Introduction to Political Theory • According to John, anyone who employs power to impose

his will arbitrarily upon another is a tyrant.

John of Salisbury - The Statesman's Book
"The will of the true ruler depends upon the law of God, but
(Policraticus) the will of a tyrant is the slave of his desire."

• Policraticus is a book of John of Salisbury, that explains or applied

(It is therefore quite proper to say that the will of the prince has the
Classical concepts of the structure of society especially in politics.
force of law, because, in so far as he is truly a prince, his will cannot
fail to be in accordance with the law. "Who, indeed, in respect of
• The Difference Between a Prince and a Tyrant and What is
public matters can properly speak of the will of the prince at all, since
Meant by a Prince
therein he may not lawfully
have any will of his own, apart from that which the law or equity
“Between a tyrant and a prince there is this single or chief
enjoins, or the calculation of the common interest requires? For in
difference, that the latter obeys the law and rules the people
these matters his will is to have the force of a judgment; and most
by its dictates . . .”. The tyrant, on the other hand, “is one
properly that which pleases him therein has the force of law, because
who oppresses the people by rulership based on force . . .”
his decision may not be at variance with the intention of equity.)

• Tyranny
• John of Salisbury argued that the Prince must be
subordinate to the law, and distinguished the prince from the
• Tyranny exists not only in the case of princes, but everyone
tyrant on the basis that the prince obeys the law and rules
is a tyrant who abuses power that has been granted to him
the people by its dictates, accounting himself as but their
from above over those who are subjected to him.
servant.

("It is not only princes who practice tyranny, but among private men
"For the authority of the prince depends upon the authority
there are a host of tyrants, since the power which they have, they
of justice and law; and truly it is a greater thing than imperial
turn to some forbidden object". These passages illustrate the
power for the prince to place his government under the laws,
absence of any clear distinction in John's thought between the moral
so as to deem himself entitled to do nought which is at
and the political; abuse of public power is conceived simply in terms
variance with the equity of justice".
of a breach of personal morality.)

