22 Mathematics] Disetee Mathematics) MS. Univeniy -DD.CE, SU(-pA~MadvGananv@adl =U(~pa~danvitqadv ean) =l(~pa~danviaapve =U(-pa~a]viqv pyr =[-@vdv@valar =r RHS Dual of the given statement can be obtained by interchanging « and v andis ~pv(~qv 2) @qva)a@ve) 1, Let P be “It is cold” and let q be “It is training”. Give a simple verbal sentence which describes each of the following statements. @ oP ®) s6,+1) © Pyvq @ qvP 2. Let P be “Ram reads Hindustan Times", let q be “Ram reads ‘Times of India,” and let r be “Ram reads NBT! write each of the following in symbolic form: (@) Ram reads Hindustan Times on Times of India not NBT. (b) Ram reads Hindustan Times and Times of India, on he does not read Hindustan ‘Times and NBT. (© Itis not true that Ram reads Hindustan Times but not NBT. (Tris not true that Ram reads NBT on Times of India but not Hindustan Times, 3. Determine the truth value of each of che following statements: @ 4+2=5ando+3=9 ) 34+2=5ando+1=7 @ 445=9and1+2 () 34+2-Sand447=11 4. Find the truth table of "P 4 q 5. Verify that the propostion Pv 7 (P v q) is tautalogy. Show that the propostions 7 (P q) and 7 P v %q are logically equivalent. Rewrite the following statements without using the conditonal: @) Ifitis cold, he means a hat. () productivity increases, then wages rise ContdMS. University -DD.CE, Mathesatil Logis 23 8. ive M4 15, 10. 12, 13. wn of each statement: Determine the contrapo: (@ Johns a poet, then he is poor; (&) Only if he studies more then he will pass the test. Show that the following arguments is a fallacy Pog 7h +74 ‘Write the negation of each statement as simply as possible. Pog 7q+7P. Let A = {1, 2,3,4,5}. Determine the truth table value of each of the following statements: @ Grea) &e+3=19 ©) (vxea) +3 > 19) (© @rea)@e+3<5) @ (vxea)(e +357) Determine the truth table value of each of the following statements where U = {1, 2, 3} is the universal set @ axvyx 5", State whether on not P(3) is a propositional function on each of the following sets: (2) Ny the set of positive integerss © M=(1,-2,-3..) (Gy the set of complex numbers. [Negative each of the following statements: (@ All students live in the domintonies (b) All Mathematics majors are values. (©) Some students are 25 (years) on older. Contd,24 Mathematice (Discrete Mathematics) MS. Universiy -DD.CE 16, Let P denote the is rich and let q denote “He is happy”. Write each statement in symbolic form using P and q. Note that “He is poor” and he is unhappy” are equivalent to. "P and ™q respectively. (@) Ifheis rich, then he is unhappy (®) He is neither rich nor happy (0 Iisnecessary to be poor in order to be happy. (Tobe poor isto be unhappy. 17. Find the truths tables for : @ Pyvq ® Parq 18. Show that (Pq logically implies P< q () P+ qdoes not logically imply P «> 4. 19, Let A = (1,2, 9, 10}. Consider each of the following sentences. If it is a statement, then determine its truth value. I itis a propositional function, determine its truth set. @ (WxEA) (WyeA) & + y < 14) ©) (vyeA e+ y <1) © (wxeA) (Wye) & + < 14) @ @yea)iety < 14 20, Negative each of the following statement: (@ Ifthe teacher is absent, then some students do not complete their homework. (©) _Allsthe students completed their homework and the teacher is present. (©) Some of the students did not compute their homework on teacher is absent. 1.10 LET US SUM UP “A proposition is a statement that is either true or false but not both”. ‘The statement “It is not the case that P* is another proposition, called the negation of P, The negation of Pis denoted by GP. ‘The propositions *P or q” denoted by P v q, is the proposition that is false when P and q are both false and true otherwise the proposition P v q is called the disjunction of P and q. ‘The proposition “P and ‘V denoted by P A q, is the proposition that is true when both P aid q are true and is false otherwise and denoted by “A”, Its called conjunction,MS. University -DD.CE, Mathematical Logie 25, ‘The implication P —> q is the proposition that is false, when P is true and q is false and true otherwise. In this implication P is called the hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q is called conclusion (or consequence). ‘A statement formula (expression involving prepositional variable) that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction i called a contingency ‘Two statements A and B in variable P, ... Pn (n 2 U) are said to be equivalent if they acquire the same truth values for all interpretation, ie., they have identical truth values A statement that is true for all possible values of its propositional variable is called a tautology. A statement that is always false is called a contradiction and a statement that can be either true or false depending on the truth values of its propositional variables is called a contingency. 