ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Small Scale Irrigation Users Peasant Horticulture in Dugda

Bora And Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha Woredas East Shewa

Zone: Challenges and Opportunities

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies Addis Ababa

University in Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the Degree of Master of

Arts in Regional and Local Development Studies (RLDS).

BEDRU BESHIR

Advisor: Bekure Woldesamait(PhD)

July 2004
ADDIS ABABA
 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Small Scale Irrigation Users Peasant Horticulture in Dugda Bora And

Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha Woredas East Shewa Zone: Challenges and

Opportunities

BEDRU BESHIR

Department of Local and Regional Development Studies

Approved by Board of Examiners Signature

(Chairman, Graduate Committee)

Bekure Woldesamait(PhD)
Advisor

Woldeab Teshome(PhD)
Examiner

Professor K.N.Singh
Examiner
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to thank Bekure Wolesemiat (PhD) my thesis advisor for his valuable comments
and suggestions. I am very grateful to his scholarly and friendly approaches in helping me.

I am highly indebted to my wife Hayat Ahmed for her support and assistance during my studies
and this paper work. I am thankful to my colleagues Abraham Getachew, Darout Gum’a, Maru
Shete, and Tilaye Teklewold, for their reading part or the whole of this document and
constructive comments and suggestions they forwarded. My thanks go to Yakob Ahmed for his
moral supports, too.

I am also highly grateful to Addis Ababa University and Department staff of Regional and
Local Development Studies (RLDS) for their unreserved services. My special appreciation goes
to the RLDS Department for its provision computers and printing services including non
working days.

I am thankful to Melkassa Research Center, the farmers, Dugada Bora and Adami Tulu Jido
Kombocha Woredas Agricultural Development Offices, Cooperative Promotion offices,
Irrigation Development Desks and Meki Batu Horticultural Growers Cooperative Union and
Planning and Economic Development Bureau of Oromia.

Above All Glory Is To The Almighty, Allah.

Bedru Beshir
June 2004

Addis Ababa

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Acknowledgment I
Table of content II
List of tables VI
List of figures VII
List of Annexes VIII
ACRONMYS IX
Abstract X

PART I
CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction and Background 1
1.1 Conceptual Framework 6
1.2 Statement of the Problem 7
1.3 Objective of the Study 8
1.4 Research Questions 8
CHAPTER TWO
2. Literature Review 9
2.1 Irrigation: Role in Agriculture Development 9
2.2 Irrigation Developments and Its Classification 11
2.3 Small Vs Large Scale Irrigation 13
2.4 The Ethiopian Irrigation Strategy 14
2.5 Horticulture Concepts and Importance 15
2.6 Horticulture in Ethiopia: Production and Economic Importance from

Smallholder Point of View 17

CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Methodology 22
3.1.1 Sampling Procedure 22
3.1.2 Data Collection 23
3.1.3 Data Analysis 23

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 3.1.4 Significances and Limitation of the Study 24
3.2 Description of the Study Area 25
3.2.1 Physical and Socio Economic Characteristics of the Study

Woredas 26

3.2.2 Socio Economic Characteristics of Dugda Bora and ATJK 28

3.2.3 Agriculture practices 29

3.2.4 Farmers’ Organization and Cooperatives 29

3.2.5 Land Use and Land Cover of Dugda Bora and

Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha Woredas 30

3.2.6 Organization the Paper 31

PART II
CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 4.1 Demographic and Socio- Economic Characteristics of SSI Users 32

4.1.1 Household Sex, Age and Age Compositions 32
4.1.2 Formal Schooling of the Household Heads 33
4.1.3 Experiences in Farming 34
4.1.4 Land Size of the Households 35

4.1.5 Livestock Holding 37

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Farming Practices and Horticultural Production 39

5.1.1 Crop Production, cropping pattern Livestock Farming 41

5.1.2 Livestock Farming 44

5.1.3 Means of production: Horticulture 45
5.1.3.1 Labor 45
5.1.3.2 Farm power 47
5.1.3.3 Farm implements 48
5.1.3.4 Input Utilization 49

