Chapter Three

Proteins

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 Protein Overview
Proteins: are made up of small repeating units, made up of amino acids

• They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms,

arranged into amino acids linked in a chain.
• Some amino acids also contain sulfur atoms.

• These nitrogen atoms give the name amino (nitrogen containing) to the
amino acids

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 Amino Acids
Amino Acids: building blocks of proteins.
 Each contains an amino group(NH2), an acid group(COOH), a
hydrogen atom(H), and a distinctive side group(R), all attached to a
central carbon atom(C).
 Side group(R) contains the atoms that give each amino acid its own
distinct identity.
 Some side groups contain sulfur, some are acidic, and some are basic.
 The differences in these side groups account for the differences in
size, shape, and electrical charge among amino acids.

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 Amino Acids
• A protein is made up of about 20 different amino acids, each with a
different side group.
• The simplest amino acid, glycine, has a hydrogen atom as its side
group. A slightly more complex amino acid, alanine, has an extra
carbon with three hydrogen atoms.

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 Classification of Amino Acids
• Amino acids are classified into three classes:
a) Essential amino acids (indispensable): the body cannot make them so they
must be supplied through the diet.
b) Non-essential amino acids (dispensable): body cells can make them as
needed through the process of transamination.
c) Conditionally essential amino acids (indispensable): Under most normal
conditions, the body can synthesize adequate amounts of these amino acids.
A dietary source is necessary only when metabolic demands exceed
endogenous synthesis

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Classification of Amino Acids

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 Protein Structure
• Cells link amino acids end-to-end in a variety of sequences to form
thousands of different proteins.
• A peptide bond unites each amino acid to the next.
• Two amino acids bonded together form a dipeptide.
• Most proteins are a few dozen to several hundred amino acids long.
• Proteins also vary in shape like straight, folded.
• Larger proteins are created when two or more three-dimensional
polypeptides combine.
• A protein’s shape determines its function.

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 Sources of Protein
• For most people, protein is synonymous)‫ (مرادف‬with meat, but protein
is also found in dairy, grains, and vegetables.

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 Sources of Protein
• More than 40% of the protein in a MyPlate 2000-calorie food pattern
comes from the Protein Foods group.

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 Sources of Protein/Protein Quality
• The protein quality of the diet determines, the children growth and the health
maintenance of adults.
• high-quality proteins provide enough of all the essential amino acids needed
to support the body’s work, and low quality proteins don’t.

• Two factors influence protein quality:

A. Protein Digestibility: a measure of the amount of amino acids absorbed
from a given protein intake.
• depends the protein’s source and the other foods eaten with it.
• The digestibility of most animal proteins is high (90 to 99 percent); plant
proteins are less digestible (70 to 90 percent for most, but over 90 percent
for soy and legumes)
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 Sources of Protein/Protein Quality
B. Amino Acid Composition: to make proteins, a cell must have all the
needed amino acids available simultaneously.

• If an essential amino acid is missing, a cell must breakdown its own

proteins to obtain it.

• To prevent protein breakdown, dietary protein must supply at least the nine
essential amino acids plus enough nitrogen-containing amino groups and
energy for the synthesis of the others.

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 Sources of Protein/Protein Quality
• Terms referred to Protein quality are:
a) Complete Proteins(High quality):
 Proteins that provide all nine essential amino acids in adequate amounts and
proportions needed by the body for protein synthesis.
 They include all animal sources of protein plus soy, the only plant source of complete
protein

b) Incomplete Proteins(Low quality):

 Provide all the essential amino acids, but one or more are present in insufficient
quantities to support protein synthesis.
 All plant proteins, with the exception of soy, are incomplete proteins, as is gelatin.

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Sources of Protein/Protein Quality

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 Sources of Protein/Protein Quality
Limiting Amino Acid: an essential amino acid supplied in less than the amount needed to
support protein synthesis.

• Four amino acids are most likely to be limiting:

- Lysine - Methionine
- Threonine - Tryptophan
c) Complementary Proteins:
 Two or more dietary proteins whose amino acid assortments)‫ (تشكيالت‬complement
each other in such a way that the essential amino acids missing from one are
supplied by the other.
o Ile: isoleucine
o Lys: lysine
o Met: methionine
o Trp: tryptophan
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 Protein Digestion and Absorption
1) In the Stomach:
Chemical digestion of protein begins, where hydrochloric acid denatures protein to
make the peptide bonds more available to the actions of enzymes.