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"The prince accordingly is the minister of the common
interest and the bond-servant of equity, and he bears the
public person in the sense that he punishes the wrongs and
injuries of all, and all crimes, with even-handed equity".
"For as the law pursues guilt without any hatred of persons,
so the prince most justly punishes offenders from no motive
of wrath at the behest, and in accordance with the decision,
of the passionless law".
• That the Prince is the Minister of the Priests and Inferior to
Them; And of What
Amounts to Faithful Performance of the Prince’s Ministry
"CONCERNED WITH THE EXECUTION OF, THE SACRED LAWS
IS REALLY A RELIGIOUS OFFICE, BUT THAT IS INFERIOR
WHICH CONSIST IN PUNISHING CRIMES."
• CONSTANTINE – MOST FAITHFUL EMPEROR OF ROMANS
(After Constantine convened the council of priests at Nicea, he dared
to sit among the presbyters but chose the hindmost seat.)
• PRESBYTERS – AN ELDER MINISTER
(So since Constantine is faithful he said that “as a man and the one
who subjects to the judgment priest” he therefore to examine case
judging Gods.Basically Constantine is referring that this is must a
Priest job because it connects with the God which priest and God is
related or connected.After the petition he has received he put them
into the fire without looking at them fearing publicity and accusation
against the fathers.)
"CURSE OF CHAM, THE UNDUTIFUL SON, WHO DID NOT
HIDE HIS FATHERS SHAME."
(This might be according to Noah; Noah has 3 sons including
Ham. Constantine also said that verily in his own eyes if someone is
in shame he will spread a coat and hide him.)
"GREATER IS HE WHO BLESSES MAN THAN HE WHO
BLESSED."
(For example, is it’s better to give than to received is connected
somehow with that verse
Even Theodosius, the great emperor, is suspended by the priest of
Milan because voluntarily self-punished by the homicide upon him.)
"FURTHER, BY THE REASONING OF LAW IT IS HIS RIGHT TO
REFUSE WHO HAS THE POWER TO GRANT, AND HE WHO CAN
LAWFULLY BESTOW CAN LAWFULLY TAKE AWAY."
(But if one who has been appointed prince has performed duly and
faithfully the ministry which he has undertaken, as great honor and
reverence are to be shown to him as the head excels in honor all the
members of the body. Now, when you perform the ministry that
received your mind and status he bears the person of the universitas
those who subject to him, fully conscious that he owes his life not to
himself and his own private ends, but to others. Therefore when you
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accept it; he owes the whole himself to God, most himself to the
country, much to his relatives, and friends, very little to foreigners.He
has duties to the very wise and the very foolish, to little children and
to the aged. Supervision over these classes of persons is common to
all in authority, both those who have care over spiritual things and
those who exercise temporal jurisdiction.
Melchisedech – both king and priest, He doesn’t have a mother nor
father.)
"FOR LOVE IS STRONG AS DEATH; AND WEDGE WHICH IS
HELD TOGETHER BY STRANDS OF LOVE IS NOT EASILY
BROKEN."
(The Dorians first consulted the oracles regarding the outcome of the
battle against Athenians. The vision was that they would be victorious
if they did not kill the king of the Athenians. The king of Athenians,
which is cordus, sneaks into the enemies camp which causes his
death When they recognize Cordus body they go home after without
a single battle.The leader of the Athenians offers death for the sake
of safety of his men. Ligurgus who abolished gold and silver which
he said was a material of wickedness. He decreed that virgins should
be given marriage without dowry to the end that men might make
choices of wives and not of money. Then in order to make this he
takes an oath to change nothing of his laws until his return. He set out
for Crete and lived there after his death he was commanded to throw
his bones in the sea for fear that if they should be taken back to
Lacedaemon Apostle Paul used to preach the Athenians.)
"HE CRUCIFIED INTO THEIR MINDS THAT MANY NON-JEWS
ARE SHAMEFUL OR HAS DISGRACE THROUGH CROSS."
"THIS WONT TO SAVE BY THE BLOOD OF JUST MEN AND
THOSE WHO BEAR THE MAGISTRACY OF PEOPLE HE
ASSERTED, COULD BE NONE OTHER THAN THE SON OF THE
ALL POWERFUL FATHER, SINCE NONE EXCEPT GOD HOLD
SWAY OVER ALL NATIONS AND LANDS."
(After he preaches this the shamefulness of the non-jews to the cross
might be removed. He gradually taught this til it rose. He explained
the works of Crucified one, which were further confirmed by the
testimony. But since fame frequently speaks untruth to opposite
sides.)
"FOR THOSE WHO WORK MARVELOUS WILL HEAL FROM
INFIRMITY WERE HEALED."
(Julius Cesar once said that a general who does not labor to be dear
to his soldiers' hearts does not know how to furnish them with
weapons; does not know that a general's humaneness to his troops
takes the place of a host against the enemy. He always says that the
soldier must follow and not go ahead first. He said that in war men
can avoid pleasure for he said that soldiers' bodies are wounded by
swords, in peace they are wounded by
pleasure. He said that pleasure cannot always be avoided because
it happens to him also.)
What a Commonwealth Is
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• According to Plutarch, a Commonwealth is a certain body which is
endowed with life by the benefit of divine favor, which acts at the
prompting of the highest equity, and is ruled by what may be called
moderating power of reason.
(A Commonwealth, in Plutarch's view, is a particular group gifted with
life via divine favor, acting in accordance with the highest principles
of justice, and being guided by what might be referred to as the
moderating power of reason.)
• In his work Policraticus, he presents a famous analogy, which posits
the commonwealth as a “body which is animated".
(John’s naturalistic conception of cooperative association informs
the famous organic analogy that he proposes and develops in the
Policraticus. Ascribing his insight to a letter of instruction (John’s
creation) purportedly by Plutarch to Emperor Trajan (Former Roman
Emperor), John commences with the simple observation that the
commonwealth may be likened to a “body which is animated” which
means the different offices of political society are represented as
analogous to the distinct parts of the human anatomy.)
(He compares the structure of the commonwealth with that of the
human body:
• he paired different groups of people (organs of body politic) with
the organs of the human body, where each organ has a function to
perform for the good of the whole organism
• His theory was not intended to “justify hierarchy and division within
society. Rather, the body politic found in the Policraticus is the
expression of a principle of cooperative harmony.”)
• John of Salisbury on Body Politic (Analogy)
"The place of the head in the body of the Commonwealth is filled by
the
Prince".
(Because the political creature is an essentially secular entity, the
body politic is ruled by the prince, who occupies the place of the
head, and who is subject only to God and to those who exercise his
office and represent him on earth.)
"Clerics are compared to the human soul".
(Like all bodies, the commonwealth is guided by a soul, which John
assigns to ‘those who direct the practice of religion, or the things
which establish and implant to the people the practice of religion and
transmit to them the worship of God.)
"The place of the heart is filled by the Senate".
(“The senate, composed of the prince’s counselors, functions as
the commonwealth’s heart, from which proceeds the initiation of
good works and ill.)
"The duties of the eyes, ears and tongue are claimed by the judges
and the governors of the province".
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(The senses correspond to the royal judges and local agents who (If someone is like this it needs to be plucked out, cut off and cast
exercise jurisdiction in the prince's name.) away if they become an offense to the public safety.)

