CHAPTER 14 SIGNAL GENERATORS AND

WAVEFORM-SHAPING CIRCUITS

Chapter Outline
14.1 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators
14.2 Op Amp-RC Oscillators
14.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
14.4 Bistable Multivibrators
14.5 Generation of Square and Triangular Waveforms using Astable Multivibrators
14.6 Generation of a Standardized Pulse-The Monostable Multivibrators
14.7 Integrated-Circuit Timers
14.8 Nonlinear Waveform-Shaping Circuits

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-1

 14.1 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators

Types of Oscillators
Linear oscillator:
 Employs a positive feedback loop consisting of an amplifier and a frequency-selective network
 Some form of nonlinearity has to be employed to provide control of the amplitude of the output
Nonlinear oscillator:
 Generates square, triangular, pulse waveforms
 Employs multivibrators: bistable, astable and monostable
The Oscillator Feedback Loop and Oscillation Criterion
Positive feedback loop analysis:
xo A( s) A( s)
Af ( s)    , where L( s) is the loop gain
xi 1  A( s)  ( s) 1  L( s)
Characteristic equation: 1-L(s) = 0
 Find poles of the closed-loop system by solving L(s) = 1
Underdamped Oscillation
j v(t) j v(t)

 t  t

Unstable
j v(t)

 t

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-2

 Barkhausen criterion:
 The phase of loop gain should be zero at 0
 The magnitude of the loop gain should be unity at 0
 The characteristic equation has roots at s =  j0
L( j0 )  A( j0 ) ( j0 )  1
| L( j0 ) | 1
 L( j0 )  0
Stability of oscillation frequency:
 0 is determined solely by the phase characteristics
 A steep function f () results in a more stable frequency
Stability of oscillation frequency:
 Oscillation: loop gain A = 1
 Growing output: loop gain A > 1
 Decaying output: loop gain A < 1
Nonlinear Amplitude Control
 Oscillation mechanism:
 Initiating oscillation: loop gain slightly larger than unity (poles in RHP)
 Gain control: nonlinear network reduces loop gain to unity (poles on j-axis)

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-3

Limiter Circuits for Amplitude Control
 For small output amplitude (D1 off, D2 off)
 incremental gain (slope) = Rf /R1
 For large negative output swing (D1 on, D2 off)
R3V  R2vO R R  R3 
vA   VD  vO   3 V  2 VD   L
R2  R3  R2 R2 
vI / R1  vO / R f  I D1
(V  VD ) / R2  (vO  VD ) / R3  I D1  0

R f || R3 R f || R3 R f || R3
vO   vI  V VD
R1 R2 R2 || R3

 incremental gain (slope) = (Rf ||R4)/R1

 For large positive output swing (D1 off, D2 on)
 R4V  R5vO R R  R5
vB   VD  vO  4 V  4 VD  L
R4  R5 R5 R5
vI / R1  vO / R f  I D 2  0
(vO  VD ) / R4  (V  VD ) / R5  I D 2

R f || R4 R f || R4 R f || R4
vO   vI  V VD
R1 R5 R4 || R5

 incremental gain (slope) = (Rf ||R3)/R1

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-4

 14.2 OP Amp-RC Oscillator Circuits

Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 Define the loop gain
R2 Zp
A( s)  1  and  (s) 
R1 Z p  Zs
 R  Zp 1  R2 / R1
L( s)  1  2   L( s ) 
 R1  Z p  Z s 3  sRC  1 / sRC

 Pole locations by solving the characteristic equation

1  R2 / R1  R 
L( s )   1  s 2 R 2C 2  s 2  2  RC  1  0
3  sRC  1 / sRC  R1 
 Oscillation condition: 2-R2/R1 = 0 and s = j0 = j/RC
 Start-up condition: 2-R2/R1 < 0 (poles at RHP)
 Barkhausen criterion:
1  R2 / R1  R  R
L( j )   1  (1  02 R 2C 2 )  j0  2  2  RC  0  1  02 R 2C 2  0 and 2  2  0
3  j0 RC  1 / j0 RC  R1  R1

 Oscillation condition: R2/R1 = 2 and 0 = 1/RC

 Start-up condition: 0 = RC and R2/R1 = 2+
 Limiter is used for amplitude control

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-5

Wien-Bridge Oscillator with Amplitude Control
 Diodes are used to limit the amplitude of the output swing
 Diodes are off with small-signal operation and can be neglected for analysis of the oscillation
condition

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-6

Phase-Shift Oscillator
 The circuit oscillates at the frequency for which the phase shift of the RC network is 180
 Only at this frequency will the total phase shift around the loop be 0 or 360
 The minimum number of RC sections is three
 K should be equal to the inverse of the magnitude of the RC network at oscillation frequency
 Slightly higher K is used to ensure that the oscillation starts
 Limiter is used for amplitude control

