simple to another
formicarium or other outworld.

Another great feature is these AC Outworlds are stackable to

create a tall outworld space. The base of the AC Outworld is
designed to snap securely into the top of another AC Outworld, to
create an AC Outworld tower of sorts.

Watch this video for ideas on how the AC Outworld can be arranged
to create very attractive outworld setups!

Two in One Ant Homes (Formicarium + Basin)

Many ant keepers choose to house their ants in 2-in-1 ant setups.

Ant Tower™

This is an ultra-simplified 2-in-1

(formicarium + basin) living space for
a small to medium-sized ant colony.
It is designed with beginner and
intermediate ant keepers in mind,
and is perfect for kids and teens who
may be intimidated by some of the
more complex setups. It is a fully

47
contained ant environment, complete with a nesting area and a
foraging area in a single enclosure that is easy to hydrate and
maintain. It also comes with red celophane which can be wrapped
around the digging area of the Ant Tower to make the ants feel like
they are in the dark, while still allowing the ant keeper to see them dig
their tunnels.

Watch this video to see the Ant Tower at work, housing a

Dracula ant colony!

Omni Nest™

The Omni Nest was developed for ant keepers who want a 2-in-
1 setup with 100% clear view of their ant colony. The formicarium
section of the Omni Nest is comprised of compact layers of fully clear
acrylic. Due to the amazing opportunity for observation of the colony
that the Omni Nest offers, it is often the popular choice for museums
and zoos around the world, including a harvester ant exhibit the
Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County in California, USA.

48
 One of the most impressive features about the Omni Nest,
aside from visibility, is the hydration system. The Omni Nest contains
two hydration chambers which can accommodate sponges or
cotton into which you drop water to hydrate the nest. The hydration
system is powered by capillary action as the water soaks into the
small spaces between the layers of acrylic. Users of an Omni Nest can
visibly watch the moisture travel to the various parts of the nest.

The Omni Nest also allows access to every individual chamber

of the nest by way of a removable acrylic roof. It can be fully
disassembled, making cleaning easier in case you would like to use it
again for another colony. The outworld box of the Omni Nest can also
be removed to be set apart from the formicarium portion attached
by way of a tube, or not used at all.

Like all AntsCanada ant homes, Omni Nests are 100% mold-
resistant. They are very portable, space efficient, and come in three
sizes: Small, Large, Xtra Large. Feel free to check out our Omni Nest
Series for sale only on our website here.

Omni Nest™ Vertical

Belonging to our Omni

Nest series, the 100% clear Omni
Nest Vertical functions in the
same way as the regular Omni
Nest, except its formicarium
orientation is vertical as
opposed to flat. Also, it is a
much more modular
formicarium. Sliding walls
located at the side of every floor

49
of the formicarium portion of the Omni Nest Vertical, allows the ant
keeper to restrict or allow access to various 'floors' of the nest. It can
be ideal for starting ant colonies, as you can gradually expand the
allowable living area as the colony grows! Omni Nest™ Vertical
comes in two sizes: Small and Large

Natural Nests

A natural nest, which is technically a type of 2-in-1 ant setup, is

one of the most interesting ways to house ants, and is often a popular
choice for fans of giving ants a home that most resembles their
natural environment. It essentially involves the keeping of an ant
colony in an aquarium with soil, plants, stones, and other decorations.
The following are two examples of natural nests, in which many of the
ant colonies featured on the AntsCanada ant channel live.

50
Terrariums/Vivariums

An ant terrarium is an attractive and very natural method of

housing an ant colony. It essentially involves placing an ant colony in
an aquarium (either with a screen cover or without but in both cases
an ant barrier is required) with a layer of soil for the ants to nest in.
Real or synthetic plants can be added, as well as additional cleaner
creatures like isopods, earthworms, and detritivorous mites or
springtails (which usually show up naturally from pioneering
stowaways in the soil). More about beneficial cleaner creatures in
Chapter 10.

51
Advantages of ant terrariums/vivariums are as follows:

● It looks attractive and is much more natural for the ants

● The combination of various interdependent biological
components, i.e. plants, animals, and soil microbes, create a
bioactive living space for the ants, which makes cleanup duties
much easier. Ant garbage and droppings are consumed by
clean up creatures, soil microbes, fungi, and even living plants.

Disadvantages of ant terrariums/vivariums are as follows:

● They are usually much more difficult and expensive to maintain

than other ant setups, and are therefore more suitable to more
experienced enthusiasts. The choosing of the plants is essential.
Not all plants make good terrarium plants, especially for small
terrariums. Lighting and fertilization also adds a more
complicated issue. The best plants to use for terrariums are those
that don't get too large, grow lower to the ground, and require
low levels of light. The plants must also be regularly trimmed, and
receive a specific amount of light per day to create proper
photoperiods. A digital timer can help create this.
● You must be willing to give up visual access to see the action
within the nest. Some people like to place a brick or some kind
of object at the center of the terrarium to try and encourage
the ants to burrow next to the glass, but the ants usually will not
burrow up to the glass unless the colony is extremely large. In
terrariums/vivariums the only action seen is that above ground,
and are therefore, not a good choice for those who would like
to see the queen and nest chambers, or for young colonies who
are still growing and come to the surface less often to forage.
● The added danger of over-flooding is a big concern for
terrariums/vivariums. Water with care.

52
Paludariums

Paludariums are essentially ant setups with some kind of water

element included in the living space. The body of water is usually
moving to avoid stagnation and may or may not include aquatic
plants and/or animals. These highly intricate and complicated setups,
though beautiful when constructed well, are not recommended for
beginners, as they require special attention to various details
including lighting, soil, filtration, fertilizer, the needs of the ants and
various aquatic creatures, temperature, and in some cases C02 and
air pump. Also, the combination of chosen species of plants and
animals is extremely critical in a paludarium.

The “Selva de Fuego”, a paludarium which contains a colony of fire ants, as well as aquatic creatures.

53
 Also worth considering, most ant colonies, especially young ones
cannot swim and drown easily, so paludarium setups are most
suitable for tropical species or species that naturally deal with large
amounts of rain or bodies of water in their nesting vicinity, i.e. tropical
species of ants. You can see examples of various possible of ant
paludariums on the AntsCanada ant channel, where you can also
see the broad array of complications that can occur with these types
of setups!

Additional Supplies

Other supplies you may need include:

● magnifying glass
● tweezers
● glass test tubes
● clear connecting tubes
● cotton
● a deterrent to keep the ants from escaping open areas of their
living space: petroleum jelly or baby powder + rubbing alcohol
● Q-tips
● thin and long BBQ Skewers (so useful for various random
functions)
● heating cable (if you’re place is air-conditioned)
● small plastic containers for queen collecting
● hand spray/atomizer
● honey

54
 Chapter 5: Starting Your Ant Colony

It Starts with a Queen

So you have all you need to house your colony. Now, all you
need is the seed from which your ant colony will grow: the queen ant.
This can be the tricky part, but with some patience, knowledge, and
eyes well-peeled, you will eventually find a queen ant… or ten!

A Nuptial Flight

55
The Great Nuptial Flight: An Ant Keeper’s Hunting Season

As previously mentioned, ants typically have specific periods of

a few weeks within the year when mating occurs. These periods of
breeding are called nuptial flights. As you saw in Chapter 1, most of
the ants you commonly see walking around above ground (the so
called 'ordinary worker ants') are all barren females and they do not
mate during these nuptial flights or ever in their lives. The only ants
involved in this mating are young queen ants and male ants; they are
known as alates. The alates are born in the nest and wait around all
year until it's time for nuptial flight mating. The alates are special in
that they are born with wings. Most people spotting these alates
during nuptial flights, often mistake them for wasps.

Nuptial flights of the various ant species in temperate regions

start to occur in the spring and continue all the way into late Fall. In
tropical regions mating can happen year round or during specific
months of the year. During the nuptial flight the young winged queens
and males fly into the air, they mate while flying (the queen will often
mate with several males), and when the mating is done, the queen
alates drop to the ground. The males then die after mating, as
breeding with the young
queens during nuptial
flight is their only purpose
in the ant world. Mated
females break off their
wings, now called
dealates, and begin
searching for a new
location to begin their
own colonies.

56
 Your job as the ant keeper is to try to find these queens that are
either flying and mating during a nuptial flight or are in the midst of
searching for a new nest location after their nuptial flight. These are
the only opportunities for you to capture these newly gravid queens,
because for the rest of their life afterwards they are underground.
Chapter 12 of this book offers a helpful list of nuptial flight schedules
by species and region. Be sure to study the ant species of your area
so you know what to look for.

Monogyny vs. Polygyny, Pleometrosis vs. Oligogyny

As you may have read in Chapter 1, in the ant world, there are
some species of ants that are known to have multiple queens laying
eggs in the nest. It is an effective survival trait in these species, as it
increases the chances of colony success. Polygyny is the harmonious
co-habitation of more than one queen in a single nest. Several
species belonging to the genera Myrmica, Formica and Camponotus
are known to be polygynous. Conversely, monogyny describes the
existence of only one queen per colony.

As a rule, particularly if you

are a beginner, you should
refrain from housing multiple
queens together, even if you are
under the impression that they
are a polygynous species. It is
often difficult even for the
experienced ant keeper to
accurately identify an ant
species and the mixing the
queens of two different but

57
similar-looking species or a monogynous species could be fatal for the
queens involved.

To add to complicated matters, many ant species undergo

what is called pleometrosis where two or more queens will
cooperatively raise their young together during the beginning stages
of colony founding, as if they are polygynous, but the moment the first
worker ants arrive, the queens themselves will fight to the death,
and/or the workers will eliminate all but one of the queens; the most
dominant will remain standing. The reason pleometrosis can be
attractive to an ant keeper is because more young are produced
within a shorter time frame. However, despite this ‘colony founding
short cut’ there is still a possibility the surviving queen will suffer
sustained injuries from the fight, and you may just end up with all
queens dying. So as a warning, if you mix freshly caught queens into a
single rearing space, and they seem to be getting along well, it does
not mean they are a polygynous species of ant. Queen ant war could
be brewing!

There are also polygynous ants whose queens raise their young
together cooperatively for the initial stages, and then the dominant
queen will not kill the less dominant queen, but will drive her to a
further area in the nest. This is called oligogyny and if a species is
oligogynous, the queens should be housed in a larger more multi-
faceted setup to ensure the queens can stay separated during the
founding stage. Creating a setup like this means that the queens
should be housed in a proper formicarium right away, and not in a
test tube setup (more about the test tube setup later). Again, in
oligogynous ants, there is still a chance of injury if the queen
confrontation gets extra rough.

58
 Overall, if you choose to mix queens during the colony founding
process do so at your own risk! It is highly recommended, however,
not to mix your queen ants at all during any stage of the colony
founding process regardless of whether or not you feel they are a
polygynous species. Better safe than sorry!

Social Parasites

Citronella ant queen, a social parasite

As discussed in Chapter 1, there are some ants known as social

parasites, whose queen ants after mating specialize in breaking into a
another ant species’ nest (a host species specific to the social
parasite species, by the way, and not just any ant species), killing the
queen, and essentially taking over the host nest as primary egg-layer,

59
until the entire colony is composed of her biological young. The
worker ants of the host colony believe she is their queen by way of
convincing pheromones, and they proceed to care for her and her
young, as if she were their birth mother. Renowned myrmecologist Dr.
James Trager, who has dedicated many years of his life to studying
ant social parasites, suggests that it is highly likely the socially parasitic
queens break into the host colony nest, kill the host queen, and rub
the dead corpse over themselves to mask their scent with the host
queen’s pheromones.

Socially parasitic queens are unable to begin their colonies on

their own, and require their host colony to proceed. Most social
parasitic ants have a specific or preferred host. These social parasitic
queens will be useless to you (unless you provide them a host colony,
which very hard to do even for experienced ant keepers) if you
capture one. The queens of social parasites typically have larger
heads and mandibles (jaws) for killing the host queens. They also have

60
smaller gasters seeing as they don’t need to undergo a fasting period
like ordinary new queen ants, while waiting for first set of young to
grow up. Socially parasitic queens have the luxury of host workers to
feed them from the moment they start egg-laying. Taking over an
already mature host colony has its benefits.

In Europe there are a number of documented cases where a

socially parasitic ant colony was successfully established by
introducing the social parasitic queen to a colony of host workers.
Essentially, the process of introduction involves taking the socially
parasitic queen ant captured during nuptial flight, then allowing her
to brumate (i.e. hibernation period for ants) with host workers. Every
attempt performed by ant keepers at AntsCanada has failed. The
reason introducing a social parasite to a host parasite is difficult is
because it is hard to match a social parasitic species to its exact host
species. In addition, the world of ant social parasitism is largely
unexplored, and it’s highly likely the various ant social parasites
establish their colonies in different ways. It’s kind of a gamble when
you mix any two ant species together. Most often it ends tragically
with one or both parties dying from fighting.

If you find a queen of a socially parasitic ant species and are a

beginner ant keeper, it is recommended you attempt to find yourself
another non-socially parasitic queen ant.

Researching the Species in Your Area

We firmly believe that researching the ants in your area is the

most important step to ant collecting. When you are fully aware of
what the ants in your area look like, what the queens look like, where

61
they usually nest, and when in the year their nuptial flights are,
catching them should be easy.
The worldwide web is a great source for research online.
Familiarize yourself with what a queen ant looks like in comparison to
ordinary worker ants. If you think all ants look the same, you're wrong,
and need to study further. You can start by logging onto
www.Google.com and typing into the search box "Ant species in
___________" and include your city, province/state, or country. Find out
what species of ants are common where you live (they will often be
listed by scientific name so don't be frightened if you see strange
names like Solenopsis invicta or Tetramorium or Lasius neoniger or
Formica fusca).

Chapter 12 of this book offers a list of the more commonly kept

ant species and includes when their nuptial flights occur along with
country information. It also mentions whether the ants are
monogynous, polygynous, pleometrotic, or social parasites.

If you cannot find the species you are researching in Chapter 12

of this book, you can also ask or research in our ant forum
www.AntsCanada.com. You will likely be able to connect with
someone in your area and exchange useful information on nuptial
flights, and if you’re lucky and so choose, you can even organize
and/or join ant hunting groups in your area.

If all else fails, www.antweb.org also offers a great database of

information on specific ant species, once you have a list of ants in
your area. Simply log onto the site and search your ant species. It
should provide you with plenty of species-specific information on nest
locations, distribution, description, behaviour, as well as offer a great
array of close up photographs of specimens.

62
Lasius neoniger queen dealate wandering in search of a place to nest

Queen Ant Hunting Tips

Catching your queen ant can initially seem like a bit of a

challenge especially if you think you have never seen a queen ant
before. However, with persistence you will find a queen ant. Here are
some tips to remember:

1. KEEP YOUR EYES PEELED. Your goal is to seek queens that have just
mated and are wandering in search of a nest site. The main secret
to finding queens is to keep your eyes to the ground at all times no
matter where you go, regardless of what time of the day. This
cannot be stressed enough! Hundreds upon thousands of alates

63
 participate in these nuptial flights yearly so queens are undeniably
around, only most people don’t notice them.
2.
3. KEEP ON THE LOOKOUT 24-7. Newly mated queen ants seek nesting
sites at all times of the day: morning, noon, afternoon, evening,
and even in the wee hours of the morning at 3 AM! As you’re out
going about your day, continually scan the ground for movement
and insects. Check out every little thing that you feel might be a
queen ant. Be sure to not crash into anything as your eyes are to
the ground!

4. ALWAYS CARRY SEVERAL CONTAINERS WITH YOU AT ALL TIMES. Every

day have a number of small bottles or containers stashed away in
a pocket or bag, no matter what! You just never know when you’ll
find a queen ant. It may be while you’re in the middle of a busy
downtown street corner or while you’re walking outside of the
grocery store to your car. Always be prepared to stumble upon a
queen ant.

5. KNOW WHAT SPECIES TO LOOK OUT FOR AND WHERE TO LOOK.

Continually familiarize yourself with what the species that are
currently flying in your area look like, so you know what to look out
for. Though your research may say that a particular ant species
prefers to nest in a habitat type that may not match your current
location (e.g. you live in the city and you found an ant species that
prefers to nest at the edge of a forest), still scan your surroundings
regardless of where you may be. Many species have been able to
adapt to the cityscape, and those listed as forest dwellers, for
instance, may have found a similar nesting environment fulfilling all
their requirements in your own backyard!

64
 Check sidewalks and roadsides when you’re outside. Scan the
ground everywhere you walk. Take a stroll through a forest or park
pathway and scan the ground for queens. When you're indoors
anywhere, check window sills. You may find queens at the huge
windows trying to get out of stores or shops after having
accidentally flown in. Many people find queen ants engaging in
nuptial flights as they’re driving, getting caught in the windshield
wipers. Park your car and scoop them all up!

6. SPOT QUEENS BY THEIR MOVEMENT AND BODIES. You will be able to

spot the queens by way of their larger size and by the way they
move. If you’re good at picking out detail, you will notice that the
queens move differently on the ground than workers. They tend to
move like they’re heavier, often travel in straighter lines and seem
to be less agile or "zig-zaggy" when traveling than worker ants. If
you happen to see an ant scuttling about a few feet away that
seems a little larger than usual or seems to move differently, check
her out!

You can even capture queen ants while they’re mating during the
actual nuptial flights. Most see this as the ideal situation because if
you capture a queen while a male is attached to her gaster (the
technical term for her abdomen), you know that she’s been
fertilized for sure! Try to be aware of all the insects around you. If
something flies by, follow it with your eyes to see if it's a queen (or a
queen with a male or males mating with her), and try to see her
better when she lands.

Once again, if you're good at picking up details, you might notice

that queen ants fly through the air more like lady beetles than they
do flies, bees, or butterflies. Flying queen ants are less agile and less
“zig-zaggy” in flight. One of the biggest giveaways as to whether

65
 an ant is a queen or not, besides her larger gaster and overall body
size is the two scars on their thorax where her wings used to be
attached. When you have studied and seen many photos of the
queens in your area, you should be familiar enough to be able to
distinguish them from ordinary workers.

7. QUEENS WITH WINGS ARE STILL VALUABLE. It’s important to note

that some people feel that queens that have not broken off their
wings are unfertilized, which in our experience is untrue. Even if the
queens have their wings on, bottle them up, because they still may
be fertilized. These queens may end up removing their wings later,
or may go into having her young with her wings still intact.
Conversely, even if a queen has broken off her wings it doesn’t
necessarily mean she is fertilized. Your best bet is to collect as many
queens as possible and hope one of them gives you a successful
colony. We have found that the majority of queens caught usually
are mated.

Carpenter ant queen alate

66
8. TRY NOT TO USE YOUR FINGERS. Picking up the queens with your
fingers may cause injury to the queen if you’re inexperienced at
holding them. If you are able, get the queen to walk onto a small
piece of paper and simply slide her into your container, or you can
get her to walk onto a leaf or blade of grass, and simply drop the
entire leaf into the container. Picking a queen up with your bare
fingers may injure her, so do what you can to capture queens
fingers-free.

9. DON’T PUT MULTIPLE QUEENS IN ONE CONTAINER. Placing multiple

queens in a single container often leads to death if the queens
begin a formic acid or stinging war.

10. BE SAFE AND DON’T TRESPASS. Safety and the law come first.
While your eyes are kept to the ground, it is easy to crash into
poles, trees, random objects, fall into holes, or get in the way of an
oncoming car, so be sure to also look around you and be aware as
much as possible of your surroundings as you’re queen ant hunting.
Also, do not wander onto private property, regardless of how much
of an ‘Ant Mecca’ the property might seem. Ask permission first.

67
 Chapter 6: The Colony Founding Process

The Test Tube Setup

After capturing your queen ant, the next step is to give her
exactly what she needs: a founding chamber, where she can
proceed to rest, lay her eggs, and start her colony. In ant keeping, we
recreate a queen ant’s founding chamber by placing her into a “test
tube setup”. A test tube setup involves using cotton to form a water
reservoir at the bottom end of a test tube.

68
Here's a step-by step guide on how to do your first test tube setup:

1. To do this you simply hold a test tube upright with the opening
pointing up,
2. Fill the test tube about 60-70% full of clean water,
3. Push a cotton ball down quickly into the water until it traps the
water on the lower end of the test tube

Remember these Test Tube Setup tips:

● Push the cotton ball down quickly so there are no trapped air
bubbles when the water portion is formed.
● You can use a Q-tip or any thin long instrument to push the
cotton call down into the test tube
● Always make sure to thoroughly wash your hands and any
instruments that come in contact with the cotton or test tube
before making your test tube because, you want to minimize the
chances of mold growing in your test tube setup
● Do not attempt to use sugar-water, honey-water, or juice for the
water portion of the test tube setup because it will inevitably
lead to uncontrollable mold-growth within the test tube setup.
The queen needs water in the reservoir.
● If you do not have access to a glass test tube, you can also
purchase water picks from your local florist. They are plastic test
tube-like containers for holding water secured at the bottom of
bouquets to keep flowers fresh. They often cost under $1. Make
sure to purchase several in case you need them.

69
 Queen Colony Founding Setups:
Claustral vs. Semi-Claustral

In ant keeping, most ants fall under one of two greater

categories in relation to founding a colony. They are either a claustral
species or a semi-claustral species. Let’s take a look at both
categories and explore what the setup should be like for each.

Claustral Ant Species

The first category

into which most
commonly kept ant
species fall is the
category known as
claustral ant species.
The term claustral
describes a queen who
seals herself up entirely
in a chamber known as
the claustral cell during
the initial stages of colony founding.