"Officials and Soldiers correspond to the hands" "THY PRINCES ARE FAITHLESS AND COMPANIONS OF
THIEVES."
(Those who always attend upon the prince are likened to the sides.)
(Because sometimes kings are called tyrants the ungodly also has
"Financial Officers may be compared with the stomach and its members.)
the intestines".

(which, if they become congested through excessive avidity, and

retain too tenaciously their accumulations, generate innumerable and
incurable diseases, so that through their ailment the whole body is
threatened by destruction; if the funds of a country are not handled
properly, there is a high possibility of having an effect on the breaking DANTE ON WORLD
of a state.) GOVERNMENT

"Husbandmen correspond to the feet".

(Which always cleave to the soil, and need more especially the care
and foresight of the head/prince, since while they walk upon the
earth doing service with their bodies, they meet the more often with
stones of stumbling and therefore deserve aid and protection all the
more justly since it is they who raise, sustain and move forward the
weight of the entire body. Take away the support of the feet from
the strongest body and it cannot move forward by its own power, but
must creep painfully and shamefully on its hands or else be moved
by means of brute animals.)
• LESE MAJESTE – to do wrong to the majesty.
Dante Alighieri, is an Italian poet, prose writer, literary theorist, moral
philosopher, and political thinker. He is best known for
the monumental epic poem The Divine Comedy and De Monarchia
or on World Government.
What is Temporal Monarchy?
Temporal monarchy, or empire, is a single government extending
over all people in time. that is over all things that are measured
by time

