Banda, Marybeth Hope T.

Chemistry 81
Bautista, Rajane Faith T. Industrial
Chemistry
Catarata, Antonio Perseus Prometheus O. December
2014

Ceramic Industry

Introduction
• The traditional ceramic industries have as their finished materials a variety of
products that are essentially silicates.
• In recent years, new products have been developed as a result of the
materials that withstand higher temperatures, resist greater pressures, etc.

What are Ceramics?

• pots and other articles made from clay hardened by heat.
• A ceramic is an inorganic non-metallic solid made up of either metal or non-
metal compounds that have been shaped and then hardened by heating to
high temperatures. In general, they are hard, corrosion-resistant and brittle.
• Ceramic comes from the Greek word “keramikos” meaning ‘pottery’. The
clay-based domestic wares, art objects and building products are familiar to
us all, but pottery is just one part of the ceramic world.
• Nowadays the term ‘ceramic’ has a more expansive meaning and includes
materials like glass, advanced ceramics and some cement systems as well.

What is Pottery?
• pots, dishes, and other articles made of earthenware or baked clay. Pottery
can be broadly divided into earthenware, porcelain, and stoneware.
• Pottery is generally considered to be containers made from clay. "Pot" is a
term used for any number of container forms.

History
• Burnt clayware has been found dating from about 15,000 BC
• Well developed in Egypt in 5, 000 BC
• Various ancient races were found to have created clay products
independently of each other
• The advent of cross-fertilization of silicate chemistry, metallurgy, solid-state
physics, computer-controlled processes, and advanced automation
modernized methods of fabrication.
• It is now possible to produce ceramics with superior qualities.
• Recently, new processes have been developed for brickmaking from inorganic
wastes (fly ash, foundry sand, mine tailings, furnace slag, etc.)

Human Utilization
• Building brick • Filler in paper
• Sewer pipe • Filler in rubber
• Drain tile • Filler in plastics
• Filler in paint • Aerospace
• Filler in fertilizers • Electronics
• Fridge magnets • Automotive
• Metals production • Personal protection
• In modern medicine, advanced ceramics – often referred to as bioceramics –
play an increasingly important role. Bioceramics such as alumina and zirconia
are hard, chemically inert materials that can be polished to a high finish.
They are used as dental implants and as bone substitutes in orthopaedic
operations such as hip and knee replacement.
•
• Basic Raw Materials
• Clay
• Feldspar
• Sand
•
• Clay
• Impure hydrated aluminum silicates
• Resulted from the weathering of igneous rocks in which feldspar was a
noteworthy component
•
K 2 O ∙ Al 2 O3 ∙6 Si O 2 +CO 2+ 2 H 2 O K 2 CO3 + Al 2 O 3 ∙2 Si O 2 ∙ 2 H 2 O+4 SiO 2
• →

•
• Potash feldspar:
K 2 O ∙ Al 2 O3 ∙6 SiO2

• Kaolinite:
Al 2 O3 ∙ 2 SiO2 ∙2 H 2 O

• Silica:
4 Si O2

• Clay minerals:
– Mixture of:
• Kaolinite:
Al 2 O3 ∙ 2 SiO2 ∙2 H 2 O

• Montmorillonite: ( Mg , Ca ) O ∙ Al 2 O3 ∙5 SiO2 ∙ nH 2 O

• Illite: K2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, H2O (in varialble amounts)

• Plastic and moldable when pulverized and wet
• Rigid when dry
• Vitreous when fired at a suitably high temperature
• Accompanied by varying amounts of feldspar, quartz, and other impurities
(oxides of iron)
• Kaolinite – “China clay” the basic clay mineral present in nearly all the clays
used in the ceramic industry
• Chosen for particular properties
• Frequently blended to give the most favorable result
• Physical Properties and impurities vary from clay to clay
• It is necessary to upgrade them by beneficiation process
•
• Feldspar
• Common types:
– Potash:
K 2 O ∙ Al 2 O3 ∙ SiO2

– Soda:
Na 2 O ∙ Al2 O3 ∙ 6 SiO2

– Lime:
CaO ∙ Al 2 O3 ∙6 SiO2

• Fluxing constituent in ceramic formulas

•
• Sand
• “Flint”
• the skeletal structure upon which clays and flux components attach
• used to modify thermal expansion, regulate drying and shrinkage, and
improve structural integrity and appearance
• Word of the moment: Fluxing
- To treat (a metal object) with a flux to promote melting.
• Table 1. Summary of the Properties of the basic raw materials of the ceramic
industry
• • Kaolinite • Feldspar • Sand
or
Flint