A claustral queen does not eat during the colony founding

process and lives off energy stored in her wing muscles while waiting
for her first adult workers to arrive. When the time comes, the queen
lays her eggs in her founding chamber and cares for the eggs until
they hatch into larvae. She feeds the larvae a nutritious soup that she
regurgitates. This nourishing soup is manufactured from the tissues
making up her back muscles which used to power her wings. After

70
these larvae pupate, they emerge as the queen’s first round of adult
worker ants, called “nanitics”. The nanitics go on to take over colony
duties and the care of the queen.

The colony's nest takes structure as soon as these nanitics start

to burrow out of the claustral cell. They begin to burrow outwards until
they finally emerge above ground to find food, which they then bring
back to the queen, fellow workers, and larvae. For most ant keepers,
this first meal is a special moment, because it is often the first real
meal the queen has had in weeks or months since leaving her birth
nest. It is also the first time the worker ants have a taste of solid food.

The colony founding process of the claustral queen means

that test tube rearing is easier for you as the ant keeper, since you
essentially don’t need to do anything but watch until the nanitics
finally arrive weeks or months later. The good news is that the majority
of ants caught fall under this category.

To care for a claustral queen you simply close off the opening
of the test tube with a cotton ball and place her away on a shelf or
dark location somewhere. You won’t have to worry about her nor
feed her at all until she has her first round of nanitics. In fact, checking
and disturbing her too much at this stage could cause her stress, and
stressed queens could eat their eggs or otherwise fail at parenting.
Checking up on the progress of the colony once a week should be a
good enough schedule for disturbance.

Some ant keepers still like to give their claustral queens

nourishment during the founding stage, though this is not necessary
and can also be dangerous if you’re not experienced. These ant
keepers place a tiny drop of honey or a crushed insect body part
inside a test tube so she can feed. This does pose danger because

71
mold outbreaks may occur if the food is left in the test tube for a long
time. So this is discouraged.

As a rule of thumb in ant keeping, patience is key and if your

queen is resting in a test tube founding her colony, it’s best to put her
away where there are no major vibrations, and simply leave her in
peace for the duration of the founding process – about one month.

Semi-claustral Ant Species

In addition to claustral ant species, there are also semi-claustral

species. During the founding process of semi-claustral queen ants, the
queen does not seal herself up entirely in a claustral cell. The queen
still creates a burrow leading to a founding chamber, lays her eggs
and rears her young in this chamber, but throughout the process
continues to leave the burrow to forage and/or hunt for food above-
ground. Semi-
claustral ant
species are not
designed to
fast for long
periods sealed
away
underground
for weeks or
months on end.
Examples of
semi-claustral
ants include
queens belonging to Pogonomyrmex, Myrmica, and Myrmecia. As
soon as the first nanitics arrive, only then will she begin to remain
within the nest to assume her role as colony egg-layer.

72
The semi-claustral setup is a little higher maintenance, and you
generally have three options for semi-claustral ant test tube rearing:

● You can confine her to your test tube setup, blocking off the
entrance of the test tube with a cotton ball, and feed her every
few days by placing food directly into the test tube;
● A better option is to attach her test tube to a basin or some sort
of foraging area where she can wander around in search of
food; or
● You can simply place the entire test tube in a basin or even bury
it in substrate to keep her dark and comfortable.

Throughout this founding process you will have to be diligent at

placing food in the test tube or basin for her to find so she can nourish
herself and her growing larvae, and just as diligent at cleaning up any
uneaten food or leftovers.

Warmth: The Secret to Growing Your Colony Quickly

As another rule of thumb, ants that are kept warm grow faster. It
is vital that you keep your queen at a moderate and comfortable
heat i.e. at room temperature. Queen ants that are kept in an air
conditioned room take a much longer time to found her colony. In
tropical species air conditioning can be lethal to queens and
colonies.

One way to keep a colony heated is by placing the tip of the

test tube setup (the water side) onto a reptile heat pad or heating
cable. Make sure the heating pad or cable is at the lowest wattage

73
or setting available. It should be low enough not to burn your skin
upon contact. You don't want to cook your ants in the process!

Catching Unmated Queen Ants

Unmated queens are one of the most common worries of ant

keepers. If the queen they have captured was unable to successfully
mate during her nuptial flight, they are generally useless to an ant
keeper since non-inseminated, unfertilized queens cannot produce
an ant colony. It is quite a challenge to determine if a queen ant
captured during nuptial flight has mated.

Some ant keepers use the simplified rule that ants without wings
are fertilized, but this is not completely true. At times, mated queen
ants decide for unknown reasons to keep their wings, and go on to
found big, healthy ant colonies. Conversely, even unmated queen
ants can break off their wings and even go on to lay eggs in a test
tube setup like mated queen. These eggs are, of course, unfertilized,
but get this: these unfertilized eggs are still capable of developing into
larvae and pupae, and from the pupae emerge male ants! Yes, male
alates develop from unfertilized eggs!

The rationale behind this is the nature of ant genes. The gender
of an ant is determined by the number of chromosomes. Male ants
are haploid, meaning they possess 1 set of chromosomes while
female ants (which include queens and worker ants) are diploid,
meaning they possess 2 sets of chromosomes. Therefore, if the mating
is successful, the queen is able to produce viable worker ants (and
queen alates later on) through the combining of 1 set of her
chromosomes within her egg and the 1 set of chromosomes from the
male's sperm, thus creating a diploid (i.e. 2 sets of chromosomes) ant

74
– a female. Furthermore, if a queen hasn't mated, the only ants she
can give birth to are males, because there is no sperm to add a 2nd
set of chromosomes which creates the female ant. If your new queen
ant gives rise to males as her first set of ants, you know she hadn't
mated during the nuptial flight so you can release her.

How To Tell Your Queen Has Mated

But there is good news! There are some common tell-tale signs
that your newly captured queen ant is fertilized:

Catching Her in the Act:

Of course, catching a queen

ant while she’s actually mating with a
male (or males) is the best way to be
sure your queen is fertilized! Try to
allow her to finish copulation before
catching her to ensure a maximum
transfer of sperm.

Grooming the Tip of her Gaster:

If she frequently gives special

attention to cleaning the tip of her
gaster, this might indicate that a male
may have been there previously.

75
Extreme Increase in Gaster Size:

Perhaps one
of the best signs an
ant keeper can
hope for is a sudden
growth of her gaster
a few days after
placing her in a test
tube. Periodically,
there will be mated
queen ants which
undergo a process
called physogastry, where the gaster will completely balloon up to
the point where you can see the white membrane connecting the
segments of the gaster, caused by the rapid production of eggs.
Physogastry isn’t specific to a species and seems to occur randomly
among fertilized queens. Unfertilized queen ants will not undergo
physogastry.

But having said this, even if your queen ant wasn’t caught
mating, doesn’t seem like she cares to clean the tip of her gaster
much, nor shows evidence of physogastry, do not lose hope as she
might still be a fertilized queen. Based on author's experience,
approximately 60 - 80% of the queen ants collected during nuptial
flights turn out to be mated ants. It is for this reason that it is a good
idea to attempt capturing several queen ants during nuptial flight
season.

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 When Can I Expect Ants?
Egg-laying and Colony Founding Timeline

So now you’re wondering when your queen will lay eggs and
when you can expect the nanitics to arrive. There are several factors
that contribute to the length of time a queen requires to lay her eggs.
Species, how warm she is kept, and how generally comfortable she is
in your test tube setup, are just a few factors that affect egg-laying
time. Egg-laying can happen almost immediately within a day or two
after she is placed in her test tube setup, but for some, the process
can take several weeks or even months, as in the case for ants whose
nuptial flights fall closer to winter and brumate through the winter.
Such queen ants tend to start egg-laying in the spring, so they don’t
brumate with laid eggs e.g. Lasius neoniger of North America. In North
America, Lasius neoniger, whose nuptial flights occur around the
beginning of September, can remain in their test tube setup egg-less
until around March the following year (More on brumating ants later).
Most species however take around 1-10 days to start egg-laying.

The same is true regarding the time it takes for eggs to hatch into
larvae, to pupate, and finally become full-grown workers. It also
depends on species, warmth, and the colony’s overall comfort. It can
take from as little as just over a week or two to a couple months. If the
queen is stressed or conditions are not right and the queen ends up
eating her young before they can develop into adults, then of course
you will need to wait much longer for nanitics to finally arrive.

Sometimes, some queen ants for unknown reasons aren’t good

mothers, and fail to raise their young to adulthood. Perhaps they may
be experiencing biological complications or could possibly be

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fighting off illness. In this case, most ant keepers end up releasing
these struggling queens and try again with a newly caught queen. Or,
sometimes, faulty queen mothers can be helped by way of
something called brood boosting.

Brood Boosting

Brood boosting is a technique involving the provision of pupae,

collected from a wild established nest of the same species to a
struggling queen ant. The purpose of brood boosting is to secure the
quick arrival of nanitics to begin caring for the queen and her young,
and also increases the amount of nanitics doing so. Faulty queen
mothers can be saved through careful brood boosting, as mature
workers can go on to take over parenting duties so she doesn’t have
to.

When brood boosting it is important to make sure you collect

pupae from a nest of the same species. You must not mix species as
this can be lethal for the queen and the foreign ants that emerge
from the pupae.

It is also advisable to only brood boost with pupae and not eggs
or larvae, because doing so might leave the queen ant with the
added burden of having to care for more larvae than her energy
stores are able to handle. In the case of claustral species, the self-
made nutritious soup for feeding larvae is not unlimited.

However, some ant keepers grow restlessly eager at the

prospect of having a nice-sized colony going and decide to brood
boost perfectly healthy queen ants in test tubes. This is not advisable
as brood boosting still has its risks. The queen can decide to fight with

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the newly emerged workers, or the workers could go on to kill the
queen, especially if there is a mistaken identity and mismatch on the
ant keeper’s part. There is also there's the added risk of introducing
your queen to viruses, parasites and other deadly diseases via the
brood of the wild colony.

If your queen ant seems to be rearing her young normally, it is

highly recommended you do not brood boost to eliminate any
complications. Patience is a skill that is greatly required when caring
for ants. The results are well worth the wait!

Feeding the Growing Colony

One of the most rewarding events for any ant keeper is seeing
your first nanitic emerge from its pupal stage. This is what experts refer
to as eclosing. The workers are usually frail-looking and lighter in
colouration during its first several days. During the course of this
period, their exoskeleton is still hardening in a biochemical process
called sclerotization. These hardening nanitics will usually feed from
the queen’s self-made soup (claustral) or food dragged home (semi-
claustral).

So when should you offer food to the nanitics? As a general rule,

for semi-claustral species, you can continue to keep offering food as
you have normally been doing throughout the founding process. The
queen will bring the food home to the nanitics, until the nanitics
decide to take over food collection duties.

For claustral species, most ant keepers wait 3-10 days after the
arrival of the first nanitic before offering food. It is better to wait a bit

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until the first nanitics are nicely hardened before offering food. Liquid
food like honey placed into a test tube could be a fatal drowning
hazard for a weak and hardening nanitic. In the wild, many species of
ants will not have their first real meals until there are as much as ten
nanitics. Some ant keepers will wait until they see signs of nanitics
trying to dig out of their test tube setup, like pulling on the cotton
fibers blocking the opening of the test tube. This is usually a sign that
the nanitics are ready for their first solid meal and are trying to dig out
of their claustral cell.

To feed the new colony,

you may place the food (either
a drop of honey or a crushed
insect body part) into the test
tube and keep it closed off with
a cotton ball. You may also give
the test tube colony access to a
basin by using a connecting
tube or by simply laying the
entire the open-ended test tube
into a basin. If you do this, be
sure to leave a pile of digging medium like sand or soil near the
entrance of the open test tube, as the nanitics will likely want to close
off the test tube to make it cozier for the colony. The nanitics will eat
the food and return to feed their queen and the growing young, thus
establishing a new process of feeding from that point forward.

Whatever the setup, always remember to always remove any

leftovers after a day or two. Food lying around can cause dangerous
mold outbreaks.

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 Changing Dried out or Moldy Test Tubes

At times, the cotton in contact with the water portion of the test
tube setup either gets dry or moldy. Though ants are naturally able to
handle the presence of mold in their nests (they are after all soil
creatures), a mass mold outbreak can pose a very serious threat to
your queen and her colony. When a mold outbreak starts, getting the
queen and colony to move out into another test tube set up is a must.
One way to do this is to tape two test tube setups together. One thing
to note is that it may happen immediately, after a few hours, or take
a few weeks for her to move her young to a fresh, clean and refilled
test tube. Some queens and colonies are stubborn and completely
insistent at staying put even when mold has visibly begun to take over
their test tube home. The same is true for colonies living in test tubes
that have gone dry.

Patience is key. Just rest assured that the colony will instinctively
know when they cannot safely handle living among the mold or
dryness anymore, and will move when they absolutely must. In the
meantime, if you’ve taped two test tubes together make sure to
allow new air in every day, or you can try attaching two test tube
setups together by way of a test tube portal or by placing the fresh
test tube near the moldy/dry one directly into a basin so the ants can
have the freedom to move when they want. The move will definitely
be easier if the queen already has workers as they tend to be more
prompt at ensuring the colony moves to cleaner nesting areas.

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When to Move Queen and Colony into a Formicarium

When your colony is composed of many adult worker ants,

usually between 20-50 or more (the more the better, actually) you
can then proceed to move the colony into their formicarium. if you
live in a temperate region, and have captured your queen anytime
between late summer and fall, it is generally a good idea to keep
your colony in a test tube where they can brumate during the cold
season. Housing a colony in a test tube to overwinter is the safest
option for brumation, so wait until the spring to move a test tube
colony into a formicarium.

As a rule of thumb, ant colonies with many workers are the

easiest to move into a formicarium. There is more ant power to
relocate the young, to search and explore the new nest you provide
for them, and generally create a bigger “buzz” when the new nesting
site is discovered.

Techniques to Encourage the Move

Moving the colony into your formicarium may be tough and

may require tons of patience. So whenever you are ready, simply
fixate the test tube opening in a manner that it is as close to the
entrance of the nest as possible.

At this point on, you may simply have to wait and hope for the
best. Since the ants and young are so small, it’s best that you leave it
to the ants themselves to initiate the move out of the test tube and
into your formicarium; do not attempt to physically or manually
displace the colony yourself!

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 If your ant species prefers a damp nest, it helps to make the
formicarium moist and allow the test tube to dry out. Also, most ants
prefer dark areas so cover the nest and shine a bright light onto the
test tube so they feel exposed. The process of moving can often take
a very long time, as in several weeks to months depending on how
stubborn and attached your colony is to their test tube. It usually helps
if the test tube is dried out and free of water.

Some ant keepers like to use heat for immediate relocation of

the colony; a process which involves placing the entire test tube onto
a hot heating pad or heating cable and forcing the ants to move out
due to the uncomfortable heat. Using heat to force your ants to
move out of their test tube can be dangerous as you may end up
accidentally cooking the ants.An ant colony might not find a
formicarium fit to live for them at their current stage, so if you are a
beginner, we highly recommend that you simply allow your ants to
move into their formicarium as they wish.

Polymorphism and Alates

Have you ever seen a big-headed ant? How about Asian

marauder ants? In the ant world, there are species that are
polymorphic which means that there is more than one variation of
worker. As seen in Chapter 1, some species are polymorphic and
have specialized workers, known as majors (or soldiers) with very large
heads. Often times, they are in charge of defense, breaking down
large food items, and other tasks which require extra mandible
power. The degree of polymorphism in some species can be quite
impressive, with the inclusion of several other denominations of
workers, including minors (extra small workers usually in charge of
caring for the young), submajors (moderately large workers with

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somewhat larger heads), and supermajors (largest workers with the
largest heads in the colony).

Owning a polymorphic species of ant can make observation

particularly interesting. You can expect your first major to appear later
in colony development, e.g. after it has grown to around 100 workers.
Also, when your colony reaches a certain size generally after a year
or more, you will start to see alates appear. The winged reproductives
that wait within the nest until the nuptial flight season of the particular
species. The appearance of alates depends on how much food is
provided and the season. Like majors, alates are nutrient expensive,
requiring more protein and nutrients to form.

Big-headed ants (Pheidole sp.) are a polymorphic species, with various sizes of majors.

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 Speaking of alates, by the way, captive born alates usually fail
to have mating flights within the formicarium or basin. This is due to
the lack of environmental cues (e.g. temperature cues, humidity
cues, seasonal cues, pheromonal cues carried by the wind from
neighbouring colonies of the same species) which tell a colony that it
is mating season. As a result, in most cases, you will have male and
female alates leave and re-enter the nest randomly regardless of the
time of year. The young queens will even break off their wings as if
they have mated, only to return to the nest and start acting like
workers. Males will even die after wandering about in the basin, as if
they have mated.

There are circumstances where mating flights can sometimes

happen within captivity, either inside the formicarium or in the basin.
Some ant keepers like to simply place their formicarium and basin
outside and leave them uncovered (with petroleum jelly or baby
powder mixed with alcohol smothered in a thick band around the top
to keep the rest of the colony in) during nuptial flight to allow the
alates to fly off as they would in the wild. If you do this, make sure the
ant enclosure is still in a shaded and relatively protected place away
from direct sunlight and rain.

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 Chapter 7: Feeding Your Ant Colony & Ant Nutrition

Feeding ants is another one of the many great ant keeping

joys. Watching ants enjoy the foods you’ve chosen for them is quite
satisfying, especially when a large swarm of ants are gathering
around to have a taste of your regular food offerings.

What Happens When An Ant First Discovers Food

How the ants choose to process newly found food is different for
each species, colony size, food size, and even individual colony.
Some will consume food on the spot and transport the food in their
social stomachs back to members of the colony in the nest. Some will
begin burying the food item to conceal it from thieves, in order to
work on it further in peace. Some ants will cooperatively carry the

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entire food item back to the nest for further consumption. Various ants
have their own tactics of feeding procedure.

Pheromonal Trailing: The Ant Mapping System

The best and most entertaining thing is when a solo foraging ant
that has discovered food has made its way back to the colony to
bring home the great news. It lays a pheromone trail on the way back
to the nest so fellow ants know where to go. Upon re-entry into the
nest these informant ants immediately let the colony know they have
found food by vibrating and releasing pheromones, and if they had
already eaten some of the food, they start regurgitating the food into
the mouths of other ants (a process called trophallaxis as mentioned
in Chapter 1 and will talk about further in a bit) to begin the
distribution process. It excites surrounding hungry workers, causing
them to venture off in search of the food, instinctively following the
pheromone trail laid down by the original ant.

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 As more and more ants travel to and from the food and nest,
they also each leave a corresponding pheromone trail. The growing
numbers of ants that enforce this pheromone trail increase the traffic
of ants between food and nest. This system of locating food explains
why one moment you see only one ant on your sandwich at a picnic,
then next thing you know, droves of ants appear in just a few minutes.

When the food source gets depleted out or is completely

consumed, ants no longer leave a pheromone trail back to the nest,
and the pheromonal trail weakens and eventually dissipates, signaling
to other ants that the food has been exhausted, and the trail is no
longer worth following.

Trophallaxis: The Internal Ant Lunch Box

Perhaps another amazing thing about ant feeding is the

communal food distribution known as trophallaxis. Trophallaxis is the
transfer of food or other fluids among members of a community
through mouth-to-mouth feeding. Tropho- (prefix or suffix) is derived
from the Greek trophé, meaning 'nourishment' while 'allaxis' means
'exchange'. It is most highly developed in social insects such as ants.
These ants with full social stomachs proceed to transfer food to other
workers using their mouth, and the food gets distributed to all
members of the colony including larvae, alates if any, and the queen.
It’s an effective way to transport food in a sanitary manner, and
ensures that only a portion of the colony is required to leave their
posts or the nest (which subjects an ant to various outdoor dangers)
to fetch the food. Little by little, food can make its way into the
stomachs of all members of an ant colony through trophallaxis.

What’s amazing is that some ant species are incapable of

breaking down solid food as adult ants, so these species bring newly

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found solid food back to the nest for their larvae, who do have the
chewing parts to consume the solid food. The larvae then feed the
adult ants via trophallaxis. In these species of ants, the adults depend
on their larvae to feed them. Ants are definitely very diverse, even in
their feeding habits!

Ant Nutrition: Protein + Carbs + Water

Aside from the joys watching ants feed brings, it’s important, as
the ant keeper, to ensure the diet is complete. Diet and nutrition are
among the biggest factors determining the success and rapid growth
of your colony. Closer analysis of an ant colony that is doing poorly,
will often reveal inadequate nutrition and/or lack of clean water. For
most commonly kept species of ants, there are three basic
components to a complete diet:

● protein food source

● sweet or carbohydrate food source
● water

It is important to note that there are some species of ants with

very specialized and specific diets, e.g. leaf-cutter ants that grow
their own food from vegetation, but most ants require you to provide
all three of the above components. You can feed your ants by
placing food items in your basin. Placing the food into a small dish
may help with cleanup but isn’t necessary. Let’s delve into each of
the components of ant diet.