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The Purpose of Human Society as a Whole
Dante believed that it is the possible intellect or capacity for
intellectual growth. According to him, the goal of the human race
is to perpetually actualize all of the potential of the intellect, first
by expansion and for its own sake through action.
Questions about the topic:
1. Whether it is necessary for the well-being of the world;
2. Whether the roman people were right in assuming such
office;
3. Whether its authority derives directly from God or from some
minister or vicar of God.
WHETHER IT IS NECESSARY FOR THE WELL BEING OF
THE WORLD
Dante asserts that when several things are ordained for one
end, one of them must regulate or rule, and the others submit
to regulation or rule. The whole human race is ordered for
one end.
Dante believes that the leader and the lord shall be one and that
he must be called Monarch or Emperor. For the well-being of
the world a Monarchy or an Empire is needed.
Dante believes that mankind is a whole with relation to certain
parts and it is a part with relation to a certain whole, in short,
collective humanity corresponds as a part to its larger whole.
The larger whole being under the rule of a Monarch.
Dante believes that humanity must submit to a single Prince for
he believes that this Prince is the response of the universe itself.
By submitting to the Prince, who is the God and Monarch Dante
concludes that Monarchy is necessary for the well-being of the
world.
Dante believes that the human race is most one when it is all
united together under the subject to one Prince and consequently
comes most in accordance with the divine intention which is the
best disposition of mankind.
WHETHER THE ROMAN PEOPLE WERE RIGHT IN
ASSUMING SUCH OFFICE
Dante believes that since the Romans pursued the good of the
Commonwealth. The Roman people pursued this good when they
made most of the world subject to them, and it is proved by their
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deeds, for putting aside all greed as always incompatible with the
good of the commonwealth, and seeking universal peace with
liberty, this holy, pious, and glorious people seemed to neglect its
own interests in order to promote the public interest for the
salvation of mankind back then. He believes that by pursuing
the common good of the roman people, the Roman people
acquired by right its reign over most of the known the world.
Only if a Monarch-rules can the human race exist for its own sake;
only if a Monarch rules, can the crooked policies be
straightened, namely democracies, oligarchies, and tyrannies
which force mankind into slavery, as he sees who goes among
them, and under which kings, and aristocrats, called the
best men, and zealots of popular liberty play at politics. For since
a Monarch loves men greatly, he desires all men to do good, which
cannot be among players at crooked policies.
The Monarch alone is capable of supreme qualification to rule.
Hence the Monarch is best able to direct others. Therefore, it
follows that for the best ordering of the world, Monarchy is
necessary.
The Monarch is capable of the highest degree of judgment and
Justice, and is therefore perfectly qualified, or especially well
qualified, to rule, these two qualities are most befitting a maker
and executor of the law.
Here is the proof that it has come from none of these sources.
If she had received it from God, it would have been by divine
Dante believes that justice is most effective in the world when it
is present in the most willing and powerful man; only a monarch
is such a man; therefore, justice subsisting in a sole monarch is
the most effective for the world.
Dante concludes that among mortals the purest subject for the
indwelling of Justice is the Monarch, due to his jurisdiction
being bounded only by the ocean, the Monarch has nothing else
to desire, making his decisions right and just.
WHETHER ITS AUTHORITY DERIVES DIRECTLY FROM
GOD OR FROM SOME MINISTER OR VICAR OF GOD.
The authority of the Church is not the source of Imperial
Authority.
Besides, if the Church has the power to confer authority on the
Roman Prince, she would have it either from God, or from herself,
or from some Emperor, or from the unanimous consent of
mankind, or at least from the consent of the most influential.
There is no other least crevice through which the power could
have diffused itself into the Church. But from none of these has
it come to her, and therefore the said power is not hers at all.
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or natural law. But this ecclesiastical right came not by natural
law, for nature imposes no law save her own effects, and
inadequacy is not possible to God where He brings
something into being without secondary agents. it
is indisputable that nature gave not this law to the Church.
The Church did not receive such power from itself is readily
evident. Nothing can give what it does not have; hence the acts
of any agent must be such as to show that he actually is what
his actions aim at, as is explained in Metaphysics I. But it is clear
that if the Church gave itself that power, it did not have
it previously and therefore it gave itself what it did not have,
which is impossible.
Although by the method of reduction to absurdity it has been