• Formula • • • SiO2
Al 2 O3 ∙ 2 SiO2 ∙2 H 2 O K 2 O ∙ Al 2 O3 ∙ SiO2

• Plasticity • Plastic • Nonplastic • Nonpl

astic
• Fusibility • Refractory • Easily fusible • Refrac
binder tory
• Melting Point • 1785°C • 1150°C • 1710°
C
• Shrinkage on • Much • Fuses • No
burning shrinkage Shrink
age
•
• Additional Raw Materials
• Fluxing agents – lower vitrification temperature, melting temperature,
reaction temperature
• Borax • Fluorspar
• Boric Acid • Cryolite
• Soda Ash • Iron oxides
• Sodium nitrate • Antimony oxides
• Pearl ash • Lead oxides
• Nepheline syenite • Lithium minerals
• Calcined bones • Barium minerals
• Apatite
• Refractory ingredients – retains the strength of the material at high
temperatures
• Alumina • Hydrous magnesium
• Olivine silicates
• Chromite • Aluminium silicates
• Magnesite • Dumortierite
• Lime and limestone • carborundum
• Zirconia • Mullite
• Titania • Dolomite
• thoria
 •
• Chemical Conversions and Basic Ceramic Chemistry
• All ceramic products are made by combining various amounts the
aforementioned materials, shaping and firing to temperatures (700°C -
2000°C)
• Chemical conversions:
• Dehydration: “chemical smoking” 150 - 650°C
• Calcination: 600 - 900°C
• Oxidation of ferrous iron and organic matter: 350 - 900°C
• Silicate formation: 900°C and higher
• Phase-rule studies have been of importance in interpreting empirical
observations in the ceramic industries and in making predictions for
improvements

•
• Figure 1. Phase Diagram of Basic Raw Materials
•
• Ceramic products are all more or less refractory and the degree of
refractoriness of a given product is determined by the relative quantities of
refractory oxides and fluxing oxides
• The common ingredient of all ceramic products is clay, and therefore the
chemical reactions which occur on heating clay are important
• The first effect of the heat is to drive off the water of hydration (600 - 650°C)
• The clay absorb more heat, leaving an amorphous mixture of alumina and
silica
Al 2 O 3 ∙ 2 SiO2 ∙2 H 2 O ∆ Al 2 O 3 +2 SiO2 +2 H 2 O
• →

• A large proportion of the alumina can be extracted with hydrochloric acid in

this stage
• As heating is continued, the amorphous alumina changes sharply at 940°C to
a crystalline form of alumina, γ-alumina, with the evolution of considerable
heat
• At 1000°C, the alumina and silica combine to form mullite (
3 Al 2 O3 ∙ 2 SiO2 ¿
• At a still higher temperature, the remaining silica is converted into crystalline
cristobalite
• Overall reaction in the heating of clay:
3 ( Al 2 O3 ∙ 2 SiO2 ∙2 H 2 O ) → 3 Al 2 O3 ∙2 SiO2 +4 SiO2 +6 H 2 O
•
• An actual ceramic body contains many more ingredients than clay itself.
• The chemical reactions are more involved and there will be other chemical
species besides mullite and cristobalite present in the final clay product
• All ceramic bodies undergo a certain amount of vitrification, or glass
formation, during heating, and the degree of vitrification depends upon the
relative amounts of refractory and fluxing oxides in the composition, the
temperature, and the time of heating
• The vitreous phase imparts desirable properties to some ceramic bodies by
acting as a bond and imparting translucency in chinaware.
• In refractories, some vitrification is desirable to act as a bond
• Extensive vitrification destroys the refractory property
• As a result, any ceramic body is composed of a vitreous matrix plus crystals
(mullite and cristobalite)
• The degree of vitrification provides the basis for useful classification of
ceramic products
• Word of the moment: Vitrification
- The process of converting materials to glass
- The point at which a pot loses its porosity
•
• Classification of ceramic products based on degree of
vitrification
• Whitewares
• Heavy-clay products
• Refractories
• Enamels
• Glass
•
• Table 2. Summary of the Properties of Types of Ceramic Products based
on vitrification
• • A • Heating •
m Tempera Vi
ou ture
nt
of
flu
x