Protein
All ant colonies require a protein food source. Proteins are
chains of amino acids that form the building blocks of life. It allows the

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queen to continually produce eggs and the larvae to continue
growing. Protein is the primary material needed for an ant colony to
expand. Moreover, protein is also the determining factor in whether or
not a colony is ready to sustain majors in polymorphic species, and
the reproductive alates. Only a colony that receives an ample
amount of protein will begin to have majors and alates appear in the
colony. Alates and majors are larger than the ordinary worker ants,
and require a lot more ‘matter’ to form thus are much more nutrient-
expensive to keep alive. So naturally a colony will not produce alates
or majors if there isn’t ample protein and other necessary nutrients. An
increase in a colony’s protein source may be linked with an increase
in egg-production, as well.

Polyrhachis ants eating a cockroach

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 Most ants will readily accept insects as a protein source.
Generally, anyone who has owned a reptile, amphibian, or other
insectivorous pet knows how much of a hassle it is to continually deal
with living feeder insects, unless you’re the type of person that enjoys
making regular trips to the pet store and/or dealing with the smelly,
often gnat-infested containers housing these prey insects. Hence, if
your ants are open to accepting non-living protein alternatives, it
makes things a lot easier for you as an ant keeper! Before offering
fresh insects, see if your ants will accept pre-packaged, freeze dried
insects, or store your pet store feeder insects in the fridge. Before
feeding the fridge-stored insects, crush them, then place them in the
basin.

If the ants still show interest in the fridge-stored prey insects,

you’re set! You won’t have to deal with the extra hassle of housing
and feeding the feeder insects, and you only need to buy a whole
bag of feeder insects at once and simply place them in the fridge to
use up gradually as needed. Also see if your ants will accept cooked
fish, shellfish, meat, or eggs. Try dog or cat food or even fish flakes.
Make sure anything you choose to feed your ants is natural and
chemical-free. If your ants show no interest in the protein sources
listed above, it means that, like most ants, they prefer their protein
food sources ‘juicy’ and freshly killed.

The reason most ants require the insects to be fresh is because

they lack the chewing mouthparts required to properly breakdown
tough exoskeleton. Instead, worker ants will prefer to suck the juices
that spew from a dead insect, and simply discard the exoskeleton. It is
recommended that you feed store-bought prey insects like crickets,
mealworms, superworms, waxworms, silkworms, and cockroaches to
your ants. Many ant keepers opt to pre-killing the prey insects.
Humane reasons aside, pre-killing prey insects is the safer choice,

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which is of utmost importance particularly for young colonies with few
members. If a starting colony loses a large amount of their workers to
the hazards of live prey, it could have lethal repercussions to the
colony. Every worker’s life matters especially in small colonies. Injuries
from struggling prey could also lead to death. If you do choose to
feed your prey insects live, it is recommended you wait until the ant
colony is much larger so they can handle the challenge of subduing
and killing the prey.

Ants will usually have favourites so be sure to keep a close

record of which food prey items your ants like the best and continue
to feed them. The left over exoskeletons will be left in a neat pile in
your basin for you to clean up. Be sure to dispose of this piled up
insect refuse at least once a week.

As much as possible, avoid feeding your ants wild-caught insects

as it might be detrimental to your colony. You risk the fatal presence
of pesticides. Ant keepers commonly lose entire ant colonies
attributed to the frequent feeding of swatted flies from the yard.
Many wild insects can be carriers of pesticides even while alive, and it
accumulates in greater concentrations within the bodies of the
predators that consume them. All it takes is a single wild-caught insect
loaded with pesticides to wipe out an entire ant colony.

Carbohydrates

The second component to ant

nutrition is a sugar-source or
carbohydrate. Carbohydrates offer
your ants the energy needed to
perform their daily tasks. Although the
queen, alates, and larvae do benefit

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from the energy offered from carbohydrate food sources, the primary
benefactors of these nutrients are the worker ants. This is due to their
ceaseless labor. An ant colony that is fed a steady supply of
carbohydrates is a very active and healthy colony with lively and
hardy workers.

Examples of commonly accepted carbohydrate food sources

include sugar-water, honey, maple syrup, nectar, and fresh fruit.
These food sources should also be placed into your outworld, ideally
in a shallow dish or placed onto a small piece of paper to make it
easier for you to clean afterwards. Bottle caps make great dishes to
hold these carbohydrate foods. If offering liquids like honey, maple
syrup, or sugar-water, make sure it is only a couple drops. It is easy for
ants to drown in a sticky liquid.

An alternative to offering liquid sugary foods in dishes is to offer it

to your colony in a test tube, containing the liquid in the test tube with
a cotton ball. The ants will suck the liquid out through the cotton.
Make sure the contents of the test tube don’t appear to be going
bad in any way and is mold-free. Replace test tubes containing
sugary foods every few days as they may breed harmful bacteria.
If your ants happen to be granivorous (feeding on grains and
nuts) you can offer nuts, bread, seeds, oatmeal, dried dog food, rice,
and corn as a carbohydrate source. Again, make sure any uneaten
or leftover food discards are cleaned from your basin once a week.

Water

Water is vital to every living thing on Earth. It is called the

"universal solvent" because it dissolves more substances than any

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other liquid. Ants depend on you for clean water. Even if you provide
sugar-water to your ants, they still need fresh water.

Although many ant colonies can go a few days to a week without

either a protein or a carbohydrate food source, most colonies will
perish if they go too long without any water. Water should be offered
to your colony in two ways:

● First, water should be available to your colonies from within the

nest. With the exception of ant species that naturally live in very
dry nests, most ant colonies prefer a slightly to very moist nest.
The ants will drink water directly from the nest walls.
● Second, a test tube full of water with a cotton ball closing off the
end should be placed in your basin for ants to drink. An
alternative to this is a water dish with a sponge in it, but you risk
the ants making a nest underneath the sponge or within the
small moist holes. Never let this basin water supply run out and
frequently replace this water source with new, fresh water to
ensure the water is clean. Just like humans, ants can get sick
from polluted or festering water.

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 Chapter 8: The Right Ant Environment

Making sure your ants’ environmental conditions are just right

will also ensure your ant colony’s success. Here are some of the key
environmental factors ant keepers must pay attention to.

Moisture and Humidity

Proper moisture and humidity are vital to any formicarium, as

humidity levels determine how the ants will ultimately use the space
provided by your formicarium, and even whether or not your ant
colony will approve and move into your formicarium. Likewise, the
moist walls of the nest serve as water reservoir for ants. Most broods
require specific amounts of humidity to remain healthy. Eggs and
larvae are particularly sensitive to humidity fluctuations. The drier the
nests are for species that naturally inhabit moist soils, the more fatal it
becomes for all.

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 If an ant keeper must leave for vacation, it’s important to make
sure someone is around to properly water the formicarium or that the
ants have fresh water test tubes attached to their setup in case the
main formicarium dries out and the colony needs a temporary space
to move into during this drought period, while the ant keeper is away.
You can also cover these water test tubes to make the ants feel extra
comfortable if they do move in.

Most species require a moderately moist nest, but there are

some species which prefer extremely wet or very dry nests. Be sure to
refer to Chapter 12 for a list of the most commonly kept ant species
and their nest humidity and moisture requirements.

A Note on Humidity and Phoretic Mites

Several mite species whose common presence in an ant nest

may be beneficial to a colony because they naturally feed on ants’
garbage, can actually transform into a life stage where they attach
to the bodies of ants, during extended periods of drought. These
body-latching mites are described as being “phoretic”. Phoresis is an
evolutionary tactic for these mites in times when food and water is
scarce, as they can depend on other insects like ants to transport
them to greener pastures.

Phoretic mites don’t feed from the ants’ blood. In fact, they
don’t even have mouths or anuses at this phoretic stage. However,
phoretic mites can be a nuisance for the ants, and can end up
attaching to the brood and queen’s body parts which could cause
health complications. Therefore, it is important to keep a colony
properly hydrated and humidified to keep such naturally occurring
mites from proceeding into their phoretic stage and latching on to
the bodies of your ants. If you ever do notice phoretic mites on your

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ants, simply increase nest humidity until you see the ants no longer
have body mites. It may take several weeks.

If your ants are a naturally dry-loving species, like ants from

deserts, then chances are, the ants that end up moving into and
living in their formicarium are also used to living in drier conditions and
won’t transform into their phoretic stage in the absence of humidity.
Most desert ant species still need some nest humidity, though, so
don’t let them dry out completely. There is still moisture present in the
deepest layers of soil in a desert.

Heating

As discussed previously, heat is important to the proper growth

and development of an ant colony. A warm colony is a healthy and
active one! The exception to this is the species Prenolepis imparis, the
‘winter ant’, which is active in cold temperatures and actually enters
a hibernation-like state when warm.

As a general rule, your formicarium must not drop below room

temperature. In cases where it does, (e.g. you are keeping the ants in
a place that is air conditioned) you will need to heat your ant colony
for them to function properly.

There are several ways to heat a formicarium. One of which is to

use a reptile heating cable or heating pad. When using this
equipment, be sure to use the lowest wattage available and at its
lowest possible setting. Overheating your ant nest can kill your colony,
so when installing heat to your setup, be sure to observe your ants for
the first hour to make sure they aren’t acting differently, dying, or
completely not moving (as a result of ‘estivation’).

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 Likewise, only one section of the nest should be heated to
establish a temperature gradient, i.e. a warm end and a cooler end,
to allow ants to thermoregulate, and simply choose where to be in
the nest according to whatever temperature they prefer. In fact, you
may notice that your colony will place the pupae in the hottest areas
of the nest, as they do in the wild, to help speed up the pupae
development process.

Another way to provide heating is by using heat lamps. Though

this is not highly recommended as they are usually too hot for ants,
you can still use a heat lamp for the basin. It will keep your foraging
ants warm and active. This can also light your outworld setup nicely.

If you are using an AC Outworld™ 2.0, be sure to keep the top

lid open so the heat from the lamp doesn’t melt the cover. If your ants
are from a very tropical or desert region and your household uses air
conditioner, you will necessarily require heating for your ant setup.
Lower temperatures for ant species that naturally live in hot weather
can be fatal.

Space and Satellite Nests/Basins

As your colony grows and becomes too large for your

formicarium, you will have to provide an additional space to allow it
to expand. In the wild, a single nest expands outwards to
accommodate the growing colony. Some ants however will create a
so-called satellite nest, which is a totally separate nest location. In
captivity, you can provide another formicarium to become their
satellite nest, when you notice the main nest is visibly filling up with
ants. You can connect these satellite nests with tubing. The ants will
move into this satellite nest gradually, so don’t be discouraged if the

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ants don’t choose to live in the satellite nest right away. It can take
week or months. Just keep the new nest dark, damp, and warm.

For those introducing small or starting ant colonies into large

spacious formicariums with pre-made tunnels and chambers, it may
help to provide the ants with some digging medium placed into the
formicarium, to give the ants the opportunity to set up some walls and
barricades where they need them. Open spaces in a very large nest
may make a young colony feel too exposed, and fluctuations in
humidity or miniature drafts in overly spacious nests could be harmful
to the brood. Therefore, adding some sand or soil into such large nests
will allow the ants to customize the nest space according to their

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needs. Of course, ant colonies kept in dirt nests, natural nests, and
modular nests won’t have this problem because the ants are able
expand safely into the appropriate nest space.

It is also important to add additional basins to a growing colony.

You know you require more basin space when cleaning your outworld
without ants crawling all over your fingers or tweezers becomes
difficult. As a general rule, unlike formicaria, you cannot provide too
much basin space to a colony. The greater the basin space for
foraging, the better! Some ants have the urge to forage over very
long distances, and many ant keepers like to take advantage of this
behaviour by connecting several basins with tubing, to form a
network of foraging space (and even formicaria) spanning an entire
room. A large, mature ant colony can be fun to house, as you can
have multiple formicaria and basins connected together.

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 Chapter 9: Annual Hibernation/Brumation
(for ants from temperate regions ONLY)

Have you ever noticed your ants slowing down in activity

around Fall? How about building structures to restrict or block off nest
entrances? Or maybe eating and gut-loading themselves as much as
they can? Don't worry; these are just normal for ants living in colder
regions. Prior to the cold winter months, the queen stops laying eggs,
and often times, all larvae are fed as much as possible so they
become pupae before the onset of winter.

Crematogaster ants in brumation during the winter

During the coldest months of winter, ants enter a hibernation-like

state called brumation. Brumation is the technical term used for the
biological winter slumber of cold-blooded animals (like ants,

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amphibians, and reptiles), while hibernation is technically reserved for
the winter slumber of warm-blooded animals (like bears).

During winter brumation the ants are unable to move because

of a lack of heat needed for the biochemical processes enabling
movement, as was explored in previous chapters. Miraculously every
year, the ants are able to evade the crystallization of water in their
hemolymph (i.e. insect blood) by producing glycerol which acts as an
anti-freeze. This glycerol allows ants living in the coldest of climates to
withstand temperatures as low as -40 degrees C for weeks or months.
When spring finally arrives, the ants usually take a week or more to
“thaw out”, before returning to their active state. Year after year, ant
colonies in temperate regions undergo this mind-boggling miracle of
brumation.

Why Brumate Ant Colonies?

Although keeping ants active year round may be an attractive

idea particularly for new ant keepers who are new to the excitement
of the ant keeping experience, it is advised that if you are keeping an
ant species that naturally experiences winter, you should brumate
your ant colonies during the winter each year. Why is brumate your
ants?

They will brumate anyway and the biological clock mix up will be
stressful for the ants!

Even if you attempt to try to trick your ants into thinking it is

summer by keeping them warm during Fall and Winter, most ant
species will still brumate anyway, appearing to enter a lethargic,

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dormant state. The reason for this is ants have a biological clock,
accurately set to the seasons to which they and their evolutionary
ancestors have evolved to biologically follow. If you keep them warm,
your ant colony may feel the need to eat, move, or do thing while
their biological clocks are naturally keeping them in ‘shut down’
mode.

As explored in the last chapter, ants that are kept warm are
more ‘amped up’ and are generally hungrier and more active,
therefore, to keep your ants from having to deal with the confusing
physiological state of being amped up by heat while simultaneously
being in a naturally occurring dormant state, it’s perhaps a better
choice to you keep them cold so they completely shut down all
functions until Springtime.

It allegedly extends the lifespan of the queen

It is also said that brumating your ants year after year extends
the life of the queen, at it gives ‘her highness’ a chance to take an
annual break from the very physically demanding task of egg-laying
through the warm months.

It keeps things fresh

Ant keepers from temperate regions have the unique

opportunity to seasonally “put their ants away” so to speak for a few
months every year during ant brumation period. Although for most
new ant keepers, the idea of having an inactive ant colony for 3-4
months of the year might seem like somewhat of a disappointment,
over time the ever increasing ant colony maintenance and feeding
can become quite taxing as the ant colony grows larger and larger.
For this reason, ant keepers truly benefit from ant brumation season,

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especially ant keepers with many ant colonies, because it gives them
a nice break from their ants and avoids ant keeping burnout (yes, it
exists!). Ant keepers can simply put the ants away and revisit them in
the Spring, keeping the ant keeping experience always fresh. Most
advanced ant keepers who own several ant colonies can attest to
this appreciation of the ant brumation break.

When to Start and End Brumation

Most ant keepers brumate their ant colonies when it becomes

cold enough outside that insects are no longer seen outside; and
proceeds to warm the ant colonies up when outdoor temperatures
get warm enough to see insects emerge outdoors. In Canada, this
translates to a brumation period of about four months from October
or November to February or March. The usual brumation period for
most ant species lasts between 2-4 months, depending on your
location and species. Ant colonies undergoing brumation should be
allowed to brumate for a minimum of three months.

How to Brumate Ant Colonies

There are several ways to brumate an ant colony, whether they

are queens with young in a test tube or mature ant colonies in a
formicarium. Most ant keepers usually place their test
tubes/formicaria in a basement or other unheated location of the
house where it naturally gets cold during the winter months. A
maximum temperature of approximately 10 degrees C is all that’s
required for brumation of ants, but most ants brumate well closer to 0
degrees C depending on where you are from and the species. If your
ants are arboreal, e.g. living in wood like carpenter ants
(Camponotus), they are usually able to withstand even lower

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brumating temperatures, well below freezing. If you are unsure what
temperature to brumate your ants at, keeping them at around 5-10
degrees C over the winter months is a safe bet.

If possible the more gradual you can introduce these cold

temperatures, the better it is for the ants, so that the temperature
drop isn’t drastic and the ants have an ample amount of time to
produce their glycerol hemolymphatic anti-freeze. If you’re choosing
to place your ants in a basement or an unheated location in your
home, achieving this gradual cooling process is easy because the
indoor temperatures will just naturally gradually drop with the outdoor
temperatures.

Another way to brumate your ant colony is by placing them in a

fridge and putting the temperature at its warmest setting or even
better, a temperature controlled wine cooler set to 10 degrees C. It is
usually a good idea not to leave your formicarium outside where it is
exposed to the elements. Keep your ants protected indoors!

Do not panic if the ants look as though they have died and
have assumed a sort of crumpled-up, fetal position during this
brumation period. Many ants appear to curl up and die when
undergoing deep cold brumation; though in reality they’re all very
much so alive and will return to their normal active state come spring.

Also, during this brumation period, it is vital to ensure the ants are
provided with moisture. If your ants are still in a test tube setup, make
sure the water portion of the test tube hasn’t dried. If it has, have
them move into a new test tube setup first before brumating them. If
your ants are in a formicarium, you will need to visit the formicarium
every now and then to add water when needed. During this time you

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do not have to feed your ant colonies even if some workers might be
seen foraging in the basin.

When it is time to waking up your ants from brumation in the

spring, simply move them to a warm area. Don’t heat the formicarium
up with a heat pad or cable just yet. Again, the more gradual the
process of warming up the colony the better it is for your ants. If the
ants you are waking up are in a test tube, be sure to keep a close eye
on the water for the first hour. Test tubes that are suddenly warmed up
often flood the entire test tube setup when the air bubbles and water
in the water reserve expand from the heat. You risk drowning the
queen and her offspring. Be sure to have a test tube setup ready in
case you need to perform a rescue operation in the event of a test
tube flood.

Do not panic if the ant colony doesn’t appear to wake up right

away. Some ants wake up immediately, while others may assume the
crumpled up fetal position for a few weeks to a whole month before
regaining mobility. It depends largely on how cold the ants were kept
during brumation. If they were brumated at very cold temperatures, it
generally takes longer for the ants to emerge from brumation. When
your ants do wake up, it’s a good idea to welcome them back with a
tasty meal of honey to nourish them after the several long months of
winter fasting.

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 Chapter 10: Nest Hygiene

Like humans, ants have their own way of doing things. In nature,
ants will pile their refuse and dead bodies in mounds outside of the
nest, or bury them in chambers within it. Decomposers like fungi,
detritivores like springtails and mites, and microorganisms then take
over and break down the refuse and dead. Ant garbage, dead
bodies, and even ant poop, act as fertilizer for plants. Plant roots suck
up available nitrogenous compounds and other nutrients provided by
decaying ant garbage, bodies, and poop. In a natural nest, like a
terrarium, nest hygiene isn’t much of a problem because of the fact
that you will already have these beneficial players taking care of
cleanup duties. But if you’re not housing your ants in a natural nest,
you will need to do the following:

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 You are the Ant Garbage Man and Undertaker

In non-natural nest setups, your ant colony will depend on you to

clean up garbage piles and piles of dead ants. Fungi and bacteria
buildup endanger the colony if refuse and dead ants are left lying
around for a long period of time. Spot clean the outworlds on a
weekly basis. You may do this by simply scooping up dead ants and
refuse with a spoon. Ants like to stick their garbage and dead bodies
onto sticky surfaces like petroleum jelly. If you’re using petroleum jelly
as an ant barrier and you start noticing the ants placing their lifeless
sisters onto your petroleum jelly band used along the top of the basin,
it might be worth placing a piece of paper with a blob of petroleum
jelly on it, to encouraged the ants to place them onto something you
can easily dispose of later. Another useful apparatus is the micro
vacuum tool used to suck up dust from laptop keyboards. Be sure to
not suck up any living ants, though!

In addition, it is highly recommended that basins are given a

good wash using mild soap and water during brumation.

If ants are piling their dead or garbage inside their nest, they
probably will want to bury it, to allow it to safely decompose behind
dirt walls, safely away from the colony. Try offering the ants some
digging medium by placing sand or soil directly into the formicarium
near the dump site if possible, or if you can’t get into the formicarium,
placed into their outworld close to the ants’ entrance point.

Cycling Nests Every Few Years

In nature, there is always a gradual but more or less continuous

movement of soil. This is brought about by factors such as when ants

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bring soil to the surface, when other organisms move the soil particles
about, and of course, when ants build nests; they tend to move and
change its shape and location. Some colonies will routinely and
regularly set up fresh nests in new locations. This refreshment of nest
media though, is a bit of a challenge for ants that are not kept in
natural nests.

It is highly recommended if you are not housing your ants in a

natural nest or dirt nest, that you routinely cycle your ant nests every
two years or so. This involves moving the ant colony into a completely
new formicarium to allow the old one to rest. A steady change in the
ant nest will ensure growth and development of the colony as it will
be a fresh nest every time. For moving techniques, simply refer to the
colony relocation tips on Chapter 6.

Beneficial “nest-cleaning” creatures

Whether your ants are being housed in a natural nest or an

artificial nest, you have the option to add some key cleaner creatures
that would naturally be living with and around ants in the wild. The
following are a list of some of our favourite creatures to help you
clean up after your ants.

Springtails

These interesting and active creatures belong to the subclass

Collembola. They are by far the best cleanup crew to have in any ant
setup. Some ant keepers like to farm them in separate small
containers for easy introduction into new ant spaces.