shown that the authority of Empire has not its source on the
Chief Pontiff, yet it has not been fully proved, saved by inference,
that its immediate source is God, seeing that if the authority does
not depend on the Vicar of God, we conclude that it depends on
God Himself. For a perfect demonstration of the proposition, we
must prove directly that the Emperor, or Monarch, of the world,
has an immediate relationship with the Prince of the universe,
who is God.
Man may be considered with regard to either of his essential
parts, body or soul. If considered in regard to the body alone,
he is perishable; if in regard to the soul alone, he
is imperishable.
Ineffable Providence has thus designed two ends to be
contemplated of man: first, the happiness of this life, which
consists in the activity of his natural powers, and is prefigured by
the terrestrial Paradise; and then the blessedness of life
everlasting, which consists of the enjoyment of the countenance
of God, to which man's natural powers may not attain unless
aided by divine light, and which may be symbolized by the
celestial Paradise.
The order of the world follows the order inherent in the revolution
of the heavens. To attain this order, it is necessary that
instruction productive of liberality and peace should be applied
by the guardian of the realm, in due place and time, as dispensed
by him who is the ever-present Watcher of the whole order of the
heavens. And He alone foreordained this order, that by it in His
providence He might link together all things, each in its own place.
BACKGROUND OF ST. AUGUSTINE THE HIPPO
Born: November 13, 354 AD, Thagaste
Died: August 28, 430 AD, Ruins of Hippo (Hippo Regius), Annaba,
Algeria
Full name: Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis
Parents: Saint Monica, Patricius Aurelius
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 ● St. Augustine studied Latin grammar and Arithmetic, Roman
prose, Philosophy and Poetry ● He taught Rhetoric in Milan
● At the age of 32, he converted to Christianity
● He became the Bishop of Hippo in Algeria in 395 A.D.
● In 413 A.D., He wrote The City of God
INTRODUCTION OF THE CITY OF GOD
● The City of God written by the Medieval Philosopher St. Augustine
as De civitate Dei contra paganos (Concerning the City of God
Against the Pagans) about 413–426 CE.
● In reaction to pagans' assertions that the fall of Rome by
barbarians in 410 was a result of Christian emperors' outlawing
of paganism, The City of God was written.
● The City of God is divided into 22 books.
● The City of God was one of the most influential works of the
Middle Ages
THE ORDERED UNIVERSE (Reported by: Figueroa, Joseph Kyle
M.)
● Saint Augustine said that God created Heaven and Earth
● And he said that that earth void and empty
● Be light made and light was made
● Therefore God supreme and true, with his Word and Holy spirit
● The darkness was upon the face of the deep
● The spirit of God moved over the waters
● The God saw the light that it was good
THE LOVE OF SELF AND THE LOVE OF GOD (Reported by:
De Jesus, Rey Kenneth A.) The Love of Self
Self-love is a state of appreciation for oneself that grows from actions
that support our physical, psychological and spiritual growth. Self-love
means having a high regard for your own well-being and happiness.
Self-love means taking care of your own needs and not sacrificing your
well-being to please others.
The Love of GoD
The Greek term theophilia means the love or favour of God, and
theophilos means friend of God, originally in the sense of being loved
by God or loved by the gods; but is today sometimes understood in
the sense of showing love for God.
THE TWO CITIES (Reported by: Dupan, Juliana Kate P.)
● St. Augustine used an illustration of two cities in trying to explain
the distinction between the Church and the world
● The earthly city is characterized by pride and self-
aggrandizement while those in the heavenly city honor God in all
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 things, trusting only Him for all wisdom and giving glory to only
Him.
The City of God
● It is ruled by principles of purity, morality and divine rule,
which is very permanent and unchangeable.
● Value God over yourself and you will be in the City of God.
The City of Man
● It is ruled by physical presence with desire,
selfishness which is very temporary. ● Love yourself
before you love God and you are in the City of Man
THE COMMONWEALTH AND JUSTICE (Reported by: Figueroa,
Joseph Kyle M., and De Jesus, Rey Kenneth A.)
The Commonwealth
● True justice has no existence save in that republic whose
founder and ruler is Christ, if at least any choose to call
this a republic
● Cicero’s De Republica briefly defines a republic
as the weal of the people. Justice
● True justice has no existence save in that republic whose
founder and ruler is Christ, if at least any choose to call this a
republic and indeed we cannot deny that it is the people’s
weal but if perchance this name, which has become familiar
in other connections, be considered alien to our common
parlance, we may at all events say that in this city is true
justice; the city of which holy scripture says, “Glorious things
are said of thee. City of God”.
Fortescue – A learned commendations of Political
laws of England
Brief History of Sir John Fortesque:
Sir John Fortescue, (born c. 1385, Norris, Somerset, Eng.—died c.
1479, Ebrington, Gloucestershire), jurist, notable for a legal treatise,
De laudibus legum Angliae (c. 1470; “In Praise of the Laws of
England”), written for the instruction of Edward, prince of Wales, son
of the deposed king Henry VI of England. He also stated a moral
principle that remains basic to the Anglo-American jury system: It is
better that the guilty escape than that the innocent be punished.
Fortescue became chief justice of the King’s Bench in 1442 and was
knighted the following year. After the defeat of Henry VI’s Lancastrian
army at Towton, Yorkshire (March 29, 1461), he fled with Henry to
Scotland, where Fortescue probably was appointed lord chancellor of
the exiled government. From 1463 to 1471 he lived in France at the
court of Henry’s queen, Margaret of Anjou, where he helped to
educate Prince Edward to rule England in the event of a Lancastrian
restoration. Returning to England, he was captured at Tewkesbury,
Gloucestershire, during the final defeat of the Lancastrians (May 4,
1471), submitted to the Yorkist king Edward IV, and was allowed to
retire to his home.
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Unusual for its time, De laudibus depreciates the Roman-derived civil
law and eulogizes the English constitution, statutes, and system of
legal education, while offering suggestions for reform. It was probably
the first book about law written in a style so simple and lucid as to be
comprehensible to the layman.
Fortescue was at pains to distinguish between absolute monarchy
(‘dominum regale’ as in France) and limited or constitutional
monarchy (‘dominum politicum et regale’ as in England). The essential
difference is that in the first state the king makes the law, in the
second the king rules his subjects only by laws ‘such as they assent
unto’. In his characteristically Lancastrian parliamentary
interpretation, Fortescue divided the two types too sharply—the
French also had representative institutions.
A limited Monarchy
The greatest English political thinker of the fifteenth century, who has
been called as the “England’s greatest jurist of the Lancastrian
period,” called the England a dominium politicum et regale. John
Fortescue distinguish the difference between an absolute monarchy
(‘dominum regale’ as in France) and a limited or constitutional
monarchy (‘dominum politicum et regale’ as in England).
John Fortescue: The king of England is not able to change the laws
of his kingdom at pleasure, for he rules his people with a government
not only regal but also political.
In all of his major writings, Fortescue insists that England’s
government is, and always has been, not merely regal (dominium
regale) but political and regal (dominium politicum et regale).
Fortescue articulated a distinction between dominium regale,
dominium politicum, and dominium politicum et regale.
Dominium regale - in which the king rules according to his own will.
Dominium politicum - in which the king rules according to the laws
established by the citizens.
Dominium politicum et regale - the king and the citizens together held
responsibility for the laws, according to which the king ruled.
A Mundane Mystical Body for England
The community is characterized as a corpus mysticum united by a
common intention and governed by the king as head. Just as in our
natural bodies, he said, what is left after decapitation, is not a body,
but as what we call trunk. So in a political body "a community without
a head is not by any means a body."
Aristotle also said that our heart is our source of life, having in itself
the blood which transmit to all our organs. But in the body poilitics,
the source of life is the will of the people as it transmits to the head
and all of its members of the body which the body is maintained or
governed.
The law, indeed resembles the nerves of the body physical, for just
as the body is held together by the nerves, so the body mystical is
bound together and united into one by law.
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The Renaissance
The Renaissance , Renaissance is a French word meaning “rebirth.” It
refers to a period in European civilization that was marked by a revival
of Classical learning and wisdom Generally described as taking place
from the 14th century to the 17th century, the Renaissance promoted
the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art. The Italian
city of Florence is widely accepted as the birthplace of the
Renaissance. One of the main reasons it began here was thanks to
two scholars – Dante Alighieri and Francesco Petrarch. Both these
writers were instrumental in reviving an interest in ancient Greek and
Roman culture. Renaissance is a Cultural movement that focused on
humanism, secularism and individualism. The Renaissance promoted
the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art.
During the Middle Ages, a period that took place between the fall of
ancient Rome in 476 A.D. and the beginning of the 14th century,
Europeans made few advances in science and art. Also known as the
“Dark Ages,” the era is often branded as a time of war, ignorance,
famine and pandemics such as the Black Death. (The Black Death was
a devastating global epidemic of bubonic plague that struck Europe