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-7

Quadrature Oscillator
 Based on the two-integrator loop without damping
 Loop gain:
vO1 vO 2  1  1
L( s )     
vi vO1  sRC   1 1 2R 
sRC    
2 2 R 
 f 
 Oscillation condition:
1 1 R 
L( s )    1  s 2 R 2C 2  sRC    1  0
 1 1 2R   2 Rf 
s 2 R 2C 2  sRC     
2 2 R 
 f 

 R f  2 R and s   j0   j / RC

 Poles are initially located in RHP (for Rf < 2R)

to ensure that oscillation starts Norton equivalent of the 1st stage
 Too much positive feedback results in higher
output distortion
 vO2 is purer than vO1 because of the filtering action
provided by the second integrator on the peak-
limited output of the first integrator
 vO2 and vO1 have a phase difference of 90o due to
vO 2 1 1
the integrator function  
vO1 1 R  sRC
sRC    
2 R 
 f 
NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-8
Active-Filter Tuned Oscillator
 The circuit consists of a high-Q bandpass
filter connected in a positive-feedback
loop with a hard limiter
 Any filter circuit with positive gain can be
used to implement the bandpass filter
 Can generate high-quality output sine
waves
 Have independent control of frequency,
amplitude and distortion of the output
sinusoid
Final Remark
 Op amp-RF oscillators ~ 10 to 100kHz
 Lower limit: passive components
 Upper limit: frequency response and slew
rate of op amp

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-9

 14.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators

LC Tuned Oscillators
Colpitts oscillator: capacitive divider
Hartley oscillator: inductive divider
A parallel LC circuit between base and collector
R models the overall losses

0  1 / L1 / C1  1 / C2 1 0  1 / ( L1  L2 )C
Analysis of Colpitts Oscillators

sC2v  sL(vc  v )
sL(vc  v )  g m v  vc / R  sC1vc  0
LC2 1
V Vc  s 3 LC1C2  s 2  s(C1  C2 )  ( g m  )  0
R R
Barkhausen criterion:
 1 02 LC2 
s   j0   g m  
R R 

  j 0 (C1  C2 )  03 LC1C2  0 

1 C2
 0  1 / LC1C2 /(C1  C2 ) and g m 
R C1

 Utilize the transistor’s nonlinear I-V characteristics for amplitude control (self-limiting)
 Collector (drain) current waveforms are distorted due to the nonlinear characteristics
 Output voltage is a sinusoid with high purity because of the filtering action of the LC tuned circuit

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-10

Complete Circuit for a Colpitts Oscillator

DC Analysis

RE

AC Analysis

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-11

The Cross-Coupled LC Oscillator
 Popular LC oscillator circuit suitable for IC implementation
 Capable of operating at high frequencies (up to hundreds of GHz)
 The oscillation frequency is defined by the LC tank
 The cross-couple pair is to start up the oscillation
 Differential oscillation output available

Loop gain:
2
 gm 
L( s )   
 1 / R  1 / sL  sC 

Barkhausen criterion:
2
 gm  1 1
L( j0 )     1  0  and g m 
 1 / R  1 / j  0 L  j  0 C  LC R

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-12

Crystal Oscillators
 Crystal impedance:
 1 
Z ( s)  1 /  sC p  
 sL  1 / sCs 
1 s 2  1 / LCs
Z ( s) 
sC p s 2  [(C p  Cs ) / LC pCs ]

s  1 / LCs
 p  1 / L(1 / Cs  1 / C p ) 1

1   2   s2 
Z ( j )   j  
C p  2 2 
 p 

 Crystal reactance is inductive over very narrow frequency (s to p )

 The frequency band is well defined for a given crystal
 Use the crystal to replace the inductor of the Colpitts oscillators
 Oscillation frequency is dominated by Cs (much smaller than other C’s)

0  1 / LCs  s

 Crystals are available with resonance frequencies KHz ~ hundred MHz

 The oscillation frequency is fixed (tuning is not possible)

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-13

 14.4 Bistable Multivibrators

Bistable Characteristics
 Positive feedback for bistable multivibrator
 Stable states:
(1) vO = L+ and v+ = L+R1/(R1+R2)
(2) vO = L- and v+ = L-R1/(R1+R2)
Metastable state: vO = 0 and v+ = 0

Transfer Characteristics of the Inverting Bistable Circuit

 Initially vI = L-, the bistable is in the state of vO = L+ and v+ = L+R1/(R1+R2)
→ vO change state to L when vI increases to a value of L+R1/(R1+R2)
 Initially vI = L+, the bistable is in the state of vO = L and v+ = L R1/(R1+R2)
→ vO change state to L+ when vI decreases to a value of L R1/(R1+R2)
 The circuit exhibits hysteresis with a width of (VTHVTL)
 Input vI is referred to as a trigger signal which merely initiates or triggers regeneration