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 There are several species of springtails, but they are all tiny and
establish large, active colonies. Springtails get their name from their
unique ability to spring into the air by way of a special appendage
folded beneath their bodies which can spring downwards onto the
ground. Springtails are detritivores and eat everything from decaying
insect body parts, to fungi, to vegetation. Springtails can be naturally
found in soils, both potting soil and soils gathered from outside.
Placing a little bit of soil into an outworld or formicarium will usually be
enough to introduce a springtail population to any ant colony. They
favour moist areas and nests, and once going, a springtail colony is
easy to keep alive and cleaning up after your ants.

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Mites

Not including parasitic mites which are specialized ant killers,

mites can be your ants’ best friends. Like springtails they eat almost
everything and can help breaking down garbage. Also like springtails,
they are naturally occurring in soils so adding a bit of soil into any
outworld or formicarium will introduce mites. Sometimes, even without
the addition of soil, mites will find their way into your ant setups and
set up colonies of their own.

As seen in the last chapter, be sure to keep your ant setups

properly hydrated and humidified, otherwise mites will transform into
phoretic mites and latch onto the bodies and young of your ants.

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Isopods

There are many species of isopods that can be used to help

break down decaying matter, especially fruit matter, as well as fungi
and molds growing on ant garbage, dead, and poop. Pillbugs (often
called “rollie-pollies) and woodlice can be placed directly into your
outworlds. If you don’t have a lot of mold or fruit laying around, you
will need to supplement their diet with fresh decaying leaves in order
to keep them alive.

Worth noting in the isopod category are ant woodlice or white

woodlice, scientifically known as Platyarthrus hoffmannseggii. They
are tiny white isopods, approximately 2 mm in length, which specialize
on feeding exclusively on ant poop. You will usually find ant woodlice
turning up in wild ant colony collections. If you are collecting a wild
ant colony and find ant woodlice in the soils, be sure to scoop them
up and include them in your formicarium.

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Earthworms

Earthworms can be great at not only moving soils around, but

also at eating decaying matter. It is not recommended that
earthworms be added to a formicarium (even if it’s a dirt nest) or
even an outworld. They should only be added to a natural nest where
they will have enough room to burrow and not have frequent
encounters with your ant colony, which might eat them! The
earthworms will also eat fallen, decaying leaves from plants in your
terrarium, as well as fertilize the plants by way of their feces.

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 Chapter 11: Conservation, Preservation, and
Education

How People Can Save Ants

As ants are an integral part of nearly all terrestrial ecosystems.

Very real and important relationships exist between ants and the
plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms sharing their habitat. Ants
generally aid in seed dispersal, pollination, and even protection of
plants. Also, they are very important decomposers, breaking down
decaying matter, plants, and animals. They cultivate the soil as they
construct their subterranean nests. Likewise, ants serve as one of most
important predators in many areas of the world, like the army ants
(Eciton sp.) of South America, as they assist in controlling insect and
small animal populations. A healthy population of ants ensures the
well-being of all the living things in a given ecosystem.

Army ants (Eciton sp.) on the move across the jungle floor In South America

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 How can one help save ants? Habitat conservation is a great
way to preserve ant populations as it keeps all the interconnected
flora and fauna thriving. When an entire ecosystem is thriving, so are
ant populations. There are a couple of ways to protect ant habitat.
The very basic is by planting trees. We can also create conservation
areas where we can allow naturally occurring plants and weeds to
grow in certain spots around your outdoor property so as to help
encourage ant populations to flourish. It goes without saying that
using eco-friendly products and refraining from using pesticides also
allow ant life to thrive.

Biologist and photographer Alex Wild studying ants

With the advent of technology, various online websites offer tips

in which you can help preserve the environment and the ants that
are such an important component to it. We should bear in mind that
acting locally creates global effects. Start within your own
community! Conserve nature to protect the ants that live around you.

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 Myrmecology and Websites

Myrmecology (the scientific study of ants) is an ever advancing

branch of biology. More and more young minds are seeking to pursue
a career in studying ants in various capacities:

● taxonomy (discovering and cataloguing new species)

● academia (e.g. ecological, biological, entomological
research)
● agricultural studies

If you are looking for information pertaining to ants and

myrmecology, www.AntsCanada.com is a great website for you. It
has a forum full of both advanced and beginner ant keepers who
share their knowledge,
experiences, advice, and
even photos of their ants.
The website also provides
all the up-to-date
information as well as top-
of-the-line products for
pet ant keeping. Be sure
to subscribe to get regular
updates on the latest
“Ant Course” lead by myrmecologist Dr. Brian Fisher
AntsCanada news.

Also be sure to subscribe to www.Youtube.com/Antscanada,

follow us on Twitter www.twitter.com/antscanada, and our daily ant
photos on Instagram www.instagram.com/antscanada.

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 Another highly recommended website for advanced ant
keepers is www.Antweb.org which is an all-inclusive global catalogue
listed by region of all the documented species of ants in the world. It
also offers an annual class called ‘Ant Course’, taken by ant
enthusiasts, entomologists, university students, professionals working
with ants, etc. It is run by Dr. Brian L. Fisher at the California Academy
of Science in San Francisco, California.

Ant Keepers and Contributions to Science

Ant keepers everywhere have a serious place in science. We

may think that biologists already know a lot about ants but the truth is,
a lot is still unknown about the real lives of ants. By simply owning pet
ant colonies at home, we have the unique opportunity of peeking
into their secret lives and contributing to the myrmecological body of
knowledge. Not can humans discover new things about ants in
laboratory facilities and out in the field, but we can also do so in the
comfort of our very
homes. Observing ants in
formicaria provides a lot
of insight on the amazing
ways of ants, which
otherwise could not be
observed in the wild. With
new discoveries, we ant
keepers make in our ant
setups, we provide
scientists with beneficial
data. Every ant keeper is necessarily and inescapably a
myrmecologist in his/her own right. Ant love forever!

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 Chapter 12: Species-Specific Ant Information
With the thousands of ant species out there, it can be hard to
create an all-encompassing book to cover the more specific details
of their care and biology. Thus, we have put together this chapter to
delve into the care and biology of some of the more popularly kept
ant species.

Nuptial Flight Schedules and Distribution Chart

The following chart includes nuptial flight schedules and
distribution as reported by an online community of global ant
keepers. It should be noted that the following data is not all-inclusive,
and that ants may be seen mating outside the indicated time frames
depending on region and weather, and may be found in countries
not listed in the chart. Species are listed alphabetically by scientific
name and organized by genus.

Species Location Nuptial Flights

Acromyrmex
Acromyrmex versicolor United States, Mexico July - October

Anoplolepis
Anoplolepis gracilipes Australia, New Caledonia, Papua April
New Guinea, Solomon Islands,
Vanuatu, Brunei, India, Indonesia,
Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Mauritius, Reunion,
Seychelles, Mexico, Cook Islands, Fiji,
French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii,
Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia,
Palau, Samoa, Wallis and Futuna,
China, Japan, United Kingdom,
Yemen

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 Aphaenogaster
Aphaenogaster fulva United States August - September
Aphaenogaster lamellidens United States May - June
Aphaenogaster occidentalis Canada, United States June - September
Aphaenogaster picea Canada, United States, Mexico May - August
Aphaenogaster rudis Canada, United States July - August
Aphaenogaster subterranea Algeria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, July - September
Greece, Italy, Slovakia, Spain,
Switzerland
Aphaenogaster tennesseensis Canada, United States June - September
Aphaenogaster texana United States, Mexico June

Atta
Atta texana United States May - June

Brachymyrmex
Brachymyrmex depilis Canada, United States, Mexico March - October
Brachymyrmex obscurior Solomon Islands, United States, June
Bahamas, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Guatemala,
Guyana, Jamaica, Mexico,
Panama, Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines, Hawaii, Samoa
Brachymyrmex patagonicus United States, Argentina, Chile, April - October
Paraguay, Spain

Brachyponera
Brachyponera chinensis United States, China, Japan May - July

Camponotus
Camponotus aethiops Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, June - August
France, Greece, Iran, Italy, Russia,
Spain, Switzerland
Camponotus americanus Canada, United States March - August
Camponotus anthrax United States May
Camponotus auriventris Myanmar April
Camponotus caryae Canada, United States April - May
Camponotus castaneus Canada, United States March - July
Camponotus chromaiodes United States March - July
Camponotus consobrinus Australia December
Camponotus cruentatus France, Morocco, Portugal, Spain May - June
Camponotus decipiens United States May - July
Camponotus essigi United States, Mexico April - June
Camponotus fallax Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, May
France, Greece, Hungary, Italy,
Poland, Russia, Spain, Switzerland
Camponotus floridanus United States April - August
Camponotus fragilis United States, Mexico July - August

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 Camponotus herculeanus Canada, United States, Belgium, April - August
Bulgaria, Denmark, Estonia, Italy,
Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Norway,
Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland
Camponotus hyatti United States, Mexico March - May
Camponotus impressus No data available April - July
Camponotus laevigatus Canada, United States, Mexico April - May
Camponotus lateralis Algeria, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, April
Greece, Iraq, Italy, Montenegro,
Morocco, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey
Camponotus ligniperda Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, May - June
Denmark, France, Italy, Norway,
Poland, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland
Camponotus mississippiensis No data available June - July
Camponotus modoc Canada, United States April - July
Camponotus nearcticus Canada, United States April - June
Camponotus Canada, United States April - August
novaeboracensis
Camponotus obliquus No data available May - June
Camponotus ocreatus United States, Mexico March - July
Camponotus pennsylvanicus South Africa, Canada, United States, March - September
Greece
Camponotus planatus United States, Colombia, Costa Rica, May - June
Cuba, El Salvador, Guadeloupe,
Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Venezuela
Camponotus quercicola United States, Mexico March - May
Camponotus sansabeanus United States March - May
Camponotus semitestaceus United States, Mexico March - June
Camponotus sexguttatus United States, Belize, Brazil, Costa April - June
Rica, Dominican Republic, French
Guiana, Guadeloupe, Guyana,
Honduras, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,
Puerto Rico, Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines
Camponotus socius United States, Brazil May, October
Camponotus subbarbatus United States April - August
Camponotus suffusus Australia March
Camponotus tortuganus United States March - June
Camponotus truncatus No data available April - August
Camponotus vagus Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech April - August
Republic, France, Greece, Hungary,
Italy, Poland, Russia, Spain,
Switzerland
Camponotus vicinus Canada, United States, Mexico March - June
Camponotus yogi United States September

Cardiocondyla
Cardiocondyla mauritanica United States, Mexico, Algeria, June

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 Greece, Macaronesia, Morocco,
Oman, Portugal, Saudi Arabia,
Spain, Tunisia, Yemen

Carebara
Carebara diversa India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, April
Philippines, Singapore, Thailand,
Vietnam, China

Cataglyphis
Cataglyphis nodus Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, June - July
Iran, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia,
Turkey, United Arab Emirates,
Uzbekistan

Crematogaster
Crematogaster ashmeadi United States August - November
Crematogaster cerasi Canada, United States April - September
Crematogaster depilis United States, Mexico June
Crematogaster lineolata Canada, United States, Mexico October
Crematogaster mutans United States April - June
Crematogaster scutellaris Austria, Croatia, France, Italy, Malta, August - October
Morocco, Portugal, Spain, Tunisia

Cyphomyrmex
Cyphomyrmex minutus Reunion, United States, Colombia, May
Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti,
Jamaica, Mexico, Panama,
Paraguay, Peru, Saint Lucia, Trinidad
and Tobago, Venezuela
Cyphomyrmex rimosus United States, Argentina, Brazil, April - September
Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico,
Panama, Peru, Saint Lucia, Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines,
Suriname, Venezuela

Dolichoderus
Dolichoderus plagiatus Canada, United States May
Dolichoderus quadripunctatus Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, July - September
Germany, Greece, Slovenia, Spain,
Switzerland

Dolopomyrmex
Dolopomyrmex pilatus United States March - May

Dorymyrmex
Dorymyrmex bicolor United States, Argentina, Mexico March - September
Dorymyrmex bureni United States, Argentina April - August
Dorymyrmex insanus United States, Colombia, Mexico February - October

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 Forelius
Forelius pruinosus United States, Bahamas, Colombia, May - August
Costa Rica, Cuba, El Salvador,
Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua

Formica
Formica aquilonia Italy, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, June - July
United Kingdom
Formica aserva Canada, United States June - July
Formica biophilica United States June - September
Formica bruni Greece, Italy, Spain, Switzerland July - August
Formica cinerea Canada, United States, Armenia, June - August
Austria, Bulgaria, Denmark, Estonia,
France, Greece, Italy, Poland,
Romania, Russia, Serbia, Spain,
Switzerland, Ukraine
Formica clara India, Afghanistan, Belgium, China, June
Germany, Greece, Iran, Russia, Syria
Formica cunicularia Afghanistan, Armenia, Austria, June - July
Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Greece,
Iran, Italy, Japan, Morocco,
Netherlands, Poland, Spain,
Switzerland
Formica exsecta Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Finland, June - August
France, Italy, Netherlands, Norway,
Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland
Formica exsectoides Canada, United States July
Formica foreli Andorra, Austria, Denmark, July - August
Germany, Spain, Switzerland
Formica forsslundi Finland, Mongolia, Poland, Sweden, July
Ukraine
Formica francoeuri United States, Mexico April - June
Formica fusca India, Nepal, Canada, United States, June - August
Costa Rica, Mexico, Albania,
Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Belarus,
Belgium, Bulgaria, Channel Islands,
China, Croatia, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France,
Georgia, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Ireland, Isle of Man, Italy,
Japan, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania,
Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta,
Moldova, Montenegro, Morocco,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland,
Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Tajikistan, Turkey,
Ukraine, United Kingdom

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Formica fuscocinerea France, Poland, Switzerland June - September
Formica gagates Bulgaria, France, Greece, Hungary, July - August
Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Spain,
Switzerland
Formica glacialis Indonesia, Canada, United States July - August
Formica glauca Russia June - July
Formica incerta Canada, United States July - August
Formica integra Canada, United States May
Formica integroides Canada, United States, Mexico April
Formica lemani Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, June - September
Czech Republic, France, Italy,
Norway, Poland, Russia, Spain,
Switzerland
Formica lugubris Canada, Austria, Bulgaria, Czech May - July
Republic, Finland, France, Greece,
Italy, Mongolia, Norway, Russia,
Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland
Formica moki United States June - July
Formica neogagates Canada, United States, France August
Formica nigricans No data available April
Formica obscuripes Canada, United States April - June
Formica obscuriventris Canada, United States June - August
Formica pacifica Canada, United States August - October
Formica pallidefulva Canada, United States May - August
Formica paralugubris Italy, Spain, Switzerland May - July
Formica podzolica Canada, United States June - August
Formica polyctena Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, April - June
Germany, Greece, Netherlands,
Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden
Formica pratensis Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, April - September
Estonia, France, Germany, Greece,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland
Formica pressilabris Finland, Netherlands, Norway, June - August
Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland
Formica ravida Canada, United States May - August
Formica rubicunda United States July
Formica rufa Canada, United States, Austria, May - June
Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
Italy, Latvia, Netherlands, Norway,
Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, United Kingdom
Formica rufibarbis Canada, Belgium, Bulgaria, China, June - August
Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
France, Greece, Lebanon,
Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, United Kingdom

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 Formica sanguinea Canada, United States, Belgium, May - September
Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark,
Finland, France, Greece, Iran, Italy,
Japan, Kazakhstan, Netherlands,
Norway, Poland, Russia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, United
Kingdom
Formica selysi Austria, France, Switzerland June - September
Formica subaenescens Canada, United States August
Formica subpolita Canada, United States, Mexico June
Formica subsericea Canada, United States May - August
Formica transkaucasica Russia July - August
Formica transmontanis Canada, United States October - November
Formica truncorum United States, Belgium, China, June - August
Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy,
Norway, Poland, Russia, Slovenia,
Sweden, Switzerland
Formica ulkei Canada, United States July - August
Formica uralensis China, Denmark, Finland, Mongolia, June - August
Russia, Switzerland

Formicoxenus
Formicoxenus nitidulus Belgium, Denmark, Finland, July - August
Germany, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden

Gnamptogenys
Gnamptogenys triangularis United States, Argentina, Costa Rica, July
Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana,
Panama, Uruguay, Venezuela

Harpagoxenus
Harpagoxenus sublaevis Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, July - August
Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Sweden

Hypoponera
Hypoponera opacior United States, Chile, Costa Rica, July - October
Dominican Republic, Ecuador,
Guadeloupe, Haiti, Mexico, Peru,
Puerto Rico, Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines, French Polynesia,
Hawaii

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Hypoponera punctatissima Angola, Benin, Botswana, Cabo June - September
Verde, Cameroon, Central African
Republic, Democratic Republic of
Congo, Gabon, Guinea, Kenya,
Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe,
Senegal, South Africa, Sudan,
Tanzania, Uganda, Australia, Papua
New Guinea, Solomon Islands,
Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius,
Mayotte, Reunion, Seychelles, United
States, Costa Rica, Dominican
Republic, Guatemala, Paraguay,
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines,
Fiji, French Polynesia, Hawaii,
Micronesia, Samoa, Belgium,
Germany, Italy, Macaronesia,
Morocco, Netherlands, Norway,
Poland, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Spain,
Switzerland, Tunisia, United Kingdom,
Yemen

Lasius
Lasius alienus Canada, United States, Belgium, June - September
Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic,
France, Germany, Greece, Iran,
Italy, Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland
Lasius bicornis India, Belgium, France, Germany, April - August
Greece, Italy, Slovakia
Lasius brunneus Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, May - August
France, Germany, Greece, Iran,
Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland,
Spain, Switzerland, Tajikistan, United
Kingdom
Lasius carniolicus France, Italy, Kazakhstan, Poland, May - October
Russia, Slovenia, Spain
Lasius citrinus Belgium, Greece, Italy, Spain April - August
Lasius claviger United States August - December
Lasius distinguendus Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Italy, July - September
Slovenia
Lasius emarginatus United States, Belgium, Bulgaria, June - August
Croatia, Czech Republic, France,
Greece, Iran, Italy, Poland, Romania,
Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Ukraine
Lasius flavus United States, Belgium, Czech June - September
Republic, Denmark, Finland, France,
Greece, Iran, Ireland, Italy, Japan,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United
Kingdom
Lasius fuliginosus Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, June - September
Denmark, France, Germany,

125
 Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland
Lasius interjectus United States April - October
Lasius jensi Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, June - September
Greece
Lasius latipes Canada, United States June - September
Lasius meridionalis Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, June - September
Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland
Lasius mixtus Belgium, Czech Republic, Finland, July - September
Germany, Greece, Ireland,
Netherlands, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland
Lasius murphyi United States June - September
Lasius myops Algeria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, May - September
Greece, Italy, Spain, Switzerland
Lasius nearcticus Canada, United States July - September
Lasius neoniger Canada, United States July - November
Lasius niger Canada, United States, Mexico, June - September
Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
France, Germany, Ireland, Italy,
Japan, Liechtenstein, Netherlands,
Norway, Poland, Russia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, United
Kingdom
Lasius pallitarsis Canada, United States June - September
Lasius paralienus Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, August - October
Hungary, Italy, Spain, Switzerland
Lasius platythorax Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech June - August
Republic, Denmark, Finland,
Germany, Netherlands, Poland,
Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland
Lasius psammophilus Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Estonia, July - August
Germany, Greece, Italy,
Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland
Lasius reginae Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary August - September
Lasius sabularum Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, September - October
Poland, Switzerland
Lasius subumbratus Canada, United States July - August
Lasius umbratus Canada, United States, Belgium, May - October
Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy,
Japan, Mongolia, Netherlands,
Norway, Romania, Russia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United
Kingdom

Leptogenys
Leptogenys elongata United States, Mexico June - August

126
 Leptothorax
Leptothorax acervorum United States, Belgium, Bulgaria, June - September
Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United
Kingdom
Leptothorax gredleri Austria, Belgium, Italy, Poland July - August
Leptothorax kutteri Germany, Poland July - August
Leptothorax muscorum Canada, United States, Belgium, June - September
Finland, Netherlands, Norway, Russia,
Spain
Leptothorax pacis Switzerland July

Linepithema
Linepithema humile Cameroon, Lesotho, Namibia, South May - July
Africa, Australia, New Zealand,
United States, Argentina, Bermuda,
Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador,
Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,
Uruguay, Hawaii, Belgium, France,
Germany, Greece, Italy,
Macaronesia, Malta, Morocco,
Poland, Portugal, Spain, United
Kingdom

Liometopum
Liometopum luctuosum Canada, United States, Mexico May - June
Liometopum occidentale United States, Mexico, Venezuela March - June

Manica
Manica rubida United States, Belgium, Bulgaria, May - September
Czech Republic, France, Greece,
Italy, Poland, Slovenia, Switzerland

Meranoplus
Meranoplus bicolor India, Indonesia, Malaysia, August - January
Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka,
Taiwan, Thailand, China

Messor
Messor barbarus Algeria, Egypt, France, Italy, September -
Morocco, Portugal, Spain, Tunisia November
Messor structor Armenia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, March - September
Croatia, France, Greece, Iran, Italy,
Kazakhstan, Macaronesia, Morocco,
Poland, Romania, Russia, Spain,
Ukraine, Uzbekistan