Hydrochloric acid also converts pepsinogen to the active enzyme pepsin, which begins
the process of breaking down proteins into smaller polypeptides and some amino acids.

2) In the Small Intestine:

• The majority of protein digestion occurs in the small intestine.
• Pancreatic and intestinal proteases hydrolyze polypeptides further into short peptide
chains, tripeptides, dipeptides, and amino acids.

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Protein Digestion and Absorption

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 Protein Digestion and Absorption
Protein Absorption:
 Amino acids are absorbed through the mucosa of the small intestine by
active transport with the aid of vitamin B6.
 Intestinal cells release amino acids into the bloodstream for transport to the
liver via the portal vein.

Protein Metabolism:
The liver acts as a clearinghouse for the amino acids it receives:
- uses the amino acids it needs
- releases those needed elsewhere
- handles the extra.
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 Protein Digestion and Absorption
For instance, the liver
Retains amino acids to make:
 liver cells
 nonessential amino acids
 plasma proteins such as heparin, prothrombin, and albumin

Regulates the release of amino acids into the bloodstream

Synthesizes specific enzymes to degrade excess amino acids
Removes the nitrogen from amino acids to be burned for energy
Converts certain amino acids to glucose, and fatty acids, if necessary
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 Functions Of Proteins
1) As Building Materials for Growth and Maintenance:
- More than 40% of protein in the body is found in skeletal muscle, and approximately
15% is found in each the skin and the blood.
- Proteins form tendons, membranes, organs, and bones.
- Proteins are also needed for replacing dead or damaged cells. The life span of a skin
cell is only about 30 days.

2) As Enzymes:
- Break down substances(e.g., digestive enzymes)
- Build substances (such as bones)
- Transform one substance into another(amino acid into glucose)

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 Functions Of Proteins
3) Other Body Secretions and Fluids:
 Neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, acetylcholine)
 Antibodies
 Hormones (e.g., insulin, thyroxine, epinephrine) are made from amino acids, as are
breast milk, mucus, sperm, and histamine.

4) Some Amino Acids Have Specific Functions Within The Body:

 For instance,
- Tryptophan is a precursor of the vitamin niacin and is also a component of serotonin.
- Tyrosine is the precursor of melanin, the pigment that colors hair and skin and is
incorporated into thyroid hormone.

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5) Fluid balance:
• Circulating proteins, such as albumin, maintain the proper balance of fluid among the
intravascular)‫(داخل االوعية الدموية‬, intracellular)‫(داخل الخاليا‬, and interstitial)‫(خالل الخاليا‬
compartments of the body. A symptom of a low albumin level is edema.

6) Acid–base balance:
• Because amino acids contain both an acid (COOH) and a base (NH2), they can act as
either acids or bases depending on the pH of the surrounding fluid.
• The ability to buffer or neutralize excess acids and bases enables proteins to maintain
normal blood pH, which protects body proteins from being denatured.

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7) Transport molecules:
 Globular proteins transport other substances through the blood. For instance:
- Lipoproteins transport fats, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins
- Hemoglobin transports oxygen
- Albumin transports free fatty acids and many drugs.

8) Other compounds:
o Amino acids are components of numerous body compounds such as:
- opsin, the light-sensitive visual pigment in the eye
- thrombin, a protein necessary for normal blood clotting.

9) Fueling the body:

Protein provides 4 cal/g.
Protein is a source of energy when it is consumed in excess or when calorie intake from
carbohydrates and fat is inadequate
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Protein Deficiency:
• Protein–energy malnutrition (PEM) occurs when protein, calories, or both
are deficient in the diet.

• PEM is most prevalent in developing countries and in children under the

age of 5 years.

• PEM occurs secondary to chronic diseases, such as cancer, AIDS, and

chronic pulmonary disease

• PEM includes marasmus and kwashiorkor.

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25 Chapter Three
 Conditions that Increase the Need for Protein
1. When calorie intake is inadequate so that protein is being used for energy
Very-low-calorie weight loss diets
Starvation
Protein–energy malnutrition

2. When the body needs to heal itself

• Hypermetabolic conditions such as burns, sepsis, major infection, and major
trauma
• Postsurgical
• Acute inflammation such as inflammatory bowel disease
• Skin breakdown
• Multiple fractures
• Hepatitis
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 Conditions that Increase the Need for Protein
3. When excessive protein losses need replacement
 Peritoneal dialysis
 Protein-losing renal diseases
 Malabsorption syndromes such as protein-losing enteropathy and short
bowel syndrome

4. When periods of normal tissue growth occur

Pregnancy
Lactation
Infancy through adolescence

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 Protein in Health Promotion
• Lowering fat & saturated fat intake and increasing unsaturated fat intake could
be achieved by:
 Eating a variety of protein sources (including plant proteins)
 Eating more seafood
 Choosing sources of protein that are lower in solid fats and calories

• Many health organizations recommend a plant-based diet, which means

replacing some or most animal sources of protein with vegetable sources, such
as soy, legumes, nuts, and seeds.