1.11 KEYWORDS Proposition: A proposition is a statement that is ether true or false but not both ‘Truth Table: A truth table displays the relationship between the truth values of propositions Tautology: A statement that is true for all possible values of its propositional variable is called a tautology. Duatity: Any two formulas A and A* are said to be duals of each other if one can be obtained from the other by replaying by v and v by a. Quantifiers: When all the variables in a propositional function are assigned values, the resulting statement has a truth value. 1,12 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION, 1. Consider the conditional proposition P { q. The simple propositions q—> P, *P + 7 qand 7q—> 7 P are called respectively the converse inverse and contra positive of the conditional P > q. Which if any of these proposition are logically equivalent to P > q? 2. Write the negation of each statement as simple as possible @) If she works, she will down money. (®)_ He swims if and only if the water is warm, (© Ifit shows, then they do not drive the can. 3. Verify that the proposition (P 1 q) » > (P v q) isa contradiction.26 Mathematics! Discrete Maher) MS. Univenity -DID.CE. Check Your Progress: Modal Answers 1. In each case, translate A, v and ~ to read “and”, “or”, and “Ie is false that” on “hat”, respectively and then simplify the English sentence. (@ Tris not cold ©) Kriscold and training (9 Iriscold on itis training (@) lis training or itis cold. 2. Vise v for “an”, v for *and”, (r, its logical equivalent, “but"), and” for “not” (negation). @ @vgarr ) Rady Pan @ RA @ Uevgarrl 3. The statement “P and q" is true only when both sub statements are true. Thus @ False (b) True © False @ Tne 4. Pq 7P7PAq TT F F TF F F Bro'Taoe Tad: iT. FFT F 5. Construct the truth table of P v > (P 4 q). Since the truth values of Pv 7 (P A q) is T for all values of P and q, the proposition is a tautology. Poq Pvq 7(PaqgPv7Pva) iy ead F a Te a a a fat ee a ay ER EF T. ay 6. Construct the truth tables for (P 4 q) and ” P v "4q, Since the truth tables are the same, the propostions 7 (P A q) and PA q are logically equivalent and we can write reg ContdMS. University DCE, 10. P q Paq 7Pa@P q 7Pq 7PAtq are FTT FF F Tiere an a FUT OF TFT TE a Fin FR TFF TT a, Recall that “If P then q” is equivalent to “Not P or q”s that is, P—> q (@ Iris not cold on he means a hot. (©) Productivity does not increase on wages rise @) The contrapositive of P > q is 7 q—> 7 P. Hence the contrapositive of the given statement is IfJobn is not poor, then he is not a poet. (b) The given statement is equivalent to “If Marc Passes the test, then he studied.” Hence its contrapostive is If Mare does not study, then he will not pass the test Construct the truth table for {(P + q) 9 °P]> “4. Since the proposition [(P — q) 4” P] + > q is not a tautology, the argument is a fallacy. Equivalently, the argument is a fallacy since in third line of the truth table P -> q and” P are true but "qs false Pq Pq Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive Po9 g>P P3794 To he T. a T T T 2 re F T v F 2 te Te a F F T Eaeeka to T on T Tr Construct the truth table for [(P + q) A q] + P. Since the proposition [P > q)a 7 > Pisa tautalogy, the argument is valid Pg @opNas> FP Toor or ot TP FO oT Tt FM SS eee Tro Ft FE ROmmasan rrr Fo Po Pils Winnie ait alsvion aB) seabins aso Rial AP Step 2.4 “Pv q. Hence, Mathematical Logie 27 a> Contd28 Mathematics (Discrete Mathematics) MS. University -DD.CE. 11. Construct the truth tables of the premises and conclusion as shown below. Now, P >” q, £— quand r and true simultaneously only in the fifth now of the table, where P is also true. Hence, the argument is valid. 