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 Monomorium
Monomorium ergatogyna United States June
Monomorium floricola South Africa, Tanzania, Australia, June
New Caledonia, Papua New
Guinea, Solomon Islands, India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri
Lanka, Vietnam, Comoros, Grande
Glorieuse, Madagascar, Mauritius,
Mayotte, Reunion, Seychelles, United
States, Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Ecuador,
Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti,
Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico,
Panama, Paraguay, Puerto Rico,
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines,
Venezuela, Cook Islands, Fiji, Guam,
Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia,
Palau, Samoa, Oman
Monomorium minimum Canada, United States, Mexico May - August

Myrmecia
Myrmecia brevinoda Australia March
Myrmecia tarsata Australia November

Myrmecina
Myrmecina americana Canada, United States, Japan August - October
Myrmecina graminicola Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, France, August - September
Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan,
Netherlands, Portugal, Russia,
Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
Tunisia, Ukraine, United Kingdom

Myrmecocystus
Myrmecocystus tenuinodis United States February - March
Myrmecocystus kennedyi United States March - June
Myrmecocystus mendax United States, Mexico July - September
Myrmecocystus mexicanus United States, Mexico July - August
Myrmecocystus mimicus United States, Mexico March - August
Myrmecocystus navajo United States July - September
Myrmecocystus semirufus United States March
Myrmecocystus testaceus United States, Mexico March - May
Myrmecocystus yuma United States, Mexico July - August

Myrmica
Myrmica bibikoffi Switzerland August
Myrmica gallienii Belarus, Belgium, Finland, France, August - October
Latvia, Netherlands, Russia, Sweden,
Ukraine
Myrmica hellenica Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Greece, Iran, August - October
Italy

128
 Myrmica hirsuta Greece, Netherlands, United August - September
Kingdom
Myrmica karavajevi Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, July - September
Switzerland, Ukraine
Myrmica lobicornis United States, Armenia, Austria, July - September
Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark,
Finland, France, Greece, Italy,
Netherlands, Russia, Spain,
Switzerland, Ukraine, United Kingdom
Myrmica lobulicornis France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland July - September
Myrmica lonae Belgium, Bulgaria, Estonia, Finland, July - September
Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Norway,
Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland
Myrmica pinetorum United States May - July
Myrmica punctiventris United States September -
November
Myrmica rubra Canada, United States, Ecuador, July - August
Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Belarus,
Belgium, Bulgaria, China, Croatia,
Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Georgia, Germany,
Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy,
Japan, Jersey, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia,
Liechtenstein, Lithuania,
Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova,
Mongolia, Montenegro, Netherlands,
Norway, Poland, Romania, Russia,
Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, United
Kingdom
Myrmica ruginodis Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech July - August
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United
Kingdom
Myrmica rugulosa Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, August - October
Denmark, Finland, Germany,
Greece, Latvia, Netherlands, Poland,
Russia, Sweden, Switzerland
Myrmica sabuleti Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, July - September
Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United
Kingdom
Myrmica salina Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia August
Myrmica scabrinodis Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, July - September
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, United
Kingdom

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 Myrmica schencki Canada, United States, Belgium, July - August
Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland,
Greece, Ireland, Netherlands, Russia,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine
Myrmica specioides United States, Belgium, Bulgaria, July - September
Czech Republic, Denmark, France,
Georgia, Greece, Iran, Italy,
Netherlands, Russia, Spain,
Switzerland, Turkey, Turkmenistan,
Ukraine
Myrmica sulcinodis Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Finland, July - September
France, Greece, Norway, Poland,
Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, United Kingdom
Myrmica vandeli France, Switzerland July - September

Myrmicaria
Myrmicaria natalensis Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, South January
Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia,
Zimbabwe

Neivamyrmex
Neivamyrmex nigrescens United States, Mexico July - October
Neivamyrmex swainsonii United States, Bolivia, Brazil, Costa July - September
Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama

Novomessor
Novomessor cockerelli United States, Mexico July - September

Nylanderia
Nylanderia faisonensis United States April - May
Nylanderia flavipes United States, Japan May
Nylanderia parvula United States May - June
Nylanderia terricola United States, Mexico May - June
Nylanderia vividula Solomon Islands, Indonesia, March - September
Mauritius, Seychelles, United States,
Bahamas, Bermuda, Haiti, Mexico,
Panama, Finland, Spain, Sweden

Odontomachus
Odontomachus clarus United States, Mexico June - August
Odontomachus simillimus Australia, New Caledonia, Papua February
New Guinea, Solomon Islands,
Vanuatu, Christmas Island,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Seychelles, Fiji, Micronesia, Palau,
Samoa, Japan

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 Pheidole
Pheidole barbata United States March
Pheidole bicarinata United States June - August
Pheidole californica United States, Mexico April - May
Pheidole dentata United States, Colombia, Mexico April - June
Pheidole dentigula United States May
Pheidole desertorum United States June - August
Pheidole flavens India, United States, Argentina, May
Bahamas, Belize, Brazil, Costa Rica,
Cuba, Dominican Republic,
Ecuador, El Salvador, French
Guiana, Guadeloupe, Guatemala,
Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay,
Puerto Rico, Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines, Germany
Pheidole floridana United States April - May
Pheidole gilvescens United States, Mexico July - August
Pheidole hyatti United States, Mexico July
Pheidole megacephala Cabo Verde, Cameroon, August
Democratic Republic of Congo,
Gabon, Kenya, Mozambique, South
Africa, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe,
Australia, New Caledonia, New
Zealand, Papua New Guinea,
Solomon Islands, Vanuatu,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, Comoros,
Madagascar, Mauritius, Mayotte,
Reunion, Seychelles, Tromelin Island,
United States, Argentina, Bahamas,
Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, Guadeloupe,
Haiti, Martinique, Peru, Puerto Rico,
United States Virgin Islands,
American Samoa, Cook Islands, Fiji,
Guam, Hawaii, Kiribati, Marshall
Islands, Micronesia, Palmyra Atoll,
Samoa, Wallis and Futuna, Egypt,
Italy, Japan, Macaronesia, Oman,
Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Spain, United
Kingdom, Yemen
Pheidole moerens United States, Dominican Republic, May - July
Haiti, Puerto Rico
Pheidole morrisii United States May - June
Pheidole navigans United States, Mexico, Venezuela July - August
Pheidole obscurithorax United States, Argentina, Brazil, May - July
Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru
Pheidole pallidula United States, Argentina, Mexico, June - August
Algeria, Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia,

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 France, Greece, Iran, Israel, Italy,
Kyrgyzstan, Malta, Morocco,
Portugal, Spain
Pheidole pilifera United States, Mexico June - August
Pheidole tysoni United States, Mexico August
Pheidole vaslitii No data available May
Pheidole vistana United States, Mexico June - July
Pheidole xerophila United States, Mexico July - August

Plagiolepis
Plagiolepis vindobonensis No data available June - August
Plagiolepis xene Greece, Italy, Spain July - August

Pogonomyrmex
Pogonomyrmex badius United States May - July
Pogonomyrmex barbatus United States, Mexico April - September
Pogonomyrmex californicus United States, Mexico April - August
Pogonomyrmex United States April - May
magnacanthus
Pogonomyrmex montanus United States July
Pogonomyrmex occidentalis United States June - August
Pogonomyrmex rugosus United States, Mexico July - September
Pogonomyrmex salinus Canada, United States June - September
Pogonomyrmex subdentatus United States March - November
Pogonomyrmex subnitidus United States June - July
Pogonomyrmex tenuispinus United States, Mexico July - September

Polyergus
Polyergus breviceps Canada, United States August - September
Polyergus lucidus United States, United Kingdom July - September
Polyergus mexicanus Canada, United States, Mexico August
Polyergus rufescens United States, Belgium, France, Italy, July - September
Kazakhstan, Netherlands, Spain
Polyergus topoffi United States July
Polyergus vinosus United States, Mexico May

Ponera
Ponera coarctata United States, Azerbaijan, Belgium, August - September
Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic,
Greece, Hungary, Italy, Japan,
Kazakhstan, Luxembourg, Slovenia,
Spain, Switzerland, Tunisia
Ponera pennsylvanica Canada, United States March - October

Prenolepis
Prenolepis imparis United States, Mexico, Panama January - June
Prenolepis nitens United States, Austria, Bulgaria, April - May
Croatia, Greece, Hungary, Romania,
Slovenia, Turkey, United Kingdom

132
 Proatta
Proatta butteli Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, April
Thailand, Vietnam

Proceratium
Proceratium chickasaw United States August
Proceratium silaceum Canada, United States, Mexico August - September

Pseudomyrmex
Pseudomyrmex apache United States, Mexico April - June
Pseudomyrmex caeciliae United States, Colombia, Costa Rica, May
Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica,
Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama
Pseudomyrmex ejectus United States, Belize, Brazil, Costa May - July
Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico
Pseudomyrmex gracilis United States, Argentina, Barbados, March - November
Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador,
French Guiana, Guatemala,
Guyana, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay,
Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay,
Venezuela, Hawaii

Solenopsis
Solenopsis amblychila United States June - September
Solenopsis fugax Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, August - September
France, Greece, Italy, Japan,
Kazakhstan, Moldova, Monaco,
Poland, Russia, Slovenia, Spain,
Switzerland
Solenopsis geminata Gabon, New Caledonia, India, April - May
Indonesia, Thailand, Madagascar,
Mauritius, Mayotte, Reunion, United
States, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica,
Cuba, Dominican Republic,
Ecuador, El Salvador, Grenada,
Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana,
Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Puerto
Rico, Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago,
Venezuela, Fiji, Hawaii, Micronesia,
Palau, Italy, Japan
Solenopsis invicta United States, Argentina, Brazil, January - September
Paraguay
Solenopsis molesta United States, Mexico April - September
Solenopsis pergandei United States, Switzerland May - June
Solenopsis tennesseensis United States July

133
 Solenopsis texana Canada, United States July
Solenopsis truncorum No data available May - June
Solenopsis xyloni United States, Mexico April - August

Stenamma
Stenamma debile Belgium, Czech Republic, France, August - October
Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Poland,
Portugal, Spain, Switzerland

Stigmatomma
Stigmatomma pallipes Canada, United States August - September

Strongylognathus
Strongylognathus testaceus Belgium, Czech Republic, France, June - August
Germany, Netherlands, Poland,
Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom

Syscia
Syscia augustae Canada, United States, Mexico June - August

Tapinoma
Tapinoma erraticum Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bulgaria, May - July
France, Germany, Greece, Italy,
Kazakhstan, Morocco, Russia, Spain,
Switzerland, Ukraine, United
Kingdom, Uzbekistan
Tapinoma madeirense Czech Republic, France, Greece, June - July
Portugal, Spain, Ukraine
Tapinoma minutum Australia, Solomon Islands, Fiji, French March
Polynesia, Palau, Samoa
Tapinoma sessile Canada, United States, Mexico April - July

Temnothorax
Temnothorax affinis Cuba, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, July - August
Czech Republic, Greece, Italy,
Spain, Switzerland
Temnothorax albipennis Belgium, Netherlands, Spain, July - August
Switzerland, United Kingdom
Temnothorax andrei United States, Mexico July
Temnothorax caguatan United States, Mexico June - July
Temnothorax corticalis Bahamas, Germany, Poland July - September
Temnothorax crassispinus Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, July - September
Greece, Hungary, Slovenia, Ukraine
Temnothorax curvispinosus United States May - August
Temnothorax interruptus Bahamas, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, June - August
Germany, Italy, Poland, Russia,
Slovenia, Ukraine
Temnothorax nigriceps Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, June - September
Poland, Slovenia, Switzerland

134
 Temnothorax nylanderi Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, July - September
Netherlands, Russia, Spain,
Switzerland
Temnothorax parvulus Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, August - September
Hungary, Spain
Temnothorax ravouxi Bulgaria, France, Germany, Italy, June - August
Slovakia
Temnothorax saxonicus No data available July
Temnothorax sordidulus Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, July
Greece, Italy
Temnothorax tuberum Armenia, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, June - August
Italy, Kyrgyzstan, Norway, Poland,
Russia, Spain, Sweden
Temnothorax unifasciatus Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, June - August
France, Greece, Hungary, Italy,
Kazakhstan, Morocco, Poland,
Portugal, Russia, Slovenia, Spain,
Switzerland, Ukraine, United Kingdom

Tetramorium
Tetramorium atratulum United States, Belgium, Bulgaria, June - September
Czech Republic, Germany,
Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland,
United Kingdom
Tetramorium bicarinatum Cabo Verde, Australia, New May - June
Caledonia, Papua New Guinea,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Vietnam, Comoros, Europa Island,
Grande Glorieuse, Madagascar,
Mauritius, Mayotte, Reunion,
Seychelles, United States, Brazil,
Costa Rica, Dominican Republic,
Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras,
Nicaragua, Panama, Fiji, Hawaii,
Micronesia, Palau, Samoa, Austria,
Belgium, China, Germany, Greece,
Japan, Malta, Spain
Tetramorium caespitum Kenya, India, Canada, United States, April - August
Belgium, Bulgaria, China, Denmark,
Finland, France, Ireland, Italy, Japan,
Kazakhstan, Norway, Saudi Arabia,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United
Kingdom
Tetramorium impurum Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, July - October
Netherlands, Poland, Switzerland
Tetramorium moravicum Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, May - June
Greece, Iran, Russia
Tetramorium tsushimae United States, China, Japan, May - July
Mongolia

135
 Trachymyrmex
Trachymyrmex septentrionalis United States, Mexico May - August

Veromessor
Veromessor andrei United States June - July
Veromessor pergandei United States, Mexico February - April

Wasmannia
Wasmannia Auropunctata
Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe, May
Australia, New Caledonia, Solomon
Islands, United States, Argentina,
Bahamas, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica,
Dominican Republic, Ecuador,
French Guiana, Guadeloupe,
Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti,
Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay,
Peru, Puerto Rico, Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines, Venezuela, Hawaii,
Spain

136
 Basic Care Sheets of Commonly Kept Ant Species
The following are basic care sheets that have been compiled
based on experience by knowledgeable ant enthusiasts. It should be
noted, that like the nuptial flight & distribution chart, the info in these
care sheet cards may vary according to location, local weather, and
other factors. We hope this helps!

Aphaenogaster fulva
Common name(s): Harvester Ants
Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: Claustral, Monogynous

Habitat: This species is found nesting in mesic forest, oak woodland, in
rotten logs and stumps
Ideal nest moisture level: 50-80% moist.
Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water, granivorous
Nest Temperature: 20-24 degrees C

Outworld Temperature: 20-24 degrees C
Notes: In the wild, Aphaenogaster fulva go for mostly living and dead
food items that are manageable such as termites and assorted
insects. They are easy to keep and like their nests moist! Many species
of plants depend on this species of ant for the dispersal of seeds.

137
Camponotus americanus
Common name(s): Carpenter Ants

Difficulty Level: Easy
Queen: Claustral. Monogynous.

Habitat: Occurs in dry and dry-mesic prairie and oak savanna. Less often it
occurs in more closed woodlands. It nests deep in soil, usually independent
of an external covering, but occasionally builds a large chamber beneath
a stone, bark slab or wood in the early stages of decomposition.
Ideal nest moisture level: 20-40% moist
Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

Nest Temperature: 22-25 degrees C (room temperature)
Outworld Temperature: 20-27 degrees C (they like cool temperatures and
won’t come out often at 28+ C)

Notes: Beautiful ants with black yellow black coloration. No heating is
needed around room temperature is ideal. These ants will accept
some spiders, crickets, and meal worms.

Camponotus chromaiodes
Common name(s): Red Carpenter Ants
Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: Claustral. Monogynous.

Habitat: Occurs in remnant dry-mesic to mesic oak woodland and forest,
where it nests in soil and concentrates its nest around or in the dead
centers of stumps or wood in various stages of decomposition. It also nests

138
in hollows in dead wood in tree trunks near the base of living trees,
including eastern red cedar. Compared to C. pennsylvanicus, this ant
occupies the drier portion of the moisture spectrum of Missouri woodlands,
though the two species occur together at many mesic localities, especially
if they are somewhat open.
Ideal nest moisture level: 10%-30% moist (can be kept in a completely dry
nest)
Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

Nest Temperature: 22-28 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C
Notes: These ants will benefit from a heated nest. Heating is not
needed but without it, the colony develops at a slower rate. These
ants will accept some spiders, crickets, super worms and meal worms.

Camponotus noveboracensis
Common name(s): Red Carpenter Ants, New York Carpenter Ants
Difficulty Level: Easy
Queen: Claustral. Monogynous.
Habitat: Nests in and around dead wood

Ideal nest moisture level: 10-30% moist

Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water
Nest Temperature: 23-27 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C

Notes: These ants will benefit from a heated nest. Heating is not necessary

139
but without it, one can expect the colony development to be slow. These
ants will readily accept crickets and mealworms.

Camponotus pennsylvanicus
Common name(s): Carpenter Ants

Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: Claustral. Monogynous.

Habitat: Very likely the most abundant and least ecologically conservative
Camponotus throughout its range, C. pennsylvanicus species lives in
virtually all types of habitats with at least some standing dead wood,
ranging from fields with wooden fence posts to suburban yards to
savannas and woodlands to pristine upland and floodplain forests. Nests
are usually in dead wood of living trees, less often in standing snags, in
stumps, or in the ground beneath fallen dead wood
Ideal nest moisture level: 10-30% moist
Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

Nest Temperature: 23-27 degrees C

Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C

Notes: These ants will benefit from a heated nest. Heating is not
necessary but without it, one can expect the colony development to
be slow. These ants will readily accept crickets and mealworms.

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Camponotus vicinus
Common name(s): Carpenter Ants
Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: Claustral. Possibly polygynous.
Habitat: Nests in and around dead wood

Ideal nest moisture level: 10-30% moist

Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

Nest Temperature: 23-27 degrees C 

Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees
Notes: These ants will benefit from a heated nest. Heating is not
necessary but without it, one can expect the colony development to
be slow. These ants will readily accept crickets and mealworms.

Crematogaster cerasi
Common name(s): Acrobat Ants
Difficulty Level: Medium
Queen: Claustral

Habitat: Occurs in dry to mesic woodland, including second growth and
highly disturbed portions, and in all wetness levels of savanna, prairie and
old field. It nests in wood in the early to mid-stages of decomposition, in the
bases of clumping grasses, in soil beneath rocks or even beneath wood or
even large hunks of charcoal in burned woodlands.

Ideal nest moisture level: 10-40% moist
Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

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Nest Temperature: 20-27 degrees C

Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C

Notes: These ants can be easy to culture but require a very escape-proof
setup. These ants can burrow through wood and are voracious eaters
requiring a great deal of food. They impressively arch their gasters over
their heads to spray formic acid in defense or attacking. The colouring of
this specie.

Formica fusca
Common name(s): Black Field Ants, Black Ants

Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: In captivity, pleometrotic and possibly polygynous via oligogyny,
however safest and best kept singly. Claustral.

Habitat: Nests in a variety of different soil types and wooded environments,
usually in areas with good drainage and receiving a considerable amount
of sun.
Ideal nest moisture level: 20-40% moist
Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

Nest Temperature: 20-27 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C
Ideal AntsCanada Nest/Outworld: Habitat Nest series, Pumice Stone Ant
Nest, Microhabitat Outworld, Habitat Outworld

Notes: These ants may not readily accept crickets/mealworms, and
may require other insect options, including wild-caught prey.


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Formica subsericea
Common name(s): Black Field Ants, Black Ants
Difficulty Level: Medium
Queen: In captivity, pleometrotic and possibly polygynous via
oligogyny, however safest and best kept singly. Claustral.

Lasius alienus
Common name(s): Cornfield Ants

Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: Claustral. Monogynous.

Habitat: Nesting in shaded areas in deciduous forest under stones and in
rotting logs.
Ideal nest moisture level: 10-50% moist
Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

Nest Temperature: 20-27 degrees C

Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C

Notes: Very hardy and active species. Small in size. These ants may or
may not readily accept crickets/mealworms, and may require other
insect options.

Lasius neoniger
Common name(s): Labour Day Ants, Cornfield Ants, Nuisance Ants

Difficulty Level: Easy
Queen: Claustral. Monogynous.


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Habitat: Nesting in open habitats, including lawns and sidewalks
Ideal nest moisture level: 10-50% moist

Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water
Nest Temperature: 20-27 degrees C

Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C

Notes: Very hardy and active species. Small in size. These ants may or
may not readily accept crickets/mealworms, and may require other
insect options. Nuptial flights typically occur around Labour Day,
hence one of the common names.


Lasius niger
Common name(s): Common Black Garden Ants
Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: Claustral. Monogynous.

Habitat: Nests underground, commonly found under stones, but also in
rotten deadwood
Ideal nest moisture level: 10-50% moist
Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

Nest Temperature: 20-27 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C

Notes: Very hardy and active species. Small in size. The ‘golden
retrievers’ of the ant world, these ants make good standard species
for novice ant keepers.

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Myrmica rubra
Common name(s): European Fire Ants, Ruby Ants, Red Ants
Difficulty Level: Difficult

Queen: Polygynous, semi-claustral (meaning queens will need to forage
during colony founding stage)


Habitat: Found in virtually all habitats, but most common in grassland and
ruderal sites. Nests in soil, under rocks and dead wood, in grass turf, moss,
peat and very small loam hills
Ideal nest moisture level: 60-90% moist

Diet: highly insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

Nest Temperature: Nest: 20-25 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C
Notes: This is a very aggressive and stinging species. Colonies can get
very large in multi-queen colonies. Semi-nomadic and may benefit
from one or more satellite nests. Nests should be kept very damp and
maintained around room temperature for best results. These ants are
voracious eaters, are highly insectivorous, and require lots of insects as
well as sugar/honey water. Queens are polygynous and are semi-
claustral so must be allowed to forage for food during the founding
stage.