and Asia in the mid-1300s. The plague arrived in Europe in October
1347, when 12 ships from the Black Sea docked at the Sicilian port of
Messina.)
One of the fields that embodied the Renaissance was fine art,
especially painting and sculpture. Works from this period were
inspired by Classical Greek and Roman art and were known for their
grace, harmony, and beauty. Artists worked from the living model and
perfected techniques such as the use of perspective. In addition, the
Renaissance saw the refinement of mediums, notably oils. Leonardo
da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael are widely considered the leading
artists of the period.
3 Themes of Renaissance
Humanism - Renaissance Humanism means an intellectual movement
of the 15th century when there was a new interest in the classical
world and studies which focussed less on religion and more on what
it is to be human. this was an intellectual movement typified by a
revived interest in the classical world and studies which focussed not
on. humanism promoted the idea that man was the center should
embrace human achievements in education, classical art, literature
and science
- sample of this is Humanist art, like Donatello's classically-inspired
sculpture of David, helped define the trends of the early Renaissance.
Other early Renaissance figures like the architect Filippo Brunelleschi
and the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti similarly embraced humanist
themes in their works throughout the city of Florence
Secularism - During the Renaissance people started to see life on
Earth as worth living for its own sake, not just as an ordeal to endure
before going to heaven. The art of the period in particular exhibited
this secular spirit, showing detailed and accurate scenery, anatomy,
and nature. also this is the principle of separation of the state from
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religious institutions.this is individuals may choose to rely on science
to explain how the world operates rather than spirituality.
Individualism - is individual thought and expression —separating
oneself from the crowd in terms of ideas and creations—were
encouraged and highly prized. T he new economic and political
opportunities openily up for western Europe in the late middle Ages
encouraged more people to take an interest in this world.
- One example of individualism was the self-portrait. In Europe before
the Renaissance, most art was religious in nature. Portraits of non-
religious or non-powerful people were rare, and self-portraits rarer
still This is The Mona Lisa painting done by Leonardo Da Vinci during
the renaissance is an excellent example of how individualism became
a major focus during this time. Because The Mona Lisa's famous smile
represents the sitter in the same way that the juniper branches
represent Ginevra Benci and the ermine represents Cecilia Gallerani in
their portraits, in Washington and Krakow respectively. It is a visual
representation of the idea of happiness suggested by the word
"gioconda" in Italian.
3 Basic Forms of Governments during Renaissance
Princedoms - The jurisdiction, sovereignity, a rank, or state of the
prince. which the Renaissance called republic. the meaning of prince
changed, as princedoms—states governed by strong and effective
rulers—emerged. Renaissance princes ranged from monarchs of large
kingdoms to
rulers of minor cities. They could be legitimate or illegitimate,
depending on their position with regard to the law.
Oligarchies - The most complex form of government in the
Renaissance was oligarchy—rule by a restricted number of men.
Those in power, usually the leading merchants of the city, claimed to
represent the interests of the people.and this is a small group of
people having control of country organization or institutions.
Monarchy - (a form of government with a monarch at the head) The
Renaissance and early modern period led to a newly adapted type of
monarchy in Europe, with monarchs initiating voyages of discovery to
other continents, developing new forms of mercantile trade, and,
most of all, building mass armies and large government bureaucracies
that represented innovative forms of political administration.
Governments in the Renaissance focused on reducing the impact
religion had on the economy and politics of their society. Wealth
began to impact politics more, such as the Medecci family, who
accumulated huge profits and which were used to finance cultural and
political activities.
These social factors included ‘new rulers’, social mobility, trade and a
society that was not bound by traditional values. Above all the
increasing secularism of the times allowed people in Renaissance to
conceive of a new way of living and even a new world. The
Renaissance arrived at different countries at varying times- Italy was
the first to experience this movement beginning in the 14th century
while the it did not reach England until the sixteenth century. A
general consensus among historians is that by the early 17th century,
the Renaissance had come to an end
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MACHIAVELLI (The Prince and The Discourses) -After serving four years in one of the public offices he was appointed
Chancellor and secretary of the Second Chancery, the Ten of Liberty
and Peace.