7 7 Pog rq 7 1 T r rr F 7 F z T T F F fT F 3 T F r r F F 4 T F F T a F 5 F r T o T 7 6 F rT F T T T 7 F F r 3 7 T 8 F F F In T z 12, (@) False. For no number in A is a solution to x + 3 = 10. (0) True. For every number in A satisfies x + 3 < 10. (9) True. Forif x = 1, then x, + 3 <, ie, isa solution. (@ False. For if = 5,then x, + 3 is not less than on equal. © Inother words, 5 is not a solution to the given condition. 13. (@) True. For ifx = 1, then 1, 2 and 3 are all solutions to 1 < y + 1 ©) True. For each 12 is a true statement, (0) False. For if x,= 2 and y,= 3, then x,?+ y.?< 12 is not a true statement. 14. Use? yx Pls ix / P(x) and > 3x P(x) = yx Pls); @ Gx, vy, Pee y= vx, By, 7 PCs, ¥) © (vx, vy PG, y) = 3s, By, "PCs y) (©) > Gy3x vz, Pos y; 2) = vy, Wx32, "PER, y, 2) 15. @) Yes. (b) Although P(x) is false for every element in M, P(x) is. still al propostional function on M. (© No. Note that 2i + 2 > 5 does not have meaning in other words in equalities are not defined for complex number. 16, (@) Atleast one student does not live in the donmitonic. (©) Atleast one Mathematics major is female, (©) None of the students is 25 on older. ContdMS. Univesity - D.D.CE. 7 @ P 18. @ P iT T F F 9. @ Hm F ~q Pynq Ht 7 7 FOF i Ha F statement. Moreover, the statement is true. Homie F s Hanon s son T Mathematical Logie 29 {Pv{g F F F a ‘The open sentence in two variables is preceded by two quantifiers; hence it is a (0) The open sentence is preceded by one quantifier; hence it is a propositional function of the other variable, Note that for every y € A, x,+ y < 14 ifand only if x, = 1, 2, or 3, Hence the truth set is {1, 2, 3} (0 Iris statement and itis false ifx,= 8 and y, = 9, then x, + y, < 14 is not true. (is an open sentence in x. The teuth set is A itself 2. |) ‘The teacher is absent and all the students completed their homework. (©) Some of the students did not complete their homework and the teacher is absent. (9 All'the students completed their homework and the teacher is present. 1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS Anuranjan Misra, Discrete Mathematics, Acme Learning pvt led. Richard Johnsonbaugh, Discrete Mathematics, Prentice Hall V.K, Balakrishnan, Introductory Diserete Mathematics, Courier Dover Publications, R.C. Penner, Discrete Mathematics: Prof Techniques and Mathematical Structures, World Scientific, 1999 Mike Pill, Discrete Mathematics: An Introduction for Software Engineers, Cambridge University Press, 1991UNIT ILESSON 2 SET THEORY CONTENTS 20 Aims and Objectives 241 Introduction 22° Typeof Ses 2.2.1 Singleton Set 222 Finite See 2.23 Infinite Set 224° Equal Set 225 Pair Set 2.26 Empty Set Methods of Representing a Set 23.1 Roster Method 23.2 Set Builder Method Combination of Sets Multisers Laws of Operations (General Identities on Sets) Let us Sum up Keywords Questions for Discussion Suggested Readings 2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES After studying lesson, you will be able to © Understand the various ways to represent the sets © Understand the infinite sets © Understand the set operations © Understand the union and intersection terminology34 Machematice (Discrete Mathers) MS. Univesity -DD.CE. ‘© Explain the symmetric difference © Explain the law’s of identities © Gain knowledge about the symbolic logic 2.1 INTRODUCTION A set is a collection of definite distinguishable objects such that, given a set and an object, we can ascertain whether or not the specified object is included in the set. Sets A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. By a ‘well defined’ collection of objects, we mean that there is a rule (3) by means of which it is possible to say that without ambiguity, whether a particular object belongs to the collection or not. By ‘distinct’ we mean that we do not repeat an object over and over again in a set. Elements Each object belonging to a set is called an element (or a member) of the set. Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, N, Q, R, S, etc. and the elements by lower case letters. a,b, % Ys ete The relationship of an object to a set of which itis an element, is called a relation of belonging, Examples: (Set of natural numbers: N= {1,234.56} (i) Set of integers: T= Ql aa344,) (ii) Set of even integers: Any integers of the form 2n, where n is an integer is called an even integer Thus 0, £2, 24, £6, .. are even integers. (iv) Set of odd integers: Any integer of the form 2n-1 or 2n+1, where a is an integer is called an odd integer. Thus +1, +3, 45, .. are called odd integers (©). Set of non-negative integers: Ic contains all positive integers 0, 1,2, 3,4, .. (ii) Ser ofall rational numbers: Any number of the form p/, where p and q are integers and q # 0 is called a rational numbers. The set of all rational numbers is denoted by Q. (iii) Ser of all complex numbers: Any number of the form a + ib 2.2 TYPE OF SETS 2.2.1 Singleton Set Ifa set consists of only one clement, iti called a singleton set.MS.Univessty -DDGE, Sec Theory 35 For example: {1s {0}, {a}, {0}, ete. 2.2.2 Finite Set ‘A set consisting of a natural number of objects, ie, in which the number of elements is finite, is called finite set. Forexample: A= (5,79, ll} and B= (4,8, 16,32, 64, 91} Since A contains 4 elements and B contains 6 elements, so both are finite sets 2.2.3 Infinite Set Tf number of elements in a set is infinite, the set is called infinite set. For Example: Set of natural numbers. N= {1,2,3, 4.0) is am infinite ser. 2.2.4 Equal Set ‘Two sets A and B consisting of the same elements are called equal set. For example: A= (1,5,9} B= (1,5,9} Sohere A = B. 2.2.5 Pair Set A set having two elements is called pair set. Forexample: {1,2}, £03}, (49), Gxt}, ete. 2.2.6 Empty Set Ifa set consists of no elements, itis called the empty sector null set or void set and is represented by ¢. Here a point is to be noted that ¢. isa null set but {6.} is singleton set. Example: Which of the following are valid set definitions? A= (4,5,8} Bx {a,b,ac}26 Mathemaiel Disrte Mathematio) MS. Univensiy “DCE. C= fad} D={1,2,3,4,5, 6} St A is a valid set, containing three elements 4, 5, and 8. B looks to be equally valid except for the occurring of two a’s. We can certainly check for inclusion ‘within the set and this is surely the most important element. Hence we might regard this as valid and equal to {a, b,¢). However, there are problems that original definition of B and remove one of the a's then we apparently have 4 € B and a € B. This conclusion is not allowed since itis inconsistent, hence wwe shall regard repetition within a set as referring to the same element and its duplication as being an oversight; the removal of duplicates forms the basis of several mathematical arguments later on. C is a valid set, containing 2 elements, a and b. Disa valid set, containing 6 elements 1, 2,3, 4,5 and 6. 2,3 METHODS OF REPRESENTING A SET ‘The most common method of describing the sets are as follows: ‘© Roster method oF listing method or Tabular method. © Set Builder method or property method or Rule method. 2.3.1 Roster Method In this method, a set is described by listing all its elements, separating them by commons and enclosing, them within brackets (only brackets). Example: ()IEAis the set of even natural numbers less than 8, A= (2,4,6} (i) WEB is the set of odd and numbers less than 17. B = (1,3,5,7,9, 11, 13, 15} 2.3.2 Set Builder Method Listing elements of a set is sometimes difficult and sometimes impossible. In this method, a set is described by means of some property which is shared by all the elements of the set. Example: () IEAis the set of all prime numbers then, A= (x:xisa prime numbers} (i) IEA is the st of all natural numbers between 10 and 1000 then, A= (21x Nand 10x 1000}.MS. University -DD.CE, Sec Theory 37 2.4 COMBINATION OF SETS (8) Subsets of a given set: Let A be a given set. Any set B, each of whose element is also an element of A, is said to be contained in A and is called a subset of A. Subset is represented by C. Example: Let A = {4,,c}, Bisa subset of A represented by BA then subsets of A are (2), (0), (0), fas Bh, (byob Lesa fay Dy ch and o. Example: Proper subset: If B is subset of A and B + A then B is called proper subset of A. In other words, if each elements of A, which is element of B, then B is