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Oecophylla smaragdina
Common name(s): Asian Weaver Ants
Difficulty Level: Very Difficult

Queen: Polygynous, Claustral

Habitat: Found nesting in leaves of trees and shrubs
Ideal nest moisture level: 50-90% moist

Diet: highly insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

Nest Temperature: Nest: 20-35 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 20-35 degrees C
Notes: This is a very aggressive species. Colonies can get very large in
multi-queen colonies. Setup should allow for the ants to build leaf
nests, which can make housing this species a challenge. They also
have good appetites but require a good variety of food items to be
healthy. Enclosure should be well-ventilated. Do not house these ants
in a moated setup as they can form rafts on water.

Pheidole pilifera
Common name(s): Big-Headed Ants
Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: Polygynous, Claustral

Habitat: Sand prairie, sandy old field, or other sandy or other highly-
drained, acid soil habitats
Ideal nest moisture level: 20-50% moist
Diet: granivorous, insectivorous


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Nest Temperature: 20-25 degrees C

Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C

Note: This ant is very tiny and should be handled with extreme care.
This ant benefits from incubation in captivity, otherwise colonies
remain small.


Pogonomyrmex californicus
Common name(s): Harvester Ants, Red Harvester Ants, commonly
mistakenly called fire ants
Difficulty Level: Medium
Queen: Obligate forager, Monogynous

Habitat: This species is found nesting in open, warm, sandy areas. The nests
themselves are constructed in the soil, generally in areas fully exposed to
the sun. Some are beneath stones, whereas others are surmounted by soil
craters or by small to huge mounds with or without coverings of gravel.
Ideal nest moisture level: 10-30% moist. Seed chamber should be dry to
prevent rotting.
Diet: granivorous, insectivorous, honey water/sugar water, will take betta
pellets (fish food)
Nest Temperature: 23-27 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C
Notes: Founding queens should be kept at higher humidity levels (30-
40%) and because they are obligate foragers, must be fed during the
founding stage. These ants will benefit from a heated nest. Heating is

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not necessary but without it, one can expect the colony
development to be slow. Very painful sting, handle with care. Not
great climbers, won’t be able to climb up smooth surfaces. Mature
Colony size approximately 10,000.

Ponera pennsylvanica
Common name(s):
Difficulty Level: Medium

Queen: Semi-claustral, Monogynous
Habitat: Usually abundant wherever there is moist, at least moderately rich
soil, whether shaded or open, moist to dry-mesic, and even in highly
degraded habitats such as lawns, gardens, fencerows, successional fields
and thickets. P. pennsylvanica also occurs in sedge hummocks in fens. In
prairie, it nests in the root-zone of sedges or grasses. In woodland, it nests in
soil, in soft, rotten wood, and often in old acorns or occasionally other nuts.

Ideal nest moisture level: 50-90% moist.
Diet: insectivorous (specialized diet: see notes)

Nest Temperature: 21-27 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 21-27 degrees C
Note: They are not a good beginner species, but great for an
experience keeper looking for something a little different. They require
a higher than normal level of humidity in their nest and have a
specialized diet. They are strictly predacious and will not eat honey or
other sweets. They will only eat soft bodied arthropods. In the wild

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they mainly eat spring tails and other soft bodied prey they find while
foraging under rocks, logs, or even underground. They will readily
accept termites, silverfish, some spiders, fruit flies and pin head (baby)
crickets in captivity. They tend to refuse to eat other types of
invertebrates, even crushed. They will accept their food frozen and
don’t seem to mind foraging above ground in captivity. They don’t
require nearly as high of a humidity level in their foraging area as they
do in their nest.

Prenolepis imparis
Common name(s): Winter Ants, False Honeypot Ants

Difficulty Level: Easy
Queen: Polygynous, Claustral
Habitat: This species occurs in natural remnants and human-modified
habitats. In the U.S. South (including most of Missouri), P. imparis is a forest or
shade-inhabiting ant, but to the north it is also common in prairies and
other open habitats. In Missouri, it is most often associated with oaks and
clay-loam soils, and is less common in second-growth forests, particularly
those lacking or with poor representation of oaks.

Ideal nest moisture level: 20-50% moist
Diet: insectivorous, sugar/honey water

Nest Temperature: 15-25 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 15-25 degrees C

Note: Queens only lay one batch of eggs each year. It’s likely they need a

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cold period for several weeks to trigger egg laying. They are otherwise easy
to keep but get largely inactive for periods at a time.

Solenopsis invicta
Common name(s) : Fire Ants, Red Imported Fire Ants (RIFA)
Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: Polygynous, Claustral
Habitat: Disturbed, including seasonally inundated ground, typically not
common in pristine remnant natural areas, except annually flooded areas.
Notorious for nesting among the urban setting.

Ideal nest moisture level: 20-50% moist

Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water
Nest Temperature: 20-27 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C


Solenopsis molesta
Common name(s): Thief Ant

Difficulty Level: Easy
Queen: Polygynous, Claustral

Habitat: Subterranean. Nests in virtually all well-drained soils, even
floodplains.
Ideal nest moisture level: 20-50% moist
Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water, granivorous

Nest Temperature: 20-27 degrees C

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Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C

Notes: This ant is very tiny and should be handled with extreme care.

Solenopsis xyloni
Common name(s): Southern Fire Ant

Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: Possibly polygynous but only about 40% of colonies remain
polygynous long term (elimination of all but one queen usually occurs),
Claustral

Habitat: Subterranean. Nests in virtually all well-drained soils, even
floodplains. Will not inhabit bark or fallen timbre.

Ideal nest moisture level: 20-50% moist

Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water, granivorous especially
sunflower seeds
Nest Temperature: 20-27 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C

Notes: These ants are very easy to keep but are notorious escape artists,
requiring a very secure formicarial setup. This species is a stinging fire ant
native to southern parts of the United States. Its behavior is similar to the red
imported fire ant (S. invicta), although its sting is less painful.


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Tapinoma sessile
Common name(s): Odorous House Ants

Difficulty Level: Medium

Queen: polygynous, possibly claustral

Habitat: Found in virtually all habitats, but most common in riparian,
grassland and ruderal sites. Impermanent nests in preformed cavities and
spaces. It is notorious for nesting in homes and for being common domestic
pests.
Ideal nest moisture level: 20-40% moist

Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

Nest Temperature: 20-27 degrees C

Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C
Notes: This species is notorious for escaping. They nest
opportunistically by nature and move often. Wild colonies have been
known to inhabit homes and will harass captive colonies. Crushing the
ant will produce a strong odor very much like blue cheese.


Temnothorax curvispinosus
Common name(s): Acorn Ants

Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: Possibly semi-polygynous, claustral
Habitat: Found nesting in tight spaces, including inside of acorns
Ideal nest moisture level: 20-40% moist

Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water

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Nest Temperature: 20-27 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C
Notes: In the wild colonies sometimes band together in the winter
time. The next spring, they divide and become more territorial even to
their own species. Colonies like to relocate to sites that have hallow
cavities with narrow openings.

Tetramorium caespitum & Tetramorium sp. E

Common name(s): Pavement Ants

Difficulty Level: Easy

Queen: Monogynous, claustral

Habitat: Found nesting in nearly all habitats in America to Japan, North
Africa to North Europe including British Isles. Notorious for nesting among
the urban setting, particularly around and under sidewalks, roads, rocks,
and pavement.

Ideal nest moisture level: 20-40% moist
Diet: insectivorous, honey water/sugar water, granivorous

Nest Temperature: 20-27 degrees C
Outworld Temperature: 20-30 degrees C
Notes: Easy and interesting species to keep for ant keepers of all
levels.


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 Glossary
A

abdomen – includes the propodeum, petiole, and the gaster on an

ant’s body [See also propodeum, petiole, and gaster]

Acheta domestica – scientific name of the species of cricket

commonly used in the pet trade as a feeder insect. They are
commonly fed by ant keepers to ants.

acrobat ant – ant belonging to the genus Crematogaster notorious

for their heart shaped gasters, which bend over their heads and to
the sides of their bodies when shooting formic acid for defense and
attacking.

Adventures Among Ants – best-selling book on ants by highly

acclaimed National Geographic writer and photographer Mark
Moffet. AntsCanada interviewed Mark Moffet on The Amazing Ants of
AntsCanada YouTube channel regarding his book, experiences,
career, and general thoughts.

alate – a reproductive male or female ant. They are born with wings.
During nuptial flight they take to the air and mate. Males die shortly
after mating, and females shed their wings becoming dealates and
begin searching for a suitable location to found her colony as the
queen.

allele – one of two or more forms of the DNA sequence of a particular

gene. alitrunk – name given to the mesosoma or the middle part of
the body, or tagma, in ants. It bears the legs and in alates, the wings.
In Apocrita Hymenoptera (wasps, bees and ants), it consists of the
three thoracic segments and the first abdominal segment (the
propodeum). [See mesosoma]

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Amazing Ants of AntsCanada – The popular YouTube Channel
[Youtube.com/AntsCanada] created on July 14th, 2009 which
eventually gave rise to AntsCanada in 2010. It is currently the highest
subscribed ant-dedicated channel on the net, and has acquired
international praise and viewership for its simplistic entertainment and
education value. It is hosted by the President, Co- Founder/Owner,
and Creative Director of AntsCanada and holds frequent contests,
draws, and interactive videos for its subscribers.

ant farm – the common name for a formicarium. The first

commercially-sold formicarium was introduced around 1929 and
patented in 1931 by Frank Austin, an inventor and professor at the
Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth College. Austin included
painted or wooden scenes of palaces, farms, and other settings
above the ground level, for a whimsical look. The creator of the
company Uncle Milton Industries, Inc. took this concept and created
the popular plastic ant farms incorporating the farm setting within it,
which became a popular novelty product over many decades.
Uncle Milton Industries,
Inc. currently owns the rights to the brand
name “Ant Farm”, and has since sold millions of ant farms worldwide.
These ant farm educational toys have yet to be accepted in the
world of serious pet ant keeping as suitable, healthy, long-term homes
for ant colonies [See also ant farm and Uncle Milton Industries, Inc.].

ant love – colloquial term coined by AntsCanada describing

myrmecophilia, i.e. the love of ants.

ant woodlouse – a tiny blind, eyeless white crustacean that lives in ant
nests and feeds on ant droppings and fungus. Its scientific name is
Platyarthrus hoffmannseggi and is also known as a ‘white woodlouse’.
They are only found in ant nests and rarely come above ground.

antenna (pl. antennae) – paired appendages used for sensing in

155
arthropods

anterior – situated before or at the front of


AntsCanada – The commonly known nickname of the President/Co-

Founder/Owner/Creative Director of AntsCanada, Mikey Bustos,
and/or of AntsCanada and team that runs it
AntsCanada

Ants Store (AntsCanada.com) – You’re here! We are the world’s #1

leading innovators of pro ant keeping equipment, providing quality
pet ant keeping products to ant lovers all over the world. Our clients
also include producers of The Discovery Channel,
schools/educational institutes, and museums. We also provide ant
keepers with up-to-date information on caring for ants, ant biology,
ecology, and promote bio literacy and conservation. See the ABOUT
US section of this website for more info.

Antstore – a German-based online ant keeping store [Antstore.net]

which sells a variety of standard formicaria and ant keeping products,
as well as live ant colonies to European countries. It also hosts an
online ant-related forum for ant keepers of various European
languages, including English.

Antweb – an online [Antweb.org] catalogue of the world’s ant

species organized regionally, and includes information, distribution
data, and close-up photographs of preserved specimens. It is hosted
by The California Academy of Sciences and is run by curator and
biologist Dr. Brian Fisher. Antweb is based in San Francisco, California
and is funded from private donations and from grants from the
National Science Foundation.

Antworks – a formicarial product manufactured by Uncle Milton

Industries, Inc. which consists of an upright plastic enclosure
containing a gel medium which acts as a venue for ants to dig

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tunnels and also nourishes worker ants for a short term. They are also
known as gel farms. The formula for the gel is derived from a NASA
experiment and contains electrolytes for workers to stay alive. These
ant farms like those of other ant products released by Uncle Milton
Industries allow for mail-in ants (usually a Pogonomyrmex or Messor
species) which are sent to the purchaser (just workers and no queen),
upon receipt of the coupon enclosed with the ant farm. These gel
farms are for observing worker ants and their effectiveness in serious
ant propagation is limited. Uncle Milton ant products have yet to be
accepted by the serious ant keeping community as a proper home
for the healthy, long term rearing of ant colonies. [See also gel farm
and Uncle Milton Industries, Inc.]

aphidicole – an animal that lives among aggregations of aphids

aphidicolous – describes an animal that lives among aggregations of

aphids.

aphids – any of numerous tiny soft-bodied insects of the family

Aphididae of worldwide distribution, that suck the sap from the stems
and leaves of various plants, some developing wings when
overcrowding occurs. Many species of ants farm aphids for the sweet
secretions they excrete called honeydew.

Apocrita – the suborder of insects in the taxonomic order

Hymenoptera that includes wasps, bees and ants, and consists of
many families. This suborder includes the most advanced
Hymenopterans and is distinguished from the Symphyta (another
suborder within Hymenoptera) by the narrow “waist” (petiole) formed
between the first two segments of the actual abdomen.

aposematism – most commonly known in the context of warning

colouration, describes a family of anti-predator adaptations where a
warning signal is associated with the unprofitability of a prey item to

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potential predators. The word originates from ‘apo’ meaning ‘away’
and sematic meaning ‘sign/meaning’.

army ant – common name for over 200 ant species, in different
lineages, due to their aggressive predatory foraging groups, known as
“raids”, in which huge numbers of ants forage simultaneously over a
certain area, attacking prey en masse. They are nomadic, i.e. do not
construct permanent nests and move almost incessantly over the
time it exists. It is also known as the legionary ant or “Marabunta”.
Examples of army ants include those belonging to the genera Eciton
in South America and Dorylus in Africa.


arthropod – an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton (external

skeleton), a segmented body, and jointed appendages. Arthropods
are members of the phylum Arthropoda (from Greek arthron meaning
“joint”, and podos meaning “foot”, which together mean “jointed
feet”), and include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and others.

Arthropoda – Phylum of arthropods, which include insects, arachnids,

crustaceans, and others. [See also arthropod]

autoclaved aerated cement (AAC) – a porous, cement material

which is water absorbent and is often used to create formicaria, by
way of carving tunnels and chambers into the cement. AAC and
similar material, is also known under other names such as Ytong and
hebel brick.

autotroph – any organism capable of self-nourishment by using

inorganic materials as a source of nutrients and using photosynthesis
or chemosynthesis as a source of energy, as most plants and certain
bacteria and protists.

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B

basin – also referred to as an outworld, it is an enclosure separate

from the main nest area which is designed to create a primary area
for a captive ant colony for foraging and hunting. It provides the ants
with an outer world or environment outside of the main nest where
workers forage for food. It is usually connected to a formicarium
through tubing or other means and may or may not be completely
sealed. [See also outworld]

BIFA – Black Imported Fire Ant, Solenopsis richteri
biologist – someone

who studies the science of life or living matter in all its forms and
phenomena, esp. with reference to origin, growth, reproduction,
structure, and behavior.


biology – the science of life or living matter in all its forms and
phenomena, esp. with reference to origin, growth, reproduction,
structure, and behavior. bivouac – in ants, it is an encampment made
from improvised shelters, as seen in ants whose colonies are nomadic.


black ant – common name given to several dark-coloured ant

species including Lasius niger and several other black species
belonging to the genus Formica

bradymetabolism – refers to the lowered metabolic speed of an

organism during a resting period, e.g. during brumation or estivation.

brood – the young of an animal or a family of young, especially the

young (as of a bird or insect) hatched or cared for at one time. In
ants, it includes a colony’s eggs, larvae, and pupae.

brood boosting – a strategy used by ant keepers in which pupae

(and sometimes eggs and larvae) are obtained from a mature colony
(usually in the wild) and given to a queen in the founding stage of her

159
colony in captivity. It is thought to increase the chances of captive
colony success, but it involves the risk of introducing disease between
colonies and it sometimes is unsuccessful at helping queens along,
resulting in cannibalism or death of the pupae. Brood boosting is
often carried out for queens that have trouble founding their first set
of workers, but is also often used to have a fledging colony grow
much quicker. Brood boosting is done using young from the same
species as the queen/colony being boosted, or at least within the
same genus.

callow ant – a newly eclosed worker, i.e. a worker that has just
emerged from the pupal stage into adulthood [See also eclose]

camouflage – concealment by some means that alters or obscures

the appearance, in insects by way of exoskeleton markings, body
shapes, and movements

carnivore – animal which eats meat or invertebrates


carpenter ants – common name for a number of species of ants that

create nests in wood, belonging to the genus Camponotus. They are
often regarded as domestic pests for this reason. These ants do not
eat the wood like termites, but rather excavate by tearing away small
pieces of wood fibre. They are a relatively larger species of ant and
polymorphic.

caste – a specialized level in a colony of social insects, such as ants, in

which the members (such as the queen, majors, media, and minors)
carry out a specific function.

cf. – abbreviation of the Latin “confer” meaning “compare to”. This is

used to refer a specimen to a known species even though it may not

160
be of that species. It is most often used when an identification is not
yet confirmed.

chitin – a main component in the exoskeleton of arthropods. Its

chemical formula is (C8H13O5N)n and it is a long-chain polymer of N-
acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose, and is found in many
places throughout the natural world.

citronella ant – common name for a yellow-coloured ant species that

generally belong to the genera Acanthomyops or Lasius (e.g. Lasius
claviger), that emit a citronella-smelling odour. They are generally a
social parasitic species [See also social parasite]

claustral cell – the fully or partially enclosed living quarters assumed

by a newly mated queen ant, where a young colony of first-born
workers (nanitics) is reared by the queen. In fully-claustral species of
ants it is a chamber (usually underground or in wood) that is
completely sealed off, and the queen never leaves this chamber. As
the colony expands, the workers pioneer and extend the living space
of the claustral cell by excavating tunnels, which eventually gives rise
to a full ant nest.
cocoon – a pupal casing made by moths,
caterpillars and other insect larvae. In ants, the cocoon is created
through silk from the larva. In some species the spinning of a cocoon is
facilitated by the workers who provide the larvae debris as a
framework for the pupating larvae to spin their cocoon. Ants
belonging to the genus Formica are known to bury the mature larvae
with grains of dirt until the larvae have spun their cocoon. Not all ant
species spin cocoons for pupation, and instead have naked pupae,
as seen in ants belonging to the genera Myrmica, Pogonomyrmex,
and Tetramorium, for instance.

colony – a group of the same type of animal or plant living or growing

together, esp. in large numbers; a family of ants living together in a

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nest or set of nests

compound eye – an arthropod eye subdivided into many individual,

light-receptive elements, each including a lens, a transmitting
apparatus, and retinal cells

cork nest – a type of formicarium with pre-made tunnels and

chambers carved out of cork which absorbs water for nest hydration

cosmopolitan – in ecology, describes growing or occurring in many

parts of the world; widely distributed.

coxa (pl. coxae) – the segment that connects the leg to the thorax


crop – social stomach where food is initially stored and processed

before being fed to other members of the colony via mouth-to-mouth
transfer [See also trophallaxis]


cryptic – fitted for concealing; serving to camouflage


cuticula – the invertebrate cuticle, a multi-layered structure outside

the epidermis of many invertebrates, notably roundworms and
arthropods, in which it forms an exoskeleton. The main structural
component of arthropod cuticle is chitin, a polysaccharide
composed of N-acetylglucosamine units, together with proteins, lipids,
and catecholamines.

dealate – reproductive females (queens) that have mated and shed

their wings. Dealates are characterized by their wing scars. When
alates become dealates, they search for a suitable location to begin
founding their own colonies.

dearth – an inadequate amount, esp. of food; scarcity


162
decomposer – any organism in a community, such as a bacterium or
fungus that breaks down dead tissue enabling the constituents to be
recycled to the environment


dichthadiiform queen – the unique type of queen of army ants

belonging to the subfamilies Aenictinae, Ecitoninae, and Dorylinae.


dimorphism – in biology occurs when there are two phenotypes that

exist in the same population of a species, i.e. the occurrence of two
clear forms or morphs. In ants it is usually more confined to the worker
cast in this way: A polymorphic species in which the minors and
majors still exist but the medias disappeared. E.g. most Pheidole
species. Some Pheidole species have a supermajor cast alongside a
major and a minor caste and are called trimorphic.

diploid – A cell or an organism having two sets of chromosomes in

somatic cells. In ants, all female ants are diploid, containing twice the
number of chromosomes of male ants. The number of chromosomes
determines ant sex, therefore an unmated queen can actually give
birth to young, but because she would lack a male’s sperm to
complete the full number of chromosomes and create diploid
females, the young would all be haploid, and be males.

dirt nest – formicarium containing soil, sand, or other similar medium

for digging

ditritivore – also known as detritus feeders or saprophages, are

heterotrophs that obtain nutrients by consuming detritus
(decomposing organic matter). By doing so, they contribute to
decomposition and the nutrient cycles [See also decomposer,
heterotroph, and saprophagy].