• Whitewa • Va • Moderate •
res rie Va
s
• Heavy- • Ab • Low •
clay un Lit
products da
 nt
• Refracto • Fe • High •
ries w Lit

• Enamels • Ve • Moderate •
ry Co
ab
un
da
nt
• Glass • Mo • High •
de Co
rat
e
•
• Whitewares
• Whiteware is a generic term for ceramic products which are usually white and
of fine texture
• Because of the different amounts and kinds of fluxes, there is a corresponding
variation in the degree of vitrification among whitewares.
• Types:
• Earthenware – “semivitreous” dinnerware. Porous and nontranslucent
with a soft glaze
• Chinaware – vitrified translucent ware with a medium glaze which
resists abrasion to a degree. Used for nontechnical purposes
• Porcelain – vitrified translucent ware with a hard glaze which resists
abrasion to the maximum degree. Includes chemical, insulating, and
dental porcelain
• Sanitary ware – formerly made from clay, usually porous. Prefired and
sized vitreous grog is sometimes included in the triaxial composition
• Stoneware – one of the oldest ceramic wares. Crude porcelain not so
carefully fabricated from raw material of a poorer grade
• Whiteware tiles – generally classified as floor tiles. Resistant to
abrasion and impervious to stain penetration. May be glazed or
unglazed
•
• Glazing
• Important in whitewares and in tableware
• A glaze is a thin coating of glass melted onto the surface of more-or-less
porous ceramic ware
• A glaze contains ingredients of two distinct types in different proportions:
• Refractory materials (feldspar, silica, china clay)
• Fluxes (soda, potash, flourspar, and borax)
• “glost firing” – technical term for the firing of the glaze
• Earthenware should be glazed between 1050 – 1100 °C
• Stoneware – 1250 to 1300°C
•
 •
•
• STRUCTURAL-CLAY PRODUCTS
•
 Ceramic products intended for use in building construction.
 Low-cost but durable products.
 Frequently manufactured from the cheapest of common clays.
 Made from commonly occurring natural materials, which are mixed with water,
formed into the desired shape, and fired in a kiln in order to give the clay
mixture a permanent bond.
 The type of clay locally available often determines the ceramic product which
can be made economically.
 Structural-clay product fabrication has become highly mechanized;
unmodernized plants cannot remain
competitive.
 Finished products display such essential
properties as:
 load-bearing strength
 resistance to wear
 resistance to chemical attack
 attractive appearance
 ability to take a decorative finish.
•
• MANUFACTURE OF
BUILDING BRICK
•
 Face Brick Clay
 Requirements:
 Freedom from warping
 Absence of soluble salts
 Sufficient hardness when burned at a moderate temperature
 General uniformity in color upon burning
 Brick
 Red burning clay is usually used.
 Manufactured by one of three processes:
 Soft mud
 Stiff mud
 Dry-press
 May be re-pressed to make face brick.
 Are dried in various ways:
 Outdoors
 In sheds
 In tunnel bricks
 After drying, they are fired in kilns.
•
 Stiff mud
  Employed for the manufacture of practically every clay product.
 The clay is wet enough to stick together when worked.
•
•
•

•
• Figure 2. Stiff-Mud Process of Brickmaking
•
•
• REFRACTORIES
•
 Those materials used to withstand the effect of thermal, chemical, and
physical effects met with in furnace procedures.
•
PROPERTIES OF REFRACTORIES
 In making the refractory best suited for a definite
operation it is necessary to consider:
 The materials
 The working temperature of the furnace where the
refractory is needed
 The rate of temperature change
 The load applied during heats
 The chemical reactions encountered
•
 Chemical Properties
 Can be divided into acid, basic, and neutral groups.*
 Depends upon the relative silica-alumina content.*
 It is usually inadvisable to employ an acid brick in
contact with alkaline product, or vice versa.*
  Chemical action may be due to contact with slags, fuel
ashes, and furnace gases as well as with products such
as glass or steel.
 Porosity
 Directly related to many other physical properties of
brick.*
 The higher the porosity of the brick, the more easily it is penetrated by
molten fluxes and gases.
 Those bricks with the lowest porosity have the greatest strength, thermal
conductivity, and heat capacity.
•
•
•
 Fusion Points
 It is found by the use of pyrometric cones of predetermined softening
points.
 Most commercial refractories soften gradually over a wide range and do
not have sharp melting point.*
 Spalling
 A fracturing , or a shaking off , of a refractory brick, or block, due to
uneven heat stresses or compression caused by heat.
 Refractories usually expand when heated.
 Bricks that undergo the greatest expansion at the least uniform rate are
the most susceptible to spalling when subjected to rapid heating and
cooling.
 Strength
 Cold strength usually has only a slight bearing on strength at high
temperatures.
 Resistance to abrasion or erosion is also important for many furnace
construction.
 Resistance to Temperature Change
 Bricks with the lowest thermal expansion and coarsest texture are the most
resistant to rapid thermal changes.
 Bricks that have been used for a long time are often melted to glassy slags
on the outside surface or even more or less corroded away.
 Thermal conductivity
 The densest and least porous bricks have the highest thermal conductivity.
 Heat Capacity
 Furnace heat capacity depends upon the thermal conductivity, the specific
heat, and the specific gravity of the refractory.
 Conversely, dense, heavy fire-clay brick is best for regenerator
checkerwork, as in coke ovens, glass furnaces, and stoves for blast
furnaces.