WHO IS MACHIAVELLI? Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (3 May

-Machiavelli's public life was largely occupied with events arising out
1469 – 21 June 1527)
of the ambitions of Pope Alexander VI and his son, Cesare Borgia,
the Duke Valentino, and these characters fill a large space of "The
-was an Italian diplomat, author, philosopher, and historian who
Prince."
lived during the Renaissance.

-Machiavelli lost his office on November 7, 1512

- He is best known for his political treatise The Prince (Il Principe)
(1513).

-He wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. -His life falls
naturally into 3 periods. Literature and Death

-On the return of the Medici, Machiavelli, who for a few weeks had
Machiavelli's Youth vainly hoped to retain his office.

-he was accused of complicity in an abortive conspiracy against

-Florence has been described as a city with two opposite currents
the Medici.
of life, one directed by the fervent and austere Savonarola, the
other by the splendor
-After he moved to his small property at San Casciano, near
Florence, he dedicated his remaining life to writing.
-loving Lorenzo.

-Dante says "Knowledge doth come of learning well retained,

-Whereas the magnificence of the Medicean rule during the life of Unfruitful else "
Lorenzo appeared to have impressed Machiavelli strongly.
-When the "History of Florence" was finished, Machiavelli took it
Office to Rome for presentation to his patron, Giuliano de' Medici.

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THE ART OF POLITICS
Those who by the exercise of abilities become princes, obtain their
dominions with difficulty but retain them easily, and the difficulties
which they have in acquiring their dominions arise in part
from the new rules and regulations that they have to introduce in
order to establish their position securely.
For the reformer has enemies in all those who would profit by the
new order, this Luke warmness arising partly from fear of their
adversaries, who have the laws in their favor; and partly from the
incredulity of mankind, who do not truly believe in anything
new until they have had actual experience of it.
In the first case they invariably succeed ill, and accomplish
nothing; but when they can depend on their own strengths and
are able to use force, they rarely fail.
"And so, it necessary to order things so that when they no longer
believe, they can be made to believe by force."
-It would be highly praiseworthy in a prince to possess all the
qualities that are reputed good.
-It is better to be loved more than feared, or feared more than
loved.
There are two methods of fighting, the one by law, the other by
force: the first method is that of a man, the second of beast.
THE POLITICAL VALUE OF RELIGION Question:
Do you follow the rules for you fear God? or you're afraid to be
penalize by Men? and why?
Whoever will examine the actions of the people of Rome as a
body, or of many individual Romans, will see that these citizens
feared much more to break the oath than the laws; like men who
esteem the power of the Gods more than that of men.
In truth, there never was any remarkable lawgiver amongst any
people who did not resort to divine authority, as otherwise his
laws would not be accepted by the people; for there are many
good laws, the importance of which is known to the sagacious
lawgiver, but the reasons for which are not sufficiently evident to
enable him to persuade others to submit to them; and therefore,
do wise men, for the purpose of removing this difficulty, resort to
divine authority.
Princes and republics who wish to keep themselves free from
corruption, must above all things preserve the purity of all
religious observances, and treat them with proper reverence. For
there is no greater indication of the ruin of a country than to see
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 religion held in contempt. This is easily understood when
we know upon what the religion of a country is founded;
for the essence of every religion is based upon some main
principle.
Uniting Country through Religion
It is therefore the duty of princes and heads of republics to uphold
the foundations of the religion of their countries, for then it is easy
to keep their people religious, and consequently well conducted
and united. Thus, everything that tends to favor religion (even if
they believe it is false) should be received and advanced to
strengthen it. This should be done even more the wiser the rulers
are, and the better they understand the natural course of things.
Such was, in fact, the practice observed by wise men; which
has given rise to the belief in the miracles that are celebrated in
religions, however false they may be.
A Country can never be united and happy, except when it obeys
wholly one government, whether a republic or a monarchy.
Our religion teaches us the truth and the true way of life, it causes
us to attach less value to the honors and possessions of this
world.
Religion, moreover, places the supreme good in grandeur of soul,
strength of body, and all such other qualities as render men
formidable; and if our religion claims of us fortitude of soul, it is
more to enable us to suffer than to achieve deeds.
For it we were reflect that our religion permits us to exalt and
defend our country, we should see that according to it we ought
also to love and honor our country.

ANTI-CLERICALISM

If the Christian religion had from the beginning been maintained

according to the principles of its founder, the Christian states and
republics would have been much more united and happier than
what they are.

We Italians then owe to the Church of Rome and to her priests

our having become irreligious and bad; but we owe her a still
greater debt, and one that will be the cause of our ruin, namely,
that the Church has kept and still keeps our country divided.
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THE LIBERATION OF ITALY

Some individual might be appointed by God for her redemption by

giving a "gleam of hope."

She (ITALY) also said that she's waiting for someone who may
heal her wounds and stop Lombardy's robbery of violence and
extortion in the kingdom of Naples and Tuscany and heal her of
the wounds that have been blooming for a long time.

Unexampled wonders have been seen here performed by God. -

the sea has been opened -a cloud has shown you the road -the
rock has given forth water -manna has rained.

They will united become even better when they see themselves
commanded by their prince and honored and favored by him.

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