Dolichoderinae – subfamily of ants with genera that use chemical

warfare to their advantage. They are either odorous or spraying

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venom as a projectile weapon. They also all have one waist segment,
and lack any hairs along the tip of their gaster.

dorsal – of, pertaining to, or situated at the back, or dorsum.


dulosis – the process of stealing slave-pupae and the entire way of life
that accompanies it. When the pupae eclose in the nest they are
“used” as slaves for the upkeep of the nest, care of the larvae, nest
construction, defence, etc. Dulosis can be observed in species like
Polyergus rufescens, Strongylognathus alpinus, and Harpagoxenus
sublaevis.

ecdysis – the moulting of the cuticula in arthropods and related

groups [See also cuticula]

eclose – the act of emerging from the pupal stage [See also pupa]


ectoparasite – a parasite that lives on or in the skin but not within the
body. Ants have a variety of known ectoparasites, most of which are
mites. Infestation with an ectoparasite is called an ectoparasitosis.


ectothermy – the process of active thermoregulation (the regulation

of body

temperature) by an organism by moving to areas of varying

temperatures, e.g.

a lizard basking in the sun to warm up or retreating to shade or water

to cool off

endoparasite – A parasite, such as a tapeworm, that lives within

another organism. Though largely unexplored, ants do have some
known endoparasites, including a type of tachinid Strongygaster
globula the maggot of which lives inside a young Lasius queen host,

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stops her egg laying, and eventually exits the queen without killing
her. Here the maggot is cared for by the queen while it pupates. The
queen dies shortly after and the adult fly emerges from the cocoon
approximately 15 days after pupation, exiting the nest. In fact,
AntsCanada is one of the first to document this entire process (in a
YouTube video). Infestation with an endoparasite is called an
endoparasitosis.

entomologist – someone who studies insects

entomology – the scientific study of insects

epicuticle – the waxy film that coats the bodies of ants

epinotum – former term for propodeum

ergate – a worker


ergatoid – refers to a worker-like individual that can be either a male

or a female

eudulosis – the process where a social parasite colony adopts a slave

colony in total, i.e. the slave queen is killed in the process. Eudulosis
can be observed in Formica (Coptoformica) naefi with its host
Formica (Serviformica) sp.

estivation – a state of dormancy achieved by organisms in most cases

in response to low food/water availability and high temperature.

exoskeleton – an external skeleton that supports and protects an

animal’s body exterior – pertaining to or connected with what is
outside


extreme workerless inquiline – workerless inquiline (permanent social

parasite without workers) that has undergone severe morphological
adaptations like pupoid males, degeneration of the mouthparts and

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some glands, development of some glands used for attracting host-
workers. Examples of extreme workerless inquilines include the species
Anergates atratulus aka Anergates
friedlandi, Tetramorium microgyna,
Tetramorium parasiticum, Pheidole
neokohli, Pheidole acutidens, and
Pheidole argentina. The species of Teleutomyrmex falls under this
category but they also fall under the group of ‘social ectoparasites’.
[See also inquiline, workerless inquiline, and social ectoparasite]

femur – the single segment connecting the trochanter to the tibia on

an insect’s leg [See also trochanter andtibia]

flagellum (pl. flagella) – the part of the antenna beyond the

elongated basal segment, or scape. Primitively, it has 11 segments in
females and 12 in males, but in many ant genera these numbers of
segments are reduced in at least the females.

fluon – a chemical known as Polytetrafluoroethylene. In ant keeping,

the liquid form is used as a barrier keeping ants from escaping open-
top outworlds. It is sometimes referred to as PTFE or the brand name
‘insect-a-slip’.

fire ant – a variety of stinging ants with over 280 species worldwide
belonging to the genus Solenopsis. Also, another stinging species
native to Europe (but invasive in other parts of the world) Myrmica
rubra is sometimes referred to as the European fire ant.

forage – to wander in search of food or provisions
formic acid – also

called methanoic acid, it is the simplest carboxylic acid. Its formula is
HCOOH or HCO2H. It is an important intermediate in chemical
synthesis and occurs naturally, most notably in bee and ant venom,
used primarily for attacking and defense. There are some species
which lack the ability to spray it, however these species usually have

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stingers.

formicarium (pl. formicaria) – the technical term for an enclosure that

acts as a nest for an ant colony, designed for housing ants for the
purposes of observation or study. The first commercially-sold
formicarium was introduced around 1929 and patented in 1931 by
Frank Austin, an inventor and professor at the Thayer School of
Engineering at Dartmouth College. Austin included painted or
wooden scenes of palaces, farms, and other settings above the
ground level, for a whimsical look. They are more commonly called
ant farms [See also ant farm].

Formicidae – the taxonomic family to which ants belong

Formicinae – a subfamily of ants with genera whose members have

only one waist segment, and produce chemicals like formic acid.
They lack a stinger.

founding chamber – the fully or partially enclosed living quarters

assumed by a newly mated queen ant, where a young colony of first-
born workers (nanitics) is reared by the queen. In fully-claustral species
of ants it is a chamber (usually underground or in wood) that is
completely sealed off, and the queen never leaves this chamber. As
the colony expands, the workers pioneer and extend the living space
of the founding chamber by excavating tunnels, which eventually
gives rise to a full ant nest. [See also claustral cell]

fully-claustral – describes a queen who seals herself up entirely in a

chamber during the initial stages of colony founding. She fasts and
lives off energy stored in her wing muscles until her first workers arrive.

fungal grower – ant species which specialize on feeding from fungus

grown in their nest reared from organic material, e.g. pieces of plant
matter as seen in leaf-cutter ants belonging to the genera Atta and

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Acromyrmex. The type of material gathered above ground to culture
their fungal gardens depends on the species. There is even a fungal
grower species which cultures fungal gardens from collected
caterpillar droppings

fungivore – an animal which eats fungus


gamergate – a functional queen that looks externally like a

worker.
ganglion (pl. ganglia) – a mass of nerve tissue that controls
various functions like movement. In insects, it typically runs down the
center of the body, which is why many insects are still capable of
movement even if they are physically split in half or decapitated.

gaster – the metasoma or sometimes called abdomen. However,

because ants along with wasps and bees are distinguished from other
insects including those belonging to the other suborder (Symphyta)
within Hymenoptera, by the narrow “waist” (petiole) formed between
the first two segments of the actual abdomen (the first abdominal
segment is fused to the thorax, and is called the propodeum), it is
general practice, when discussing the body of an ant, wasp, or bee in
a technical sense, to refer to the mesosoma and metasoma (or
“gaster”) rather than the “thorax” and “abdomen,” respectively.

Gel farm – a toy antfarm which uses a gel medium for the ants to dig
and also provides worker ants sustenance. The formula for the gel is
derived from a NASA experiment and contains electrolytes for workers
to stay alive. It was released by a company called Uncle Milton
Industries, Inc. under the product name Antworks. The gel farms are
sold commercially worldwide as a novelty product, but have yet to
be accepted in the pro-ant keeping global community as a long-
term, healthy habitat for housing whole ant colonies. Its design caters
to keeping worker ants belonging to Pogonomyrmex or Messor (which

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can be ordered in the mail from the company) alive and housed for
the length of their lifespans. [See also Antworks and Uncle Milton
Industries, Inc.]

gemmae (sing. gemma) – defined by Holldobler and Wilson in The

Superorganism 2009 as a pair of small, club-like thoracic appendages
covered with sensory hairs richly endowed with exocrine cells. The
function of these glands is not known, but it is likely that they secrete
chemical functions inducing the mutilation process. These glandular
organs are located approximately where wings would be in an alate
queen. They are found on Diacamma ponerine ants. In these ants,
when workers eclose in a nest with an established and fertile
reproductive female (known as the gamergate), their nestmates
immediately sever the gemmae. Amputation of the gemmae
evidently causes psychological and morphological changes in the
central nervous system that directs the transition from aggressive to
timid behavior. [See also gamergate]

genotype – the genetic constitution of a cell, an organism, or an

individual (i.e. the specific allele makeup of the individual) usually with
reference to a specific character under consideration.

genus (pl. genera) – a low-level taxonomic rank used in the

classification of living and fossil organisms. In a scientific name it
precedes the species. Examples of genera are Camponotus,
Crematogaster, Myrmica, Lasius, and Formica.

granivore – animal that feeds on grains, nuts, and seeds

gynandromorph – an organism that contains both male and female

characteristics. The term gynandromorph, from Greek “gyne” female
and “andro” male, is mainly used in the field of Lepidopterology
(butterfly/moth study) or entomology (all insects). Gynandromorphism
has been observed in ant species like Myrmica rubra where very

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isolated ants appeared to have both male and female parts.

gyne – a queen ant

habitat – the natural environment of an organism; place that is

natural for the life and growth of an organism

Habitat Nest – the signature nest of AntsCanada, it is an original

formicarial product pioneered, engineered, and invented by
AntsCanada in 2009. The Habitat Nest’s solid, cement-type base
contains pre-excavated chambers and tunnels. The inside of the
Habitat Nests possesses properties of soil, lined with a gravel layer as
well as a state-of-the-art water absorbent layer developed by
AntsCanada known as Soakstone©. This dual layer within the habitat
nests allows the colonies to be completely hydrated while allowing
the ants to customize their living space without being able to burrow
away from the glass. It is 100% mold resistant and is the most
naturalistic formicarium available in the pet trade today. In 2010, The
AntsCanada Habitat Nests were used to film a nature documentary
with ants for The Discovery Channel.

hamulus (pl. hamuli) – hooks on the front side of the hind-wing

between the fore and hind wings of an adult ant alate, wasp, bee, or
similar insect.

haploid – A cell or an organism having half the number of

chromosomes in somatic cells. In ants, all male ants are haploid,
containing half the number of chromosomes of female ants (i.e.
workers and queens). The number of chromosomes determines ant
sex, therefore an unmated queen can actually give birth to young,
but because she would lack a male’s sperm to complete the full
number of chromosomes and create diploid females, the young

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would all be haploid, and be males.

harvester ant – common name given to ant species that gather

grains and seeds (i.e. granivorous), typically belonging to genera like
Pogonomyrmex and Messor

hebel brick – a porous, cement material which is water absorbent

and is often used to create formicaria, by way of carving tunnels and
chambers into the cement. Hebel brick, and similar material, is also
known under other names such as autoclaved aerated cement
(AAC) and Ytong.

hemolymph – a fluid in the body cavities and tissues of invertebrates,

in arthropods functioning as blood.

heterotroph – an organism requiring organic compounds for its

principal source of food, e.g. animals and fungi

herbivore – animal which eats plants or plant matter
hibernation – a

state of inactivity and metabolic depression in animals, characterized
by lower body temperature, slower breathing, and lower metabolic
rate. Hibernating animals conserve food, especially during winter
when food is short, tapping energy reserves, body fat, at a slow rate.

histogenesis – the process of growth by the remaining cells in the

transforming insect within a pupa, using the nutrients from the broken
down larva that resulted from histolysis. [See also histolysis]

histolysis – the process of excreting digestive juices while inside the

pupa, to destroy much of the larva’s body, leaving a few cells intact
and providing the nutrients needed for histogenesis [See also
histogenesis]. It also is the process where the flight-muscles of a
colony-founding queen are broken down to be converted to larval
food (or food for the founding queen herself!).

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holometabolism – the type of metamorphosis where the larvae differ
markedly from the adults. Insects which undergo holometabolism
pass through a larval stage, then enter an inactive state called pupa,
or chrysalis, and finally emerge as adults. Holometabolism is also
known as “complete” and “complex” metamorphosis. Ants are
insects which undergo holometabolism.

honeydew – a sugary material secreted by aphids, leafhoppers, scale

insects, psyllids, and other homopterous insects, which are often
relished by ants

honeypot ant – common name for ant species within five different
genera most notably Myrmecocystus known for their repletes, which
are gorged with food by workers, to the point that their abdomens
swell enormously, a condition called plerergate. Other ants then
extract nourishment from them. They function essentially as living
larders.

host – In biology, a host is an organism that harbors a parasite (that is,

a virus, a bacterium, a protozoan, or a fungus), or a mutual or
commensal symbiont, typically providing nourishment, support,
and/or shelter. In botany, a host plant is one that supplies food
resources and substrate for certain insects or other fauna. In ants, it
typically refers to a species whose colony is the target of social
parasitic or slave-making ants, however it can also refer to the species
inside/outside the body of which a parasite receives nourishment and
shelter. [See also social parasite and slavery]

hydric – describes a habitat or soil that is formed under conditions of

saturation, flooding, or ponding long enough during the growing
season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part. It is one of
a triad of terms to describe the amount of water in a habitat. The
others are xeric and mesic. [See also xeric and mesic]

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hydrostone – brand name given to a plaster product very similar to
plaster-of- Paris but more mold resistant. Hydrostone is sometimes used
to create formicaria, however, like plaster-of-Paris, also grows mold in
time.

Hymenoptera – one of the largest orders of insects, comprising the

sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. There are over 130,000 recognised
species, with many more remaining to be described. The name refers
to the heavy wings of the insects, and is derived from the Ancient
Greek humen meaning ‘membrane’ and pteron meaning ‘wing’. The
hind wings are connected to the forewings by a series of hooks called
hamuli.

hyperparasite – a parasite whose host is a parasite. An example of a

hyperparasitic ant species is Lasius fuliginosus, which parasitizes the
social parasitic species Lasius umbratus, which parasitizes the host
species Lasius niger. [See also social parasite]

indigenous – describes having originated in and being produced,

growing, or living naturally in a particular region or environment

inferior – in anatomy, describes being lower in place or position;

situated below another

inquiline – a permanent social parasite


inquilinism – the relationship where a social parasite is dependent on

a host species for as long as the colony exists. Without the host-
species’ workers, the colony will disappear. Inquilinism can be
observed in species like Polyergus rufescens (employs dulosis.),
Strongylognathus alpinus (also employs dulosis.),Strongylognathus
testaceus (no dulosis; the workers are useless; when the host-workers

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die, the colony disappears.), Myrmoxenus kraussei (no dulosis; the
workers are useless; when the host-workers die, the colony
disappears.), Myrmoxenus stumperi (employs dulosis.). [See also
dulosis]

insect – animals within the class Insecta [See Insecta]


insect-a-slip – brand name given to the liquid form of the chemical

known as Polytetrafluoroethylene. In ant keeping, it is used as a barrier
keeping ants from escaping open top outworlds. It is sometimes
referred to as PTFE or fluon.

Insecta – a taxonomic class within the arthropods that have a

chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax, and
abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two
antennae. They are among the most diverse group of animals on the
planet and include more than a million described species and
represent more than half of all known living organisms. The number of
extant species is estimated at between six and ten million, and
potentially represent over 90% of the differing metazoan life forms on
Earth. Insects may be found in nearly all environments, although only
a small number of species occur in the oceans, a habitat dominated
by another arthropod group, the crustaceans.

insectivore – animal which eats insects
instar – the stage in the

development of an arthropod between any two moults. Ants have 3 –
5 larval instar stages. The shed skin is chewed into a small pellet and
fed to the larva that shed it or to another larva.

interior – of or pertaining to that which is within

invasive – describes being not native to, and also tending to spread
widely in a habitat or environment. Invasive species often have few
natural predators or other biological controls in their new

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environment. Although not always considered harmful to an
environment, invasive species can become agricultural or ecological
pests and can displace native species from their habitats. Invasive
species are often introduced to an environment unintentionally. An
examples of invasive species include Solenopsis invicta (also known as
RIFA or Red Imported Fire Ants) and Linepithema humile (also known
as Argentine ants).

invertebrate – an animal without a backbone. The group includes

95% of all animal species, and include all animals except those in the
chordate subphylum Vertebrata which encompass fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals.

jack jumper ant – common name for the species Myrmecia pilosula;
they are also known as the hopper ant, jumper ant, or jumping jack
and are a species of bull ant native to Australia. Their characteristic
jumping motion when in an agitated state gave them their name.

jerdon’s jumping ant – common name for the species Harpegnathos

saltator

karyotype – A characterization of the number and shapes of the

chromosomes of an ant (or any) species. Karyotype studies have
revealed cryptic species in several ant genera, including Myrmecia &
Aphaenogaster. The former genus is of interest in that karyotypes of
the various species span the full range of chromosome numbers for
ants, with haploid numbers ranging from 1 to 47 (or a total of 4-94 per
cell).

kinopsis – the alarm communication or recruitment mediated by the

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sight of categories of kin

larva (pl. larvae) – a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo

before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development
such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval
phase of their life cycle. Larva is Latin for “ghost.” The larva’s
appearance is generally very different from the adult form, and a
larva often has unique structures and larval organs that do not occur
in the adult form. In ants they molt three to five times before pupating.
[See also pupation]

LC50 – a standardized measure for expressing and comparing the

toxicity of gaseous chemicals and toxins, but is otherwise the same as
LD50 [See LD50].

LD50 – a standardized measure for expressing and comparing the

toxicity of chemicals. The LD 50 or LC 50 is the dose that kills half (50%)
of the animals tested. LD = “lethal dose”.

leaf-cutter ant – fungal grower species which specialize on feeding

from fungus grown in their nest cultured from chewed up pieces of
plant matter. Examples of leaf-cutter ants include those belonging to
the genera Atta and Acromyrmex. [See also fungal-grower]

legionary ant – army ant [See also army ant]

major – a larger caste of worker ant in polymorphic ant species that is

characterized by its extra-large head and greater size. They typically
specialize in tasks requiring extra mandible muscles like defense,
attacking, carrying, manipulation of objects, and in some species the
cracking open of seeds, etc. [See also polymorphism]

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mandibles – sometimes referred to as jaws, a pair of appendages
near an insect’s mouth, and the most anterior of the three pairs of
oral appendages. Their function is typically to grasp, crush, or cut the
insect’s food, or to defend against predators or rivals. Insect
mandibles, which appear to be evolutionarily derived from legs,
move in the horizontal plane unlike those of vertebrates, which
appear to be derived from gill arches and move vertically.

Marabunta – South American name for army ant [See also army ant]

maxillary palp – appendages under the head


meconium – the fecal pellet excreted by a mature larva right before

pupation. Larvae only defecate once in their entire life and it is when
the meconium is expelled. This happens inside the cocoon and
appears as a visible black dot on the cocoon tip.

media – the middle-sized caste of worker ant in polymorphic ant

species, possessing characteristics of an ordinary worker ant. They are
smaller than majors but larger than minors. [See also polymorphism]

mesic – In ecology, describes a type of habitat with a moderate or

well-balanced supply of moisture. Mesic is one of a triad of terms to
describe the amount of water in a habitat. The others are xeric and
hydric. [See also xeric and hydric]

mesonotum – second segment of the mesosoma


mesosoma – the middle part of the body, or tagma, of arthropods

whose body is composed of three parts, the other two being the
prosoma and the metasoma. It bears the legs, and, in the case of
winged insects, the wings. In Apocrita Hymenoptera (wasps, bees
and ants), it consists of the three thoracic segments and the first
abdominal segment (the propodeum). For historical reasons, in ants it

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is commonly referred to by the alternative name alitrunk.

metamorphosis – a biological process by which an animal physically

develops after birth or hatching, involving a conspicuous and
relatively abrupt change in the animal’s body structure through cell
growth and differentiation. There are two main types of
metamorphosis in insects, hemimetabolism (also called incomplete
metamorphosis) and holometabolism (complete metamorphosis).
[See also holometabolism]

metanotum – the third mesonotal segment. The metanotum is visible

in winged ants, and as a narrow, transverse sclerite in many workers
[See mesonotum].

metasoma – the gaster or abdomen portion of an ant, bee, or wasp.

[see also gaster]

microhabitat – small-scale localized environment of a particular

organism or population. A microhabitat is often a smaller habitat
within a larger one. For example, a fallen log inside a forest can
provide microhabitat for insects that are not found in the wider forest
habitat outside such logs. A microhabitat can be big or small
depending on how much it varies.

midden – the room or rooms of an ant colony where the trash is taken

mimicry – the close external resemblance of an organism, the mimic,

to some different organism, the model, such that the mimic benefits
from the mistaken identity, as seeming to be unpalatable or harmful.
One form of mimicry, where the mimic lacks the defensive
capabilities of its ‘model’, is known as Batesian mimicry (e.g. a
harmless aegeria moth which is a mimic of the stinging yellow jacket
wasp). A second form of mimicry, known as Mullerian mimicry, occurs
when two organisms share the same anti-predation defence and

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mimic each other, to the benefit of both species (e.g. honeybees and
yellow jacket wasps are Mullerian mimics, both of which display the
black and yellow stripes which many predators may know to avoid).
There exist a family of jumping spiders belonging to the genus
Myrmarachne which mimic ants by waving their front legs in the air to
simulate antennae. Some species also look strikingly like an ant.

minor – the smallest caste of worker ant in polymorphic ant species.

Characterized by its tiny size, it specializes in handling and caring for
the young, the queen, and simple nest duties.

monogynous – describes a species that only sustains one queen in a

single colony. Examples of monogynous species include
Pogonomyrmex
californicus and Camponotus pennsylvanicus.

monogyny – the behavioural trait of a species to sustain only one

queen in a single colony. Examples of monogynous species include
Pogonomyrmex californicus and Camponotus pennsylvanicus.

monomorphism – in biology occurs when there is only one phenotype

that exist in the same population of a species, i.e. the occurrence of
one form or morph. In ants, it describes one existing form, particularly
of the worker caste. Examples of this include species belonging to the
genera Myrmica, Tetramorium, and Formica. Holldobler and Wilson in
The Superorganism describe monomorphism as the existence in a
colony of only a single worker subcaste. An entire species can be
monomorphic, as well. Examples of monomorphic ant species include
the species Pristomyrmex pugens which lacks a queen caste, where
all the members of the colony look the same and every worker is
capable of laying eggs even without mating with a male (via a
process known as ‘parthenogenesis’). Species belonging to the genus
Dinoponera is also an entirely monomorphic species lacking a queen
caste. Also, ants belonging to the genera Diacamma are

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monomorphic as they do have a queen caste but she looks exactly
like the workers.