MANUFACTURE OF REFRACTORIES
 Grinding
  It is known that a mixture in which the proportion of coarse and fine
particles is about 55:45, with only few intermediate particles, gives the
densest mixures.
 Careful screening, separation, and recycling are necessary for close
control.
 Mixing
 The real function f mixing is the distribution of the plastic material so as to
coat thoroughly the non-plastic constituents.
 This serves the purpose of providing a lubricant during the molding
operation and permits the bonding of the mass with a minimum number of
voids.
 Molding
 The great demand for refractory bricks of greater density, strength,
volume, and uniformity has resulted in the adoption of the dry-press
method of molding with mechanically operated presses.
 The dry-press method is particularly suited for batches that consist
primarily of non-plastic materials.
 In order to use high-pressure forming, it is necessary to de-air the bricks
during pressing to avoid laminations and cracking when the pressure is
released.
 When pressure is applied, the gas is absorbed by the clay or condensed.
 Vacuum is applied through vents in the mold box
 Large species shapes are not easily adapted to machine molding.
 Drying
 It is used to remove the moisture added before molding to develop
plasticity.
 The elimination of water leaves voids and cuases high shrinkage and
internal strains.
 In some cases drying is omitted entirely, and the small amount necessary
is accomplished during the heating stage.
 Burning
 It may be carried out in a typical round, downdraft kilns or continuous-
tunnel kilns.
 Two important things takes place during burning:
 The development of a permanent bond by partial vitrification
 The development of stable mineral forms for future service
 The changes that takes place are:
 Removal of water of hydration
 Calcination of carbonates
 Oxidation of ferrous iron
 During these changes the volume may shrink as much as 30%, and severe
strains are set up in the refractory.
 This shrinkage may be eliminated by prestibilization of the materials used.
•
 •