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-14

Transfer Characteristics of the Noninverting Bistable Circuit
 Initially vI = L-, the bistable is in the state of vO = L- and v+ = vI R2/(R1+R2)+L R1/(R1+R2) < 0
→ vO change state to L+ when vI increases to a value (VTH) that causes v+ = 0 → VTH = L(R1/R2)>0
 Initially vI = L+, the bistable is in the state of vO = L+ and v+ = vI R2/(R1+R2)+L+ R1/(R1+R2) > 0
→ vO change state to L- when vI decreases to a value (VTL) that causes v+ = 0 → VTL = L+(R1/R2)<0

Application of the Bistable Circuit as a Comparator

VR

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-15

Limiter Circuits for Precise Output Levels

VCC
L  VZ 1  VD
L  (VZ 1  VD )
L+

L-
L  VZ  VD1  VD 2
L  (VZ  VD 3  VD 4 )

-VEE

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-16

 14.5 Generation of Square and Triangular Waveforms using Astable
Multivibrators
Operation of the Astable Multivibrator

 V V 
 RC charge/discharge: V  V  (V  V0 )e t / RC  t  RC ln  0 
 V  V 
 For vO = L+ and v+ = vO R1/(R1+R2) > 0
→ v is charged toward L+ through RC
→ vO change stage to L when v = v+
 For vO = L and v+ = vOR1/(R1+R2) < 0
→ v is discharged toward L through RC
→ vO change stage to L+ when v = v+
1   ( L / L )
v  L  ( L    L )e t / RC  T1  RC ln
1 
1   ( L / L )
v  L  ( L    L )e t / RC  T2  RC ln
1 
1 
 For L = -L+: T  2RC ln
1 
NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-17
Generation of Triangular Waveforms
Triangular can be obtained by replacing the low-pass RC circuit with an integrator

The bistable circuit required is of the noninverting type

VTH  VTL L V  VTL

  T1  RC TH
T1 RC L

VTH  VTL  L V  VTL

  T2  RC TH
T2 RC  L

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-18

 14.6 Generation of a Standardized Pulse
– The Monostable Multivibrators
Op-Amp Monostable Multivibrators
Circuit components:
 Trigger: C2 , R4 and D2
 Clamping diode: D1
 R4 >> R1 → iD4  0
The circuit has one stable state:
 v O = L+
 vB = VD1  0
 D1 and D2 on
Operation of monostable multivibrator
 Negative step as the trigger input
 D2 conducts heavily
 vC is pulled below vB for effective trigger
 vO changes state to L- and vC becomes negative vB (t )  L  ( L  VD1 )e t / R C
3 1

 D1 and D2 off and C1 is discharged toward L-

 L V   1 
 vO changes state to L+ as vB = vC = L-  T  C1 R3 ln  D1   C1R3 ln 
L
     L    1   
 C1 is charged toward L+
 vB is clamped to VD1  0 and the circuit is back to its stable state
 Positive trigger step turns off D2 (invalid trigger)

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-19

 14.7 Integrated-Circuit Timers

Monostable Multivibrator using 555 Timer Circuit

S 0 1 0 00
R 0 0 0 1 0

 Stable state: S = R = 0 and Q = 0

 Q1 on and vC = 0
 Trigger (vtrigger < VTL): S = 1 and Q = 1
 Q1 off and vC is charged toward VCC
 Trigger pulse removal (vtrigger > VTL): S = R = 0 and Q = 1
 Q1 off and vC is charged toward VCC
 End of recovery period (vC = VTH): R = 1 and Q = 0
 Q1 on and vC is discharged toward GND vC (t )  VCC (1  e t / RC )
 Stable state: vC drops to 0 and S = R = 0 and Q = 0 T  RC ln 3  1.1RC

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-20

Astable Multivibrator using 555 Timer Circuit

vC (t )  VCC  (VCC  VTL )e t / C ( RA  RB )

TH  C ( RA  RB ) ln 2  0.69C ( RA  RB )

vC  VTH e t / CRB
TL  CRB ln 3  0.69CRB

T  TH  TL  0.69CRB
TH R  RB
Duty cycle   A
TH  TL RA  2 RB

 Operation of astable multivibrator

 Initially vC = 0: S/R = 1/0 and Q = 1  Q1 off and vC is charged toward VCC thru RA and RB
 vC reaches VTH: S/R = 0/1 and Q = 0  Q1 on and vC is discharged toward GND thru RB
 vC reaches VTL: S/R = 1/0 and Q = 1  Q1 off and vC is charged toward VCC thru RA and RB

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-21

 14.8 Nonlinear Waveform-Shaping Circuits

Nonlinear Amplification Method

 Use amplifiers with nonlinear transfer
characteristics
to convert triangular wave to sine wave
 Differential pair with an emitter degeneration
resistance can be used as sine-wave shaper

Breakpoint Method
 R4 , R5 >> R1 , R2 and R3 to avoid loading effect
 –V1 < vIN < V1 :
 vO = vIN
 –V2 < vIN < –V1 or V1 < vIN < V2
 vO = V1 + (vIN – V1) R5 / (R4 + R5)
 vIN < –V2 or V2 < vIN
 vO = V2

NTUEE Electronics – L. H. Lu 14-22