called a proper subset of A. In example (i) {4} {b} {c} {a, b} {4 c} {6 a} and 6 are proper subset (S) of A. and in Example @ (1) 2}, GB}, (4), (1, 2}, (1, 33, 21, 43, (2, 4} 3, 4), (1, 2,3} (1s 2, 4 (2, 3, 4} and o are proper subset of A. (Universal set: Any set which is super set of all the sets under consideration is known as the universal set and is denoted by @ or S (Gi) Intersection of sets: If P and Q are any two sets then all the elements which are common in P and Q, set of these elements is called intersection of P and Q and is denoted by PQ. In Symbols: PQ = {xle Pand xe Pandxe Q} Example 1: Let P = (1,2, 3,4} and Q = (2,4, 6,8). then PaQ=(24} Example 2: Let P = {a, b, c,d, e,f} and Q = {4,b, 6 d,g, b, i,j} PAQ=fabadh ()_ Union of sets: P and Q are any two sets then all the elements which are either in P or in Q, set of these elements is called union of P and Q and is denoted by PU Q. In gymbols: PUQ=(a| xe Porxe Qh Example 1: Let P = {7,8, 9, 10} and Q = {9, 11, 12, 14), then PUQ ={7,8,9, 10, 11, 12, 14} Example 2: Lec = (a, b, 6, d,e,f) and Q = (a,b, 6d, 2, b,j}, then PUQ=ebodehghil (8) Disjoine sets: Two sets are said to be disjoint. If they have no elements in common, Let A and B are any two sets with no common element, orANB=6 ie two sets called disjoint if there intersection is «null set.38 Mathematics (Discrete Matbemats) MS, Univesity -DD.CE, Example t:Let A = (1,2,3,4} and B= AnB=¢ Since no clement is common in set A and B, Example 2:Let A = {a,b,c} andB = {e,f.3h SoANB=6 Since no element in A and B is common, (ci) Digterence of two sets: The difference of two sets A and B isthe set of all elements which are in A but not in B and is denoted by A ~B. Or symbolically: A -B = (x] xe A: B). Similarly: The difference of two sets B and is the set of all elements which are in B but not in A and is denoted by B- A. Symbolicaly: B-A= (lve Byxe A} Example I: Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B= (2,4, 6,8}, then find A ~ Band BA Solution: AB = {1,3} B-A= {6,8} Example 2: Let P = {a,b 6d) and Q = {6 def 85), then find P - Qand Q-P Solution: P - Q = {a, B}. Q-P= fofehh (cid) Symmetric difference of two sts: The symmetric difference of two sets. A and B is the set of the “dlements which are in the union of (A ~ B) and (B~ A) and is represented by 4. So, uy = ABUB-A) example 1: Let A = (1,2, 3,4, 5, 6} and B = (4,5, 6,7, 8,9, 10} then, find symmetric difference of séts A and B. Solution: Here A-B = {1, 2,3} B-A= {7,89 10} So, ° Mn =(A-B)UB-A) = {1,2,3,7,8,9, 10} (eit) Super sts WA and B are two sets and A isthe subset of B then B is a super set of A. It can be ‘written a5, BDAMS.Usivenity -DD.CE, See Theory 39 (x), Example 1: A = {1,2,3},B = {1,2,3,4) Since ACB then here, we can say that, BDA Universal set: Any set which is super set of all the sets under consideration is known as the universal set and is denoted by @ or S. Example: Let us take some sets A= {1,2,3},B= {4,5,6), C = {67.89} D = {10, 11, 12}, E = (9, 10, 11} F = {67,9}, then Universal set, S = {1,2,3,4,5,67,8,9, 10, 11, or any super set of S} Complement of A set: Let U be the universal set and A.C U. Then, the complement of A is the set of those elements of U which are not in A. The complement of A is denoted by AC. Ac = U-A = (:xUe andxe A} = (e:x¢ A} Complement ofa set is set itself. be, (AIC = A. Some Symbols i ‘Symbol Meaning © “belongs oor ra member oP ‘ docs not belong to = is asubset of 2 isasuperser of v ion of ets a intersection of ets Boe | complement of A if ad only if ors or] Such a | ¥ for all 3 there exits = implies4© Matberstics1 (Diserte Mathematics) MS Usiventy -DDCE (xi) Partition ofa set: A set {A, B, C, .»