Myrmarachne – a genus of jumping spiders which imitate an ant by

waving their front legs in the air to simulate antennae. Some species
also look strikingly like an ant. Spiders in this genus are commonly
called “ant mimicking spiders”, although there are many other spiders
that mimic ants.

myrmecochory – the process of plant seed dispersal by ants.

myrmecologist – someone who studies ants

myrmecology – the scientific study of ants


myrmecophilia – the love of ants; ‘ant love’ as coined by

AntsCanada in 2009.

myrmecophobia – the irrational fear of ants


Myrmecos Blog – a popular blog [Myrmecos.net] by acclaimed

biologist, researcher and photographer Alexander Wild


Myrmicinae – a subfamily of ants with genera whose members have

two waist segments. They possess a stinger.

nanitics – the first set of workers raised by the queen which pioneer
the fledging ant colony. In most species they are characterized by
their smaller size than typical workers and they often do not live as
long as typical workers.

necrophagy – a carnivorous feeding behaviour in which a predator

consumes corpses or carrion that were not killed to be eaten by the
predator or others of its species [See also scavenger]

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nest – a place or structure in which birds, fishes, insects, reptiles, mice,
etc., lay eggs or give birth to young; a number of animals of the same
species and their young occupying a common habitat

nest cycling – the AntsCanada-recommended routine but infrequent

(e.g. once a year or once every two years) replacement of a
colony’s formicarium, for the purpose of colony hygiene

nomadic – the characteristic of tending to relocate living area. An

example of nomadic ants includes ants belonging to the genus
Dorylus, the colonies of which are constantly moving and are set up in
very temporary nest sites before moving to a new location.

nomadic phase – A phase in which a colony moves almost every day

from one bivouac to another one. The queen’s gaster is contracted
to protect the delicate intersegmental membranes during the moves.
No egg-laying. During this phase there are big daily raids to collect
lots of food for the developing larvae. This is common in ants
belonging to the genus Dorylus, for instance.

nuptial flight – a special time period when alates (or the reproductive
males and females who are born with wings) engage in mating. For
every species it takes place at a specific time every year. Some
species fly twice a year (e.g. Spring and Fall). The male alates die
shortly after mating and female alates break off their wings and
venture off to seek a suitable location to found her colony as the
queen.

nursemaid – the smallest caste of worker in polymorphic ant species,

synonymous to the word ‘minor’, which specialize in caring for the
young and queen [see also minor and polymorphism]

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O

ocellus (pl. ocelli) – the simple eye of insects and some other
invertebrates, consisting basically of light-sensitive cells

oligogyny -The living together of a very small number of queens in an

ant nest. These are spaced out throughout the nest because the
queens are hostile to each other. [See also pleometrosis]

outworld – an enclosure separates from the main nest area which is

designed to create a living area for a captive ant colony for foraging
and hunting. It provides the ants with an outer world or environment
outside of the main nest where workers forage for food. It is usually
connected to a formicarium through tubing or other means and may
or may not be completely sealed. Some refer to it as the basin [See
also formicarium]

parthenogenesis – a form of asexual reproduction found in females,

where growth and development of embryos occurs without
fertilization by a male. The word originates from the Greek parthenos
meaning “virgin” and
genesis meaning “birth”. Ants that undergo
parthenogenesis include the species Pristomyrmex pugens.

patrollers – ants that travel restlessly throughout the colony switching

tasks as needed

pavement ant – common name given to ants belonging to the genus

Tetramorium known for nesting under and around pavements and
sidewalks in an urban environment

permanent social parasite – known as an inquiline or inquiline

parasite, it is a social parasite that is dependent on a slave species for
as long as the colony exists. Without the slave-species’ workers, the

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colony will disappear. Inquilinism can be observed in species like
Polyergus rufescens (employs dulosis), Strongylognathus alpinus (also
employs dulosis), Strongylognathus testaceus (no dulosis; the workers
are useless; when the slave-workers die, the colony disappears.),
Myrmoxenus kraussei (no dulosis; the workers are useless; when the
slave-workers die, the colony disappears.), Myrmoxenus
stumperi
(employs dulosis.). [See also dulosis and inquilinism]

petiole – the stem formed by a restricted abdominal segment which

connects the thorax with the gaster (the remaining abdominal
segments often referred to as simply ‘abdomen’) in ants and some
bees and wasps.

phenotype – any observable characteristic or trait of an organism:

such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological
properties, behavior, and products of behavior (such as a bird’s nest).
Phenotypes result from the expression of an organism’s genes as well
as the influence of environmental factors and the interactions
between the two.

pheromone – secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a

social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are
chemicals capable of acting outside the body of the secreting
individual to impact the behavior of the receiving individual. It is the
primary mode of communication in ants and other insects.

physogastrism (adj. physogastric) – the condition of a queen’s gaster

enlarging and becoming extremely swollen with eggs, i.e. ‘termite
gaster’ [See
also termite gaster]

plaster nest – formicarium made from plaster-of-Paris. In the past it

was a common method for housing ant colonies, however the
disadvantage with using plaster-of-Paris for a nest is its propensity to
grow mold. Many use hydrostone which is similar to plaster-of-Paris but

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more mold resistant. Hydrostone, however, also grows mold in time.

pleometrosis – the process of one or more queens banding together

to raise a colony specifically during the founding stage. The
advantage of this is that it increases the chance of colony success. In
many pleometrotic ants, when the first set of workers arrive the
queens fight, resulting in death of all but one queen, until one
dominant queen is left. [See also oligogyny].

plerergate – a condition in repletes (i.e. living storage worker ants)

where their abdomens swell enormously [See also honeypot ant and
replete]

poikilothermy – the characteristic of having a body temperature that

varies with the temperature of the surroundings. It is often referred to
in laymen’s terms as ‘cold-bloodedness’. Examples of poikilothermic
organisms include reptiles, amphibians, and insects, which of course
includes ants.

Ponerinae – subfamily of ants that possess an ill-defined postpetiole

that connects to the gaster with a large surface area. They also tend
to be either specialized predators and or almost completely
subterranean.

polygynous – describes a species that harmoniously sustain more than

one queen in a single colony. Examples of polygynous species
include Solenopsis
invicta and Camponotus vicinus.

polygyny – the trait of a species to harmoniously sustain more than

one queen in a single colony. Examples of polygynous species
include Solenopsis
invicta and Camponotus vicinus.

polymorphism – in biology occurs when two or more clearly different

phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, i.e. the

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occurrence of more than one form or morph. In ants, it describes the
various existing forms, particularly of the worker caste. Examples of
polymorphic ant species include ants belonging to the genera
Camponotus and Pheidole which possess varying sizes and shapes of
workers that specialize in various tasks.

polyphyletic – relating to or characterized by development from more

than one ancestral type.

post-petiole – body part that is present in some ants; it is a constricted

third abdominal segment

posterior – situated behind or at the rear of
pronotum – the first

segment of the mesosoma [See mesosoma] propodeum – the first
abdominal segment in wasps, bees and ants. It is fused with the
thorax to form the mesosoma. It is a single large sclerite, not
subdivided, and bears a pair of spiracles. It is strongly constricted
posteriorly to form the articulation of the petiole, and gives ants, bees,
and wasps their distinctive shape.

prosoma – a term which means the head of an insect, but also refers
to the first (anterior) major body section in arachnids and
malacostracan crustaceans.

PTFE – a chemical known as Polytetrafluoroethylene. In ant keeping,

the liquid form is used as a barrier keeping ants from escaping open
top outworlds. It is sometimes referred to as fluon or the brand name
‘insect-a-slip’.

pumice nest – original formicarium pioneered, engineered, and

invented
by AntsCanada in 2009 created from pumice stone, which is
fashioned from volcanic rock. It contains pre-excavated tunnels and
chambers and possesses a watering system. which keeps the entire
nest humid, even though the pumice material itself is not particularly

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water absorbent. It is perfectly non-reactive and 100% mold resistant.

pupa (pl. pupae) – the life stage of some insects undergoing

transformation. The pupal stage is found only in holometabolous
insects, those that undergo a complete metamorphosis, going
through four life stages; embryo, larva, pupa and imago. In ants,
pupae may further be enclosed in cocoons as seen in ants belonging
to the subfamily Formicinae.

pupation – the process where a larva becomes a pupa

pupate – the act of pupation where a larva becomes a pupa

queen – an adult, reproducing female member of an ant colony and

typically the mother of all the other ants in that colony. The term also
applies to bees, wasps, and termites.

red ant – common name given to several reddish-coloured ant

species including those belonging to the genera Myrmica and
Solenopsis.

repletes – designated worker ants that act as living storage vessels,

and store food in their crop, resulting in an engorged abdomen.
Honeypot ants belonging to the genus Myrmecocystus are notorious
for their large repletes which hang from the nest ceilings and provide
the colony sustenance during periods of short food supply.

RIFA – acronym for “Red Imported Fire Ant” which refers to the
invasive species Solenopsis invicta [See also invasive]

rugae – wrinkles, folds. Examples include rugae of the stomach and

rugae of the forehead.

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S

saprophagy – the behaviour of feeding on dead or decaying organic

matter

satellite nest – an additional established nest location separates from

the main

nest
scape – the elongated basal segment of an ant’s antenna


scavenger – an animal, such as a bird or insect, that feeds on dead or

decaying matter


semi-claustral – describes a queen who does not seal herself up

entirely in a chamber during the initial stages of colony founding. The
queens still lay her eggs and rears her young in a private chamber,
but also continues to forage or hunt for food above ground
throughout the process until her first workers arrive. An example of
semi-claustral ants include queens belonging to Pogonomyrmex,
Myrmica, and Myrmecia.


semi-nomadic – describes the characteristic of tending to relocate

living area on a regular basis. Examples of semi-nomadic ants include
ants belonging to the genera Myrmica and Pheidologeton which set
up temporary nest sites before moving the entire colony to a new
location

slave-making species – a species that uses workers of a host slave ant

species to perform everyday tasks of the mixed colony, e.g. nest
construction, caring for the young, hunting, defense, etc. Slave
species workers mature from brood, usually pupae, gathered by the
slave-making species during brood-robbing raids.

slave species – a species whose workers are used as host for a slave-
making ant species. Slave species workers mature from brood, usually

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pupae, gathered by the slave-making species during brood-robbing
raids. Slave species perform everyday tasks of the mixed colony, e.g.
nest construction, caring for the young, hunting, defense, etc.

slavery – the use of a slave species for the survival of the colony.

SoakstoneTM – a material engineered and developed by

AntsCanada found in AntsCanada Habitat NestsTM. It is a cement-like
material which is water absorbent, 100% mold resistant, safe for ants,
and is the cutting-edge component to all products of the
AntsCanada Habitat series. [See also Habitat Nest]

social ectoparasite – an extreme, workerless inquiline (permanent

social parasite that has undergone specific morphological changes)
that are totally adapted to be carried by the host-queens (or host-
workers.). They have great difficulty walking. Examples of social
ectoparasites include the species Teleutomyrmex schneideri and
Teleutomyrmex kutteri. [See also extreme workerless inquiline]

social parasite – describes a queen who does not begin her colony
on her own but rather specializes in taking over a host colony, killing
the resident queen, and taking the initial queen’s place as the colony
queen. Her biological young eventually make up the colony as her
foster workers die away. Many social parasites have a specific host
species. An example of a social parasitic ant is Lasius claviger.

social stomach – also known as the ‘crop’ where food is initially stored
and processed before being fed to other members of the colony via
mouth-to-mouth transfer [See also trophallaxis]


soldier – the larger caste of worker in polymorphic ant species,

synonymous to the word ‘major’, which specialize in defense and
duties requiring greater mandible power [see also major and
polymorphism]


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sp. (pl. spp.) – abbreviation used when the actual specific scientific
species name cannot or need not be specified. The abbreviation
“spp.” (plural) indicates “several species”. These are not italicised (or
underlined). For example, “Camponotus sp.” means “an unspecified
species of the genus Camponotus“, while “Camponotus spp.” means
“two or more species of the genus Camponotus.”


species (pl. species) – one of the basic units of biological classification

and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of
organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or
differing measures are often used, such as similarity of DNA,
morphology or ecological niche. Presence of specific locally
adapted traits may further subdivide species into subspecies. In
standard biological nomenclature, in the name Camponotus
noveboracensis, “noveboracensis” is considered the species, while
“Camponotus” is the genus, although when stating the scientific
name of a species, it is a rule to state both the genus and the species
and to italicize when in writing. [See also subspecies]

spermatheca – the organ where the queen stores sperm.
spiracles –

openings in the body of many arthropods that allow for breathing. In
ants, they are found on the propodeum, petiole, postpetiole and
gastral segments.


ssp. (pl. sspp.) – abbreviation used to indicate an unspecified

subspecies. Same as subsp. [See also subsp.]
stationary phase – a
phase in which a colony rests in a fixed bivouac. The queen’s gaster
expands so she can lay a lot of eggs in a very short period. The brood
is in the pupal stage. When the eggs hatch and the callow workers
emerge, a new nomadic phase starts. This is commonly observed in
ants belonging to the genus Dorylus, for instance.

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stridulation – the production of sound in insects typically through the
rapid rubbing together of body parts, e.g. wings in crickets

subsp. (pl. subspp.) – abbreviation used to indicate an unspecified

subspecies. Same as ssp. [See also ssp.]

subspecies – (commonly abbreviated subsp. or ssp.) in biological

classification, it is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, or a
taxonomic unit in that rank. A subspecies cannot be recognized in
isolation. In other words, a species will either be recognized as having
no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one. The differences
between subspecies are usually less distinct than the differences
between species, but more distinct than the differences between
races or breeds. The characteristics attributed to subspecies generally
have evolved as a result of geographical distribution or isolation. [See
also species]

submajor – a caste of major worker ant in polymorphic ant species

that is larger than an ordinary worker but smaller than an ordinary
major. They are characterized by their large major-like heads. [See
also major and polymorphism].

superior – in anatomy, describes being higher in place or position;

situated above another

supermajor – the largest caste of worker ant in polymorphic ant

species that is larger than an ordinary major, characterized by its
great size and extra-large head. [see also major and polymorphism]

symbiosis – close and often long-term interactions between different

biological species. In ants, an example of a symbiotic relationship
includes ants and ant woodlice, a small white crustacean found in
ant nests. The ants benefit from the ant woodlice because the ant
woodlice feed on ant feces and nest fungus, while the ants provide

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the ant woodlice shelter and protection. This example of symbiosis is
known as mutualism, where both parties involved benefit from each
other’s existence. Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship where
only one party benefits from the other’s existence and the other party
is unaffected or isn’t significantly helped (e.g. the relationship
between dung beetles and the elephants that excrete the dung).
Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship where one party benefits from
the other’s existence while the other is negatively impacted or loses
(e.g. the relationship between dog and dog fleas).

tarsus (pl. tarsi) – the segments connecting to the tibia on an insect’s

leg. The tarsus are usually composed of three to seven segments, and
make up the end of the leg. In ants they are the maximal five
segments [See also tibia]

taxonomy – the practice and science of classification. In biology, it

refers to the scientific classification of organisms by biological type,
e.g. genus or species.

Tenebrio molitor – the scientific name of the species of flour beetle

whose larvae (known as the mealworm) is a common feeder insect
for pet reptiles and birds. Many ant keepers feed them to ants.

termite gaster – a condition, coined by AntsCanada, describing a

greatly bloated gaster of a queen ant due to being filled with eggs,
especially during the founding stage. For ant keepers with a freshly
caught dealate, it is a good sign that a queen has been successfully
inseminated during nuptial flight. The technical term to describe a
queen with termite gaster is ‘physogastrism’ [See also physogastrism].

test tube portal – original product invented, manufactured, and

sold
at AntsCanada which allows for the connection between two

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test tubes or between a test tube and a formicarium, outworld, or
flexible tubing. The product allows for breathing due to a cotton plug.

test tube setup – housing commonly used by ant keepers to house

captive dealates (young queens) in the founding stage of colony
development. It consists of a test tube with a water portion sectioned
off to the end of the test tube by a cotton ball, and the opening
plugged with another cotton ball. When the cotton molds or the
water runs out, then the queen and colony is moved to a new setup.

thermoregulation – the maintenance or regulation of temperature,

specifically, the maintenance of a particular temperature of the living
body. Ants thermoregulate by relocating themselves and the young
to warmer areas when they are too cold and cooler areas when they
are too hot, a process known as ectothermy [See also ectothermy].

tibia – the single segment connecting the femur to the tarsus on an

insect’s leg [See also femur and tarsus]

trachea – in invertebrates, refers to the open respiratory system

composed of spiracles, tracheae, and tracheoles that terrestrial
arthropods have evolved to transport metabolic gases to and from
tissues. [See also spiracles and tracheole]

tracheole – a fine respiratory tube of the trachea of an insect [See

also trachea] trimorphic – in ants, describes a species that has a
minor, major, and supermajor caste, e.g. Pheidole species


trochanter – the single segment connecting the coxa to the femur on

an insect’s leg [See also coxa and femur]

trophallaxis – the process of exchanging food, often in a liquid form,

that is stored in the social stomach (crop), via mouth to mouth
regurgitation and transfer between members of a colony.

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trophic egg – egg that is mainly produced for food
trophic level – any
class of organisms that occupy the same position in a food chain, as
primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, etc.

Ultimate Ants & Myrmecology Facebook Group – the largest ant-

dedicated group on Facebook, hosted by AntsCanada and Bustos
Entertainment, Inc.

Uncle Milton Industries, Inc. – a company which manufactures and

distributes a large line of toys and novelty products for housing living
things. They are the creators of “Uncle Milton’s Ant Farm”, for which
ants (usually a
Pogonomyrmex or Messor species) are sent to the
purchaser through the mail (just workers and no queen), upon receipt
of the coupon enclosed with the ant farm. They also manufacture
gelfarms under the product name “Antworks”. Uncle Milton Industries,
Inc. is based in Westlake Village, California, and has sold over 20
million ant farms since 1956 and which owns the brand name “Ant
Farm”. These types of formicaria are for observing worker ants and
their effectiveness in serious ant propagation is limited. Uncle Milton
ant products have yet to be accepted by the serious ant keeping
community as a proper home for the healthy, long term rearing of ant
colonies. [See also Antworks and gel farm]


unfertilized – in ant keeping, describes being unmated or

unsuccessfully inseminated

velvet ants – insects belonging to the family Mutillidae. They are in

fact not ants but are wasps whose wingless females resemble ants.
Their common name velvet ant refers to their dense hair which may
be red, black, white, silver, or gold. They are known for their extremely

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painful sting, facetiously said to be strong enough to kill a cow, hence
the common name cow killer or cow ant is applied to some species.
The earliest-known velvet ants are specimens from the Dominican
Republic preserved in amber some 25 to 40 million years ago.

ventral – situated on or toward the lower, abdominal plane of the

body; equivalent to the front, or anterior, in humans; of or pertaining
to the venter or belly

weaver ants – tropical arboreal ants belonging to the genus

Oecophylla which are known to use the silk produced from their
larvae to bind leaves together to create nests that hang amongst
foliage.

white woodlouse – a tiny blind, eyeless white crustacean that lives in

ant nests and feeds on ant droppings and fungus. Its scientific name is
Platyarthrus hoffmannseggi and is also known as an ant woodlouse.
They are only found in ant nests and rarely come above ground.

worker – caste of ant which are infertile daughters to the queen of a

colony. They make up the majority of the colony and may or may not
specialize in specific tasks including hunting/foraging, nest
maintenance, nest construction, defense, nursing of young, etc.


workerless inquiline – a permanent social parasite (known as an

inquiline) without workers. When all the host-workers die, the colony
disappears, e.g. observable in the species Myrmoxenus corsicus and
Myrmoxenus adlerzi [See also inquiline].

Xenobiosis – the relation in which colonies of one species live in the

nests of another species and move freely among the hosts, obtaining

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food from them by regurgitation or other means but still keeping their
brood separate

xeric – of, relating to, or growing in dry conditions. Deserts are xeric
environments. Xeric is one of a triad of terms to describe the amount
of water in a habitat. The others are mesic and hydric. [See also mesic
and hydric]

xerophilic – describes flourishing in or adapted to a hot

dry
environment. Cataglyphis bombycinus is among the most
xerophilic of insects. [See also xerophilous]

xerophilous – describes flourishing in or adapted to a hot

dry
environment. Cataglyphis bombycinus is among the most
xerophilous of insects. [See also xerophilic]

ytong – a porous, cement material which is water absorbent and is

often used to create formicaria, by way of carving tunnels and
chambers into the cement. Ytong, and similar material, is also known
under other names such as autoclaved aerated cement (AAC) and
hebel brick.

zoogeography – the biological study of the geographic distribution of

animals, especially the causes and effects of such distribution.
Invasive ants might be a subject of such study.

zoology – the scientific study of animals
Zoophobas morio – the

scientific name of the species of darkling beetle, whose larvae are
known by the common name ‘superworm’ or ‘zophobas’.
Superworms are common in the reptile pet industry. In the search for
easy to raise insects to use as food for captive reptiles and

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amphibians, superworms quickly moved into the spotlight, and have
been a staple feeder insect ever since. Many ant keepers feed
superworms to their ant colonies.

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