• The health benefits of a plant-based diet may come from eating less of certain
substances (such as saturated fat and cholesterol), eating more of others (such
as fiber, antioxidants, and phytochemicals), or a combination of the two.

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 Protein in Health Promotion
1. Heart Diseases:
- A high-protein diet may contribute to the progression of heart disease, since foods rich
in animal protein tend to be rich in saturated fats.
- substituting vegetable protein for animal protein improves blood lipids and decreases
heart disease mortality.

2. Cancer:
- Population studies suggest a correlation between high intakes of animal proteins and
some types of cancer (notably, cancer of the colon, breast, kidneys, pancreas, and
prostate).

3. Osteoporosis:
- High protein intakes increases the excretion of calcium results in osteoporosis.
- Inadequate intakes of protein may also compromise bone health
- An ideal calcium-to-protein ratio (>20mg:1g) should be maintained to keep bones
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 Protein in Health Promotion
3. Weight Control:
- Dietary protein may play a role in increasing body weight.
- Protein-rich foods are often fat-rich foods that contribute to weight gain with its
accompanying health risks.
- Including protein at each meal may help with weight loss by providing satiety.

4. Kidney Diseases:
- High protein intake increases the work of the kidneys, but does not diminish
kidney function or cause kidney disease.
- Restricting dietary protein may help to slow the progression of kidney disease
and limit the formation of kidney stones in people who have these conditions.

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 Recommended Intakes of Protein
The body needs dietary protein for two reasons:
First: food protein is the only source of the essential amino acids.

Second: it is the only practical source of nitrogen with which to build the nonessential
amino acids and other nitrogen-containing compounds the body needs.

• The protein RDA for adults is:

- 0.8 grams per kilogram of healthy body weight per day.
- 10-35% of energy intake
• How to calculate protein needs for an individual with a body weight of 68 kg:
Protein Needs = body weight(kg) X 0.8 g/kg
Protein Needs= 68 X 0.8 = 54 g protein /day

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 Vegetarian Diet
Vegetarian eating patterns range from complete elimination of all animal
products to simply avoiding red meat.

With a foundation of grains, vegetables, fruit, legumes, seeds, and nuts,

categories of vegetarian restrictions are:
I. Vegan, or total vegetarian, which excludes all animal products
II. Lacto-ovo vegetarian, which includes milk and eggs
III. Lacto-vegetarian, which includes milk
IV. Ovo-vegetarian, which includes eggs

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 Vegetarian Diets
Most vegetarian diets, even vegan ones, meet or exceed the RDA for
protein despite containing less total protein and more lower quality protein
than nonvegetarian diets.
Vegetarian sources of protein include legumes, nuts, nut butters, and soy
products such as soy milk, and veggie burgers.

Iron, zinc, calcium, vitamin D, omega-3 fatty acids, and iodine are
nutrients of concern because:
 they cannot be obtained in sufficient quantities from plants
 they may not be adequately consumed, depending on an individual’s
food choices.
 Vitamin B12 is of concern because it does not occur naturally in plants
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 Nutrients of Concern in Vegan Diets
1. Zinc:
 Zinc from plants is not absorbed as well as zinc from meats.
• Vegetarians are urged to meet or exceed the RDA for zinc.
2. Iron:
 Iron from plants has low bioavailability.
• it is recommended that vegetarians consume 1.8 times the normal iron
intake.
3. Calcium:
 Some rich-calcium Plants has oxalate which interferes with calcium
absorption.
• Calcium supplements are recommended for people who do not meet their
calcium requirement through food.
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 Nutrients of Concern in Vegan Diets
4. Vitamin D:
• Supplements may be necessary depending on the quality of sunlight
exposure and adequacy of food choices.

5. Vitamin B12:
 Plant foods contain a form of vitamin B12 that the body cannot use.
• Supplemental vitamin B12 through food or pills is recommended for all
people over the age of 50 years regardless of the type of diet they
consume because absorption decreases with age.

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