} of non-empty subset A, B, C, ... of a set §, is called a partition of Sif. @ AvuBUCU..S (6). The intersection of every pair of distinct subsets is the empty set. (© Clearly shows no two of A,B,C... have any element in common. Example: Consider the set S = {1, 3,5,7,9, 11} and its, Subsets A, Band C such A=(15,9},B= (3,7}C= {11} Clearly ( A, B, Care non empty. (i) AUBUC = (1,3,5,9, 11) =5. Gi) AM B= 9, BOC = gandCNA=6 Hence the set (1, 8, 9}, 3,7} and {11} isa partition of the ser S, 2.5 MULTISETS ‘Multisets are unordered collections of elements where an element can occur as a member more than ‘once. The notation {m, x aj, m, X dy ym, x 4,} denotes the mulkiset with element 4, occurring m, times, element a, occurring m, times, etc. The numbers m, where i = 1, 2, ...7, are called the mulkiplicities of the elements a, where i = 1,2, .. r. Alternatively, a multiset can simply be denoted as 4 set where repeated elements simply appear multiple times in the representation, such as {4, a, , a} Lec P and Q be multisets. The union of P U Q is a multiset such that the multiplicity of an element in PUQis = to the maximum of the multiplicities of the element in P and in Q. For example, ~{4aacqdd} Q-= faa bec} PUQ = fa,a,a,b, 66,4, d} ‘Note that some definitions of the union of P U Q of two multisets P and Q state that the multiplicity of each element in the union is the sum (rather than the maximum) of the multiplicities of the element in P and Q. Such a definition is also useful in some contexts, but for the purposes of this class, we'll simply define the union using the maximum of the multiplicities of the element in the original sets, and define a separate operation (defined later) for the sum. With that said, when dealing with multisets, make sure you know which definition of union you are dealing with! ‘Now, let set multiset P consist of (EE, EE, EE, ME, MA, MA, CS} — these represent the majors of the personnel needed to complete phase 1 of a project. Multiset Q consists of (EE, ME, ME, MA, CS, CS} = these are the majors of the personnel needed for phase 2 of the project. The multiset PU Q gives us the exact number of personnel we need to hire for the project. The intersection of P.1.Q is a multiset where the multiplicity of an element in P © Q is the minimum, of the multiplicities of the element in P and in Q. For example, Pefaaacdd) Q={aabach PAQ= {aad The intersection could be used in the example dealing with the project above to tell us the personnel involved in both phases of the project.MS. Univesity- DDE. Se Theory 41 ‘The difference of two multisets P ~ Q is the multiset such that the multiplicity of an element in the difference P ~ Q is equal to the multiplicity of the element in P minus the multiplicity of the element in Q if the difference is positive, and 0 otherwise. For example, Pefaaabbodde} Q={aabbboaaddf} P-Q= fae} This would give the personne] that have to be reassigned after the first phase of the project (they are not involved in the second phase). We define a fourth operation on multisets that does not apply to regular sets. The sum of two multisets P + Q is the multiset where the multiplicity of an element in P + Q is equal to the sum of ‘the multiplicities of the element in P and in Q. For example, P= {aabicc} Q={ab,bd} P+ Q= {a,aab,bib.cod} As an example, think of P as the mubkset of all account numbers of transactions made at a bank on a particular day. If Q is the mulkise of all account numbers of transactions made the next day, then P + is a combined record of account numbers of transactions for the two days. You would want the sum because one account number may have made several transactions in the two days. Multisets can be useful fora certain class of problems (such as the engineering project example) Example: P is a multiset that has as its clements the types of computer equipment needed by one department of a university where the multiplicities are the number of items required. Q is the same type of multiset but for adifferent department, P = {107 x PCs, 44 x routers, 6 x servers} Q= (14 x PCs, 6 x routers, 2 x Macs} Problem 1: What combination of P and Q represents that the university must buy if there is no sharing. of equipment? Solution: Since no equipment is shared, each department needs to have its own version of the equipment. Thus, the combination of equipment needed is : P + Q= {121 x PC's, 50 x routers, 6 x servers, 2 x Macs} Problem 2: What combination of P and Q represents, what must be bought if the two departments share? ‘Solution: Ifthe two departments share, then the number of each item is simply the maximum of the reeds of both departments. Thus, the combination of equipment needed is: PUQ= {107 x PC's, 44 x routers, 6 x servers, 