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 5.1.3.5. Sources of Seed, Fertilizer and Agrochemicals 50
5.1.3.5.1 Seed Sources 50
5.1.3.5.2 Sources of fertilizers and agrochemicals 52
5.1.3.6 Input Application Rates 53
5.1.3.6.1Seed Rates 53
5.1.3.6.2 Fertilizer Application Rates 54
5.1.3.6.3 Diseases and Insect Pest Control 55
5.1.3.7 Safety Equipment Use 57
5.1.4 Credit Service 58
5.1.5 Agricultural Extension Service 60
5.1.5.1 Extension visits 60
5.1.5.2 Participation in horticultural crop production
demonstration 62
5.1.6 Some Constraints in SSI 62

5.1.6.1 Constraints related to irrigation water sources 62

5.1.6.2 Maintenance and depreciation fund 65

CHAPTER SIX
6.1 Horticultural marketing, income sources, food security issues

and opportunities 67

6.1.1. Horticultural Crop Marketing 67

6.1.1.1 Transportation and handling 68

6.1.1.2 Marketing Seasons 69

6.1.1.3 Market information 70

6.1.1.4 Seasonal Price of some Horticultural Produce 70

6.1.2 Personal Monetary Income sources 72

6.1.3 Food Security Issue and SSI users 73
6.1.4 Opportunities 74

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CHAPTER SEVEN
7.1 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 78
7.1.1 Summary 78
7.1.2 Conclusions 78
7.1.3 Recommendations 82

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LIST OF TABLES PAGE
Table 1: Description of Physical Settings of Dugda Bora and ATJK 27

Table 2: Land Use and Land Cover of Dugda Bora and ATJK
Woredas in 2002 and 2003 30

Table 3: Land Holding Size of SSI Users by Use Categories 36

Table 4: Land holding of small-scale irrigation farmers by size categories 37
Table 5: Oxen ownership of small-scale irrigation users 38
Table 6: Horticultural crop production in Dugda Bora Woreda 41
Table 7: Area (ha) of irrigated and rain fed crop production in 2001 to 2003 42
Table 8: Table 8: Productivity Of Some Vegetables and Fruit Crop Of SSI User Farmers 43

Table 9: Labor sources for horticultural production Activities 45

Table 10: Ownership of farm implement 48
Table 11: Seed sources for small scale irrigated horticultural crop production. 51
Table 12: Mean seed rate of some vegetable crops for small-scale irrigation users
Farmers 53
Table 13: Fertilizer application rates by small-scale irrigation users 54
Table 14: Major Vegetable Disease and Insect Pests in Dugda Bora and ATJK woredas 55
Table 15: Pesticides and Insecticides Used By Farmers 55
Table 16: Safety wears owned 57
Table 17: Cross Tabulation Between Membership of Union and Credit Source 58
Table 18: Cross tabulation between memberships of cooperative union
and money advance payments 59
Table 19: Frequency of Development Agents’ Contact With Small-Scale Farmers-61
Table 20: Cross Tabulation of Sources of Irrigation Water and number of farmers with
Constraints 64
Table 21: Reasons of Conflicts on water use 65
Table 22: Vegetable market areas for SSI users farmers 69

Table 23: Vegetable markets for small-scale users 70

Table 24: Monetary Income of Small Scale Irrigated Horticulture Producers 72

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LIST OF FIGURES PAGE

Figure 1: Dugda Bora And Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha Woredas By Sex And

Residential Area In 2003 23

Figure 2:Years Of Formal Schooling Of Small Scale Household Heads 33

Figure 3: Average Landholding Size By Use 36

Figure 4:Yield And Area Share Of Field And Horticultural Crop In Dugda Bora Woreda 40

Figure5: Average Prices of Some Vegetable Crops In Meki Zway Area 71

Figure 6: Major Sources Of Monetary Income For SSI Users 72

Figure 7: Distance of SSI users Farms From the Main High Way (Km) 75

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LIST OF ANNEXES

Annex 1: Adami Tulu and Dugda Bora Woredas Small scale irrigation Water Users

Annex 2: Questionnaire and Guidelines

Annex 3: Map of Oromiya Zone with the study area

Annex 4: Field Crop production and productivity in Dugda Bora and ATJK Woredas over 2001 to 2003

Annex 5: Average nutritive value of vegetable per 100gm edible portion

Annex 6: Recommenced crops and vegetables varieties in different area of Ethiopia, 1983 to 2002