Grinding

Mixing Burning

Molding Drying
• Figure 3. Manufacture of Refractories
•
VARIETIES OF REFRACTORIES
 95% of the refractories manufactures are non-basic, with silica (acid) and fire-
clay (neutral) brick predominant. *
 It is really only in exceptional cases that heat is the sole agent that affects
the final destruction.
 It is usually caused by chemical reaction at the operating temperature.
•
 Fire-Clay Brick
 Most widely used of all available refractory material.*
 The steel industries are the largest consumers of this refractory.
 Other industries having use for them are pottery kilns, brass and copper
furnaces, and glass furnaces.
 Silica Brick
 Contains approximately 95-96% of SiO2 and about 2% lime added during
grinding to furnish the bond.
 It undergo permanent expansion.*
  When reheated, it expand again about 1.5% but the effect is reversible and
the bricks return to size when cooled. SiO 2
 They have a very homogeneous texture, are free from air pockets and
molding defects, and possess low porosity.
 Furnaces using these must be heated and cooled gradually to lessen
spalling and cracking.
•
 High-Alumina Refractories
 They are used increasingly to meet the demand for materials that can
withstand severe conditions for which the older fire-clay and silica bricks
are not suitable.
 Made from clays rich in bauxite and diaspore.
 They are also practically inert to carbon monoxide and not disintegrated by
natural-gas atmospheres up to 1000°C
 High alumina bricks are employed in the cement industry and paper-mill
refractories. Also in the lining of glass furnaces, oil-fires furnaces, etc.
 Basic Refractories
 Important basic bricks are made from magnesia, chromite, and forsterite.
 To achieve the required strength and other physical properties, they are
usually power-pressed and are either bonded or hard-burned.
 Magnesia Refractories
 Made from domestic magnesites or magnesia extracted from brines.
 They do not stand much load at elevated temperatures, but this difficulty
has been overcome by blending with chrome ores.
 They are among the most expensive bricks. There is a large price variation
because of the composition variation.
 Forsterite which is the most stable silicate at high temperature is employed
both as a base for high-temperature refractories.
 In the manufacture of forsterite refractories, dead-burned magnesites is
usually added to convert some accessory minerals to forsterite.
 For example, estatite or clinoenstatite, occuring in the rock olivine, as
mined, is converted to forsterite:
• MgO∙SiO2 + MgO
•
 Bricks with 2MgO∙SiO2
a high precentage of alumina are classed among the
superrefractories, and those of almost-pure alumina (+97%) may be
considered among the recently special refractories, termed pure oxide.
 Superrefractories have the advantages of a high melting point, no
transformation during heating, and unsurpassed volume stability at high
temperatures.
 Insulating Brick
 2 types:
 For backing refractory bricks
 For use in place of regular refractory brick
 For instance, waste cork is ground and sized; then it is mixed with fire clay,
molded, and burned. In the kiln the cork burns out, leaving a highly porous,
light brick.
  These lightweight refractories may be used safely for 1350-1600°C,
whereas diatomaceous-earth brick are not suitable above 1100°C under
ordinary conditions.
 Silicon Carbide
 Superrefractories are noted for their chemical resistance and ability to
withstand sudden temperature changes.
 They are strong mechanically and withstand loads in furnaces to
temperatures up to 1400°C.
 Their ability to absorb and release heat rapidly and their resistance to
spalling under repeated temperature changes make them desirable for
recuperators.
 They are replacing carbons and aluminosilicate products in iron-making
blast furnaces because of their stability under reducing conditions and
good alkali resistance.
 Refractories from Crystalline Alumina or Aluminum Silicates
 High-temperature kilns now furnish alumina bricks that closely approach
pure corrundum in properties and mullite bricks.
 Research has revealed that mullite and corundum have high slag
resistance and remain crystalline state at temperatures of 1600°C and
higher.
 Electrocast or Cohart Refractories
 The blocks cannot be cut or shaped, but may be ground on Alundum
wheels, however, skills in casting has progressed rapidly, and now many
sizes and intricate shapes are available.
 This electrocast has only 0.5% voids, in contrast to the usual 17-29% of
fire-clay blocks.
 Pure Oxide Refractories
 The refractory industry is constantly faced with increased demands for
products which will withstand higher temperature and more severe
operating conditions.
 To meet this requirements, a group of special pure oxide refractories has
been developed.
 Their superior qualities are based mostly on freedom from fluxes.
 Refractory oxides of interest in order of increasing cost per unit volume
include alumina, magnesia, zirconia, beryllia, and thoria.
 All have been developed commercially for light refractory products.
 The first three have certain properties in common:
 They are of high purity
 They are principally composed of electrically fused grains
 Beryllia is not used commercially for heavy wear because of its high cost
and volatilization above 1650°C in the presence of water vapor.
 Thoria has a number of disadvantages, perticularly since its radioactivity
places it under the control of the Atomic Energy Comission.
 Magnesia is a basic refractory and is easily reduced at high temperatures.
Its application is limited to oxidizing atmospheres at temperatures not
much over 2200°C.
 Pure zirconia undergoes a crystalline change from monoclinic to tetragonal
form at 980°C, accompanied by a drastic volume change on inversion,
stabilization of the crystal structure to the cubic form, is necessary.
 Sinter alumina has the widest application among these pure oxide
refractories.
 It is used successfully at temperatures up to 1870°C.
•
•
• Specialized ceramic products
 Ceramic Composites
 Ferroelectric and Ferromagnetic
 High Alumina

•
•
•
•
•
• Ceramic Composites
 Structures of metallic honeycombs or webbing impregnated with a
ceramic phase
 Carbon (C), special silicon carbide (SiC), alumina (Al 2O3) and mullite
(Al2O3–SiO2)
 Ceramic Composite armor is 30 to 50% lighter and meets the international
standards for safe protection
 UN and NATO uses Ceramic Composite in bullet-proof vests and tanks
•
1. Roving (Fiber reinforcement)= Fiber-perform
2. Ceramic Filling (Matrix filling)
i. Deposition
ii. Pyrolysis
iii. Chemical Reaction
iv. Sintering (1000-1200C)
v. Electrophoretic deposition
2.) Machining (diamond tool or with water jet/ laser)
i. Grinding
ii. Drilling
iii. Lapping/Milling
 •
• MultiFerroic material
 Is a material that shows both magnetism and polar order, which are
seemingly contradictory properties
 Ferroelectric- (Barium titanate) [BaTiO3]
o coupling of charge polarization and electric field
 Ferromagnetic- television set, computers
o coupling of magnetic momentum and magnetic field
 Scientists at Argonne National Lab and the Researchers from the
University of Pennsylvania, Chicago and Cornell confirmed that Iron
Titantium oxide (FeTiO3) or ilmenite has multiferroic properties, which are
seemingly contradictory properties. The material is a promising
exploration for the next generation of handheld electronics.
•

•
• Figure 4. Multiferroicity
•
• The figure explains the various possible scenarios. While there are a
large number of magnetically and electrically polarizable materials,
there are only a few materials which show ferroelectric and
ferromagnetic ordering. Magnetoelectric materials are those materials
which are simultaneously electrically and magnetically polarizable,
while Multiferroics are strictly those materials which show
ferroelectric and ferromagnetic ordering.
•
•
• High Alumina
 A material that can withstand very high temperature under reducing, inert
or high vacuum condition. It remains good chemical resistance under high
temperature and has excellent wear and abrasion resistance.
•
• Porcelain or Vitreous Enamel
 Is a ceramic mixture containing a large proportion of fluxes, applied cold
and fused to the metal at moderate red heat.
 Used in Cooking utensils, industrial equipment and glass-enameled steel
for chemical use, electroluminescent lighting and automobile industry
•
• Manufacture of Porcelain
1. Raw Materials
2. Manufacture of the Frit
3. Preparation of metal Parts
4. Application of the Enamel
5. Firing
•
• Raw Material
 Is not just highly pure but also fineness.
 The material used is dependent to the enamel to be used.
 Is not just highly pure but also fineness.
 Six different Materials
1.) Refractories – Quartz, Clay, Feldspar
• - Acidic part of the melt
• - body glass
2.) Fluxes – Borax, Soda Ash, Cryolite, Fluorspar
• - Basic character
• - reacts with the Acidic part to form glass
3.) Opacifiers – give the opaque white color
• - Insoluble (titanium dioxide)
• - Devitrification (Cryolite)
4.) Colors – oxides materials, elements, salts or frits
• - may act as refractories or fluxes
5.) Floating Agents – clay and gums
• - to suspend the enamel in water
6.) Electrolytes – Borax, Soda Ash, Magnesium sulfate and or carbonate
•
• Manufacture of the Frit
• Frits- the shattered material product produce by the mixed
melted materials
- It is produce by mixing the materials in proper proportions and charged into
the melting furnace at 1300C from an hour to three, after the batch is then
poured in a tank of cold water.
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Preparation of Metal Parts
 The metal should be clean from all foreign matter in order for the enamel
coat to adhere well to it.
 The metal is cleaned by pickling in diluted hydrochloric or sulfuric acid at
60C.
 The success of enameling is dependent on the nature and uniformity of
the metal base.
•
• Application of the Enamel
 Conventional Process
 o The enamel is applied air-dried and the colors are brushed and
stenciled on. Enamel is applied twice to assure the quality.
 Electrostatic Sprayer
o when the steel is powder processed it is coated using the spray, in
which consist of two-coat, one- fire system that consist of a thin
powder base coat and the other is a powder cover coat. This process
produces a good quality at a lower cost.
•
• Firing
• Successful firing and good enamel:
• 1.) Proper Firing temperature (700-800C)
• 2.) Time (1-15mins)
• 3.) Proper support of the Ware
• 4.) Uniform heating and cooling of the ware
• 5.) Free dust atmosphere
•
• Kilns
 A furnace for firing or burning or drying things such as porcelains or
bricks.
•
• Continuous Kilns
 Succession of burning or heating chamber with one cooling chamber it is
usually using in bricks and tile production and utilizes a roller hearth kiln.
 Two types:
a. Direct-fired type
b. Indirect-fired type
•
• Periodic Kilns
 Not as efficient as the first one but it is more versatile
• Two types:
1. Downdraft- Face brick, Stoneware, tile and common brick
2. Updraft (Tunnel Kilns) –Pottery
•