2 x Macs} Problem 3: What combination of P and Q represents the actual equipment that both departments share? ‘Solution: The combination of equipment shared by the two departments is simply the overlap in the equipment needed by each department. Thus, the combination of equipment shared is: PAQ= {14 x PC's, 6 x routers}. Solved Example Example 1: Find the smallest set X such as, XU {2} = {1,2,3,5,9}42 Mathemutcel (Disrete Mathemats) MS. University -DDCE. Solution: Since XU(12} = (123,59) So, Smallest set X contains all the elements except {1, 2} So, X= 65,9} Example 2: Let A = {1,2}, B = {2,4,6, 8} and C = {3,4,5, 6} Find: AUB,BOC,A-B,B-A, AN (BUC), AU (BOO) and (AUBUC) Solution: Here given, A ={1,2,3),B = {2,4,6,8} and C = (3,4,5, 6} AUB =(1,2,3,4,6,8} BOC =(4,6}) A-B={13} B-A =(4,6,8} AN BUG =U1,2,3}92,4,6,930B,45,6} =(1,2,3)92,3,4,5,6,8} =(2,3} AU (BAO) =(1,2,3}U 2,46 810 345, 4 =(42,3} 04,6) ={1,2,3,4, 6} AUBUC ={1, 2, 3} U (2,4, 6,8} 43, 4,5, 6 =(1,2,3,4,5, 6,8} Example 3:16 U = (1, 2,3,4,5,6,7.8 9} A ={1,2,3,4},B = (2,4,6,8} and C = (3, 4,5, 6} Find A’, (A UB); (A. GY’ and (B- 0) Solution: Hlere given U ={1, 2,3,4,5,6, 7,8, 9} A = (12,3, 4}, B = 24,6 8) and C=0,4,5, 6} now, AbSU-A A’ =(5,6,7,8,9} AUB ={1,2,3,4,6,8}MS, University - DDE, SerTheory 43 (AUBY =U-(AUB) ={5,7,9} (ANC) ={3,4} (Ancy =U-(Ang =(1,2,5,6,7,8, 9} B-C = {2,8} B-0) -U-8-9 ={1,3,4,5, 6,7, 9} Example 4: Let U = R the set of all real numbers. IFA = {x:x€ R,0SxS2},B- (x:xeR, 15x53} then, Find 4’, B’, AUB, ANB, A-BandB-A. Solution: N= R~A = {x:xe Rand xe A} ={x: (ce Randx > 2)or xe Randx0)} ={x:xe Randx > R)U (x:xe Randx $0} BY a(x:xe Randxs1}U (x:xe Randx > 3} Similarly: AUB ={x:xe RandOSx53} AQB=(x:x¢ Rand 1sx52} A-B={x:xe RandO<1} Example 5:16 A = (2,3,4,8, 10},B = (1,3,4, 10, 12} and C= 4,5, 6, 12, 14, 16) Find (A UB) 9 (AUC) and (ANB) U(ANO) Solution: Here given A = (2,3, 4,8, 10}, B = {1, 3,4, 10, 12} and C =f4,5,6, 12, 14, 16} then, AUB ={1,2,3,4,8 10, 12} AUC ={2, 3,4, 5, 6,8, 10, 12, 14, 16} (AUB)O (AUC) =(2,3,4,8, 10, 12} AOB=(3,4,10} AnC={4} (ANB)U (AN) #63, 4,10} Example 6:Solve 3x? ~ 12x = O where, @xEN,G@xe I, fii) De S = {a+ ibsb+0,a,be R} Solution: We have 3x2 ~ 12x = 0|W Mathemtice] (Discrete Mathematica) MS. Univenity -DD.CE, dx(e-4) = 0 3xQx-4)= 0 x04 @ Hxe Nehen, x=} (i) Ix = Tthen, x= {0.4} (iil) If.x € §, then since there is no root of the form a + ib where a and b are constant and b # 0 the solution set in this case is 6. Example 7: Let A = {0:2 cos’ @ + sin 852} and B = {Q: 1/2 $$ 30/2} then find AO B. Solution: As given sets, B consists of all value of @ in the interval m/2 <0 < 31/2 and set A consists ofall value of 8 which satisfy the inequality 2cos'@ + sin 0 <2 wal) Hence A © B will consist of all those values of @ in the interval n/2 < @ < 3/2 which satisfy the inequality (1), ‘The inequality (1) is equivalent to the inequality 2-2sin?6 + sinO<2 ie sin 0 (1-2sin 0) <0... > @) ‘The inequality (2) is satisfied by all those values of @ which satisfy sin @ <0 or sin @ > ¥. Now the values of @ which lie in the interval 7s 0<37/2 and satisfy sin ® <0 are given by pers 3m/2. And then values of @ which lie in the interval ¥<0:<3n/2 and satisfy sin @ > ; are given by is Os5n/6. ‘Thus the solution set of inequality (1) consists of all values of @ in the intervals n/2 < 0 < 51/6 and m2 $ Os3n2. Hence, AA B = {0:22S 0551/6 or tS 05 3n/2} Example 8:1fX = {4"-3n-1:n€N) andy = {9 (n-1:m€ N} prove thax cy. Solution: Let x, = 4" ~3n-1 (nN) then, x =4-3- and for n > 2, we have +3)"-3n-1MS, Usivenity - DD.CE sec Theory 48 ale nd +R ea Sad ma Bnet 3+ MAIL SAO tam = OD te HIM “Thus x7 is some five integral of 9 for n > 2. Hence x consists of all positive integral multiple of 9 of the form 94, where a, = mc, + ney3 + + 3°? together with 0. ‘Also y consists of elements of the form 9 (7 ~ 1) (w € N) that is, y consists of all postive integral multiple of 9 together with 0 It follows that XY. So, x ={0,9,54, 243 ..} and y = (0,9, 18, 27, 36,45, 54 .