Annex 7: Rough Sketch of the Sample irrigation Schemes

viii
ACROMYNMS

ADLI: Agricultural Development Led Industrialization

ATJK: Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha
AVRDC: Asian Vegetable Research Development Center
Br: Birr
CSA: Central Statistics Authority
CV: Coefficient of Variation
DA: Development Agent
DAP: Diammonium Phosphate
EARO: Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization
OPDEDEZ: Office of Planning and Economic Development of East Shewa Zone
FAO: Food and Agricultural Organization
FDRE: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Ha: Hectare
IFAD: International Fund for Agricultural Development
JICA: Japan International Cooperation Agency
Kg: Kilogram
Km: Kilo meter
MARC: Melkassa Agricultural Research Center
Masl: Meter above sea level
MoA: Ministry of Agriculture
MoWR: Ministry of Water Resource
NGO: Non-Government Organization
PADEPTS: Participatory Demonstration and Training Extension System
Qt: Quintal (100kg)
SD: Standard Deviation
SHDI: Self Help Development International
SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Science
SSI: Small-scale irrigation
TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit
USD: United States Dollar
WARDA: Water Resources Development Authority

ix
Abstract

The economy of Ethiopia depends heavily on rain fed agriculture. The sector is anticipated to
hold up the whole economy and change it structure. However, the country is highly affected by
drought and millions of people left without sustenance every year. As an option small-scale
irrigation schemes come in to view. Such irrigations were developed to increase productivity. In
this aspect horticultural crop farming has got importance and practiced under irrigation system.
Dugda Bora and Adami Tulu Jido kombolcha of East Shewa Zone are important woredas in this
aspect. The woredas are accessible to the central market, endowed with rich physical land
resources and climatic conditions. There are several small irritation development sunder which
horticultural production is practiced in the woreda. However, small-scale irrigation peasant
horticulture development is stagnant.

This paper attempts to analyze the under lying problems of horticultural producers and suggests
solutions. Thus to understand the SSI users horticultural production and marketing constraints
primary data were collected using survey, group discussions, observation and documents were
consulted for secondary data. The quantitative data collected were analyzed using descriptive
statistics. Accordingly, SSI user farmers have rich experience in crop production, high average
family size; high average land holding (3.2ha), few years of formal schooling (four). Family
labor is a principal labor force for production and (hired seasonal and permane) labor is also
common. In this aspect woman have a lot of activities in crop production and marketing.
Improved horticultural inputs are utilized by slightly than more two third of the farmers. The
application rate of fertilizer is a bit less than recommended rates while that of seed and
agrochemicals have tendency of higher rate. Agricultural Input supplies, extension and credit
services were found inadequate.

Frequent motor pump failures, siltations, shrinking up of Lake Zway, River Meki running out
of water more early than before found to be irrigation water constraints. The farmers marketing
capacity was limited by low production and productivity, advance payment, poor market
information system.

Horticultural production and marketing activities has demonstrated a tendency of changing the
subsistence farming in to commercial farming and created some job opportunity and form two
third of the average monetary income of the SSI user farmers.

There are some opportunities for the farmers to be mentioned. Most of the farms 56(62%) are
within 3km distance from a highway, the soil and suitable climatic conditions and rural
infrastructure (cooperative union) is available and the schemes are at the accessible distance to
several growing tows in the central Ethiopian.

x
Development actors in the area in general and in the small-scale irrigation development in
particular, better see for enhancing sustainability of irrigation development, ensuring input
availability, upgrading farmers’ technical and managerial skills. On the other hand,, rural
infrastructure development has to be considered. Such as credit and micro finance institution,
rural road, cooperative development and seeking for possibility of establishing simple
processing agro industries. As well, searching for mechanisms of diversification of horticultural
crop production in order to strengthen horticulture as local export economic base, a means of
hard currency earning and food security maintenance has to be considered.

Key words: Small-scale irrigation (SSI), horticulture, vegetable, fruit, production, marketing,
challenges, Opportunities, Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha(ATJK), Dugda Bora woredas.

xi
CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction and Background

Ethiopia is an agrarian nation. It derives most of livelihood from this sector. The sector

supplies 51.8% of the Gross Domestic Product, 90% of export earnings (CSA, 1999).

Improvement in the agricultural sector can be equated with generation of higher income,

reduction in poverty and promotion of higher standards of nutrition and health of the people.

Increasing production of agricultural out put for consumption and as raw material for the

industries and export market is important to enable the sector plays a dynamic role in the

economic development.

However, the economy suffers from a heavy dependence on a single agricultural commodity,

coffee, with its decreasing price in the world market. The Ethiopian coffee exports value

decreased by 36% over years 1998/9 to 2001/2. While fruits and vegetables export value

increased by 62% during the same time. The boost in volume was 6% and 15% for coffee and

horticulture respectively (NBE, 2003). For those purposes diversification in export, nutrition,

income, and employment opportunities is of paramount importance. One of the available areas

of focus can be horticulture crop production and marketing. Rukuni (1997) indicated that Sub

Saharan Africa’s horticulture grew from USD636 million to more than USD15 billion over

1976 to 1989 and expected to be a major growth area in the future. In this aspect, Ethiopia with

its favorable climatic and edaphic conditions for the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, root and

tuber crops, which are all high potential crops, both in terms of production and value is

important (Semret, 1994). Moreover, its geographic position is a strategic for access to the

European and Middle East and North African Markets.

1
In Ethiopia again different locations have their own advantages in terms of access to

infrastructure, central market and natural resources (water, favorable climate and soil). East

Shewa zone of Oromia in this respect is an important from the viewpoint of local and central

markets. The Zone is endowed with several lakes and some rivers. That is why there are several

large-scale irrigated state farms and small-scale peasant irrigation located there. There is also

fluvisols of recent alluvial formation that suitable for farming in river plains of Awash, Meki and

lakeshores like Lake Zway in Dugda- Bora and Adami Tullu Woredas to produce agricultural

crops more importantly, horticulture using irrigation. There are several SSI schemes developed in

the East Shewa Zone especially in Adami Tutu Jido Kombolcha and Dugda Bora woredas. Which

is considered one step forward for the local economic development.

In developing countries small-scale farmers produce a great share of horticulture for local

consumption and export. Sixty per cent of the Kenyan horticultural export income from small-

scale farmers’ (ITC Executive Forum, 2003). In Ethiopia, large produces of horticultural out put

especially vegetables are produced by smallholder farmers (CSA, 2002). However, in developing

countries productivity of horticultural crop is low. Nevertheless, because of high market prices

income per unit area are usually higher. A study conducted in Indonesia indicated that compared

to rice net revenue per hectare from shallot was over five times as high and from pepper and

tomato three times as high (AVRDC, 1991). At MARC a net income of 11,000 to 14,000 Br/ha

was estimated from experimental plot yield (MARC, 2000). In addition to this, horticultural

production documented to create employment in marketing, processing and export. In those

aspects women do a very large amount of the job. Consequently, it offers not only opportunities

2
for greater income to small-scale farmers and low-income laborers but it is beneficial for

providing employment opportunities for women and the poor (AVRDC, 1991).

Horticultural produces have high elasticity of demand. That is its consumption increases with

rising income and urbanization. Per capita consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables increased

by 0.38 and 0.92% respectively over 1986 to 1995. World consumption of vegetables, for

example, rose by over 30% per annum in the 1970 to 1980. It was also projected to continue

growing aggressively through production and marketing. In turn, it improves nutrition, economic

and social well being of farmers (FAO 2003 and AVRDC 1991).

According to Clayton, 1985 horticulture production increases out put per unit area with help of

improved cultivation and use of improved technologies (irrigation water, inputs, and cultural

practices). Use of intensive labors can produce maximum yield and good roads enable its sale

at economic price. Horticulture is important for food its produce marketing, and processing

have significant contribution to income (Ethiopian average yearly export earning from

vegetables and fruits was $US4.8 million 1998 to 2002 (NBE, 2003). Whereas the neighboring

Kenya exported USD 226.6million valued horticulture output over the same period (ITC,

Executive, 2003). On the other hand, US exported USD 260 million worth of the horticultural

produce to the Middle East and North African countries in year 2001 only

www.fas.usda.gov/htp/circular/2002/20-07stats/circular Population growth and urbanization

are creating demand for food, and concerns are rising about malnutrition in pre-urban and rural

areas. In this aspect the sector can provide an employment, feed, and food demands for a

locality such as under study.

3
While the above descriptions do highlight some features of the benefits and opportunities of

horticultural production there are constraints in the sector. (AVRDC, 1991) identified the

production constraints of vegetable as poor management practices, technical and institutional

problems such as seed technology, produce marketing, processing and storage. Perishability of

the most horticultural crops introduces special marketing difficulties. Whereas tradition, lack of

education and poorly developed infrastructures often discourage vegetable production and

marketing. As well, government policies may create economic disincentives to increase

horticultural production.

The government of Ethiopia paid more of its emphasis on food crop production packages in its

five-year development program. For instance, the agricultural Extension service support over

1997/8 to 2001/2 was 71 to 79% for cereals, 3 to 10% for cash crop (including horticulture), 2

to 3% for livestock, Natural resource 9 to17% and 0.02 to 0.03% for post harvest technologies

(Dagnew et al. 2001). The program was successful in potential areas with better soil fertility

and rainwater availability. Such a history of success is limited in semi-arid areas of the country

(Fuad, 2001). The present shift in strategy from food self sufficiency to food security is far

reaching. In addition, the present attention to specialization and diversification of crop

production in the rural development strategy of recent program would have a positive impact in

agricultural development (FDRE, 2001).

In those aspects horticultural production and marketing can serve as an option in the

agricultural development strategy, by way of diversifying income of farmers, by fetching

foreign currency and by supporting establishment of agro industry in the country, which is the

objective of ADLI – Agriculture Development Led Industrialization. Horticultural production

4
supposed very helpful in terms of employment generation, and household food security

maintenance in semi arid drought prone areas of the country such as under study. In Ethiopia

some studies show that growing some horticultural crops (onion and tomato) by use of SSI

enabled farmers double their income as compared to non-irrigation users and non cash crop

producing counter parts (Fuad, 2001). Hence, small scale irrigated peasant horticulture can

serve as strategic point to alleviate poverty. This may be implemented via creation of

employment opportunities, better income generation, and infrastructure development, increase

productivity of labor and creation of better linkage (backward and forward i.e. between town

and rural) as it has been seen in successful countries in the sector (FAO, 2000). In this aspect

horticulture with its high value, land and labor intensity and efficiency is supposed to be more

appropriate to dry season production, more importantly under irrigation system. FAO (2000)

documented that successful SSI users increased productivity, improved income and nutrition,

created employment opportunities, improved food security and saved drought relief for

governments.

5
1.1 Conceptual Framework

Ethiopia depends heavily on agriculture both for food and foreign income earning. The main
mode of crop production is rain fed agriculture. But this mode fell to produce sufficient food for
ever-increasing population. This is especially true, in arid and semi arid areas where some four
million and more people are waiting for food aid each year (FDRE, 2001). To tackle this
problem, irrigation has been taken as an option in the country’s economic development
strategy-ADLI. In this aspect, SSI has got greater attention to bring food security of the peasant
farmers from the mid 1980s. Ethiopia has placed SSI development at this position on the
ground of its benefits of over all improved crop production by household level, improved
household income from field and cash crop production and increased number of average meals
of a household are anticipated. Irrigated horticulture considered to be paying to labor, land and
water than cereal crops (FAO, 2000 and AVRDC, 1991).

Horticultural production and marketing can promote development of a locality because the
produce mostly sold out side of the area thus increases competitiveness in the local economy.
Helmsing, 2001 states that as a local economy develops certain export base, this gets reflected
in the building up of infrastructures geared to serve it. When an area specializes in a particular
agricultural production, marketing and manufacturing, thus, industry specific physical and socio
economic infrastructure and overhead capital will be built in its service. From this viewpoint
irrigated horticulture is important to serve as an export base of the area and thereby stimulate
the economy. Besides the availability of horticultural produces increase access to food.

While those the aforementioned are some importance of the horticulture in general there are

constraints with SSI users horticultural production under which its bulk produced. The

problems supposed are of wide range technical (agronomic), biological, market, and

institutional and socio economic aspects. Hence, see paper tries to explore/identify and describe

challenges and opportunities of small- scale irrigation users horticultural production and

marketing activities.

6
 1.2 Statement of the Problem

As sited in earlier sections Ethiopia is an agrarian nation. The sector is facing challenges in
supporting the whole economy. From the very basic issue it is unable to maintain food security
of the population although huge number (estimated at 85%)of labor force engaged in the sector.
The problem of the sector usually attributed to erratic and/ or insufficient rainfall. This issue is
more serious in arid and semi arid parts of the nation. In order to tackle this problem irrigations
have been developed in different parts of the country to intensify agricultural production. The
irrigation schemes are of large-scale (commercial level wide area coverage) to small-scale
family managed ones. The concern of this paper is SSI users horticultural production and
marketing issues.

SSI have been under development from the mid of 1980s for food security purposes. Among

food insecure areas in the nation Dugda Bora and ATJK woredas of East Shewa zone are

important. The area is endowed with lake and river water recourses. On the rivers and lakes,

Government, NGOs and farmers established small-scale motorized irrigation systems. Under

those systems farmers grow field and horticultural crops. Field crops are dominantly rain fed

and occasionally irrigated to supplement rain in cases of insufficiency or complete failures of

rain. Small-scale irrigations largely assigned to horticultural crop production. Though such

irrigation schemes were there under horticultural crop production in the Central Rift valley

(Including Dugda Bora and ATJK Woredas) the production of horticulture is low in terms of

quantity and quality for market Aleligne et al. (1994). The productivity gap is still large

between research site and farmers’ field and farmers’ field and demonstration site (EARO,

2000). Thus, there are some questions to be answered in order to improve SSI users

horticultural production and marketing to improve their income and access to food thereby

contribute to poverty reduction.

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 1.3 Objective of the Study

To explore the process of production and marketing of small scale irrigated peasant horticulture

farming as well as the opportunities available to them and the constraints faced by them.

The Specific Objectives are:

1. To identify and describe the process of production and marketing systems of

horticultural products in Dugda Bora and ATJK Woredas

2. To identify the problems of small scale irrigation users horticulture

production and marketing in the woredas

3. To investigate the opportunities available for small scale horticultural

producers of the woredas

4. To suggest possible intervention areas in order to bring better socio

economic benefits to the small scale irrigation user horticulture farmers

1.4 Research Questions

What are the production resources of SSI horticulture producers in Dugda Bora
and ATJK Woreds?

What are the productions and marketing systems of SSI users horticultural
produces?

What constraints face SSI users horticultural produces?

What are the opportunities for small scale irrigated horticultural produces?

Do SSI horticulture producers have access to extension service?

Are SSI horticulture producers organized to effectively bargain at the market?

Are SSI user horticultural producers able to diversify their income?

Have all SSI horticulture producers achieved food security?

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CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Irrigation has played a significant role in agricultural development. Presently, a considerable

amount of food and industrial crops are produced by using irrigation water and believed to

continue in a more intensively to support increasing population. Hence this section tries to

review the importance of irrigation to agriculture and classification of irrigation schemes in

relation to farmers’ horticultural production. More importantly the section presents the concept,

importance, production and marketing situation of horticultural crops, which are supposed to be

the most suited to irrigation and the focal area of this paper.

2.1 Irrigation: Role in Agriculture Development

Irrigation is a supply of water to agricultural crops by artificial means, designed to permit

farming in arid regions and to offset drought in semi arid regions (FAO, 1995).

According to Clyton (1985) irrigation is the application of water to soil to provide an adequate

supply of water for crop needs to increase the crop yields or aid their establishments.

Irrigation has long played a key role in feeding the expanding population. It is destined to play

still greater role in the future. Irrigation raises the yields of specific crops and prolongs effective

crops growing period in areas with dry season, thus permits multiple cropping. With security

provided by irrigation, additional inputs needed to intensify production further such as pest

9
control, fertilizer, improved varieties and better tillage practices become economically feasible

(FAO, 1995).

Irrigation has helped to increase agricultural production in the last 30 to 40 years in

developing countries and has evoked greater expectations. Irrigation development,

particularly small scale, will be an important component of diversification and expansion

strategy to strengthen food security in the future through production of food crops and

horticultural crops. Horticultural crop production in the world particularly in the more arid

regions would be impossible without some form of irrigation (Mathew et al.; 1990 and

Palanisami 1997).

Irrigation development has enabled the production of high value crops (horticulture, cotton and

tobacco) for the domestic and export depending on the comparative advantage. Irrigation

facilitates the provision of alternative cropping pattern decision-making between cash and food

crop items. It helps to diversify product types and increase food variety and availability (FAO,

2000 and FAO, 1997).

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 2.2 Irrigation Development and Its Classification

The classification of irrigation developments depend on their role, organization and the area

developed and the system used. It can be categorized as small, medium and large scales.

Sometimes irrigation schemes are classified in to traditional and modern. Such large and small

irrigation varies from country to country. For instance, in India an irrigation development of

10,000 hectares is small while in Ghana