} Hence X is a proper subset of Y. orkcY¥ Example 9:1E9N = {ax :x€ N}. Describe the set 3N 0 7N. Solution: According to the given nation, N ={3x:x€ N} = (36,9, 12.) and IN =(7x:x€ N} = (7, 14,21, 28, 35,42...) Hence 3Na7N 21, 42, 63} =(Qie:x€ N} = 21N 2.6 LAWS OF OPERATIONS (GENERAL IDENTITIES ON SETS) IEA, B, C are any subset of a universal set U then, 1. Idempotent Laws: @ AUA-A (J ANAHA 2, Mentity Lams: @ Avena (i) Ane=A4 Mathematce! Disete Mathematics) MS. Usiveniry -DD.CE 3. Commutative Laws: @ AUB=BUA (i) ANB=BOA 4. Associative Lams: @ (AnB)UC=ANBLO (i (ANB)NC=AUBNO 5, Distributive Laws: @ AU(BAQ =(AUB)A(UC) i) ANBUO =(AnBUANO 6. De-Morgan's Law: @ AvuBy=AnB (@) (AnBy=AUB ie, (9 Complement of union of two sets is the intersection of their complements. (i Complement of intersection of two sets is the union of their complements. More generally, IfA,, A; A, are any sets, (UAL UAY = ALARA OAR (An Ar AY = ALU ASA 7. Complement Law: @ Avua=s () Ana=¢ (i) WY =A 8. Law of inclusion: @ AC(AUB)andBC(AUB) Gi) (APB) A)and (AB) CB 9. Law of difference: @ A-o=A (i) A-A=6 Proof of Operation on Sets 1. Properties of subset, @ ToproveAUA=A Let, xe AUASxe Aorre AMS. University -DD.CE, = xeA ie, AUACA Conversely, Le, xe ASxe Aorxe A = xe AUA je, ACAUA By equations (1) and (2) we get, AUABA (i) ToproveANA=A Here, x€ANA >xeAandxe A = xeA ie ANAGCA Conversely, x€A =xe AandreA SxeA0A ACA €A By equations (3) and (4) we get, ANA=A (ii) To prove AUB = A,1BCA A xeBoxeA Nowxe AUB> xe Aorxe B => x€ A by equation (5) ie, AUBCA Conversely, xeA xe AorreB =x AUB ACAUB So by equations (6) and (7) we get, AUBSA Now let AUB=A ie, xe Aorxe Boxe A xeBoxeA sec Theory 47 (0) (3) a) 6) 7)48 Mathemaie1 (Discete Mathematics) Hence, BCA ie, AUB©A > BCA or AUB-A,IEBCA () To prove ANB = A, IffACB Let, ACB xeA > xeB Nowxe AMB=xe Andre B, SxeA ie, AQBCA andx€ A >x€ Aand xe Bby equation (8) = XE ANB ACANB By equations (9) and (10) we get, ABA Now let ANB =A it,x€ Axe Aandxe B xEA >xeB ie, ACB By using equations (11) and (12) we get, AOB-=AiffACB Properties of Intersection Operation on Sets (Intersection operation is commutative ie, AMDB=BOA Proof Letx€ ANB by the definition of intersection: xe ANB => re AandxeB = xeBandxe A = xeBna ie, ADB BNA MS. Univesity DCE, (9)MS. Univesity DD.CE. Se Theory 49 Conversely yEBOA By the definition of intersection xEBNA = xeBandxeA = re AandxeB = reAcB ie, BOA CANB m2) By using equation (1) and (2) we get, AUB=BnA (@ Associative law holds in case of intersection of three equal sets. A,BandC:(ANB)AC = AN BAC) Proof Let x€ (AB) AC, $0, x € (ANB)AC = *€(ANB)andzeC = x€ Aandre Bandxe C = x€ Aandre BOQ) = x €ANBNO. ie, AMB)NC ES AANBNG a) Conversely let, bEANBNO) be Aandbe BOC be Aandbe Bandbe C @ © Aandbe B)andbe C b (ANB)andbe C = bE(ANB)NC ies (AMB)NC C(AMB)AC (2) By using equations (1) and (2) we get, (AnB)NC=ANBNG Properties of Union Operation (Commutative Law: To prove that AUB=BUA uUuU50 Mathematcu (Disrte Mathematics) ProofLet x € AUB xe AUB = re AorxeB = xeBorxeA = xeBUA AUB CBUA Conversely let, y € BUA But ye BUA = yeBoryeA => ye AoryeB = yeAuB BUA CAUB By using equation (1) and (2) we have equations: AUB =BOA (i) Associative Lan: To prove that, AUBUC) = (AUB)C ProoftLet, xe AU(BUC) Hence, x € AUBUC = x€ Aorre Borx (ee AorxeB) orxe xE(AUB)or xeC xe (AUB)UC AUBUC)S (AUB)UC guy Conversely, let x= (AUB)UC, Here, ye (AUB)UC (& € Aorxe B)orxe C xe Aorre BorxeC x € Aor(ve Borxe ©) xe Aorxe BUC) xe AUBUO) uuHUYU MS. Univesity -DDCE, wll) (1)MS. Univenity-DD.CE, Se Theory 51 = @UBUCS AUBLG @ By using equations (1) and (2) we get, AUBUO =(AUB)UC (ii) Distributive laws: For three given sets A, B and C to prove that, @ An(BUQ=(AnBUANG @ AL(BAQ = (ALB) aU Proof Leta AN BUC), Here 4 € AN@UQ) = 4€ Aandae BUC = 4 € Aand(@ee Borae O) = (@ € Aandxe B)or@e A)orae C) = 4 ANBorac ANC = @€(ANBUANG Hence, ALBUOEAMBUANG) of) Conversely let b € (AMB)U(ANC) Here, b € (AMB)U (ANC) >be ANBorbe ANC = @€ Aand be B)or(be Aandbe ©) => be Aandbe Borbe O) = be Aandbe BUG) = @eAnBug (ANBU(ANG c An@UG) Q By using equations (1) and (2) we get, Hence, ANBUQ = (ANB)U(ANG, Number of Elements in the Union of two Or more Sets Let A, B and C be three finite sets and let (A), n(B), n(C) respectively denote the number of elements in these sets . Then we see that, (AUB) =n (A) + B)-n (ANB) w(t) In case A and B are disjoint sets then, AB = @andn (AAB) =» () =0 ice, for disjoint sets A and B n(A UB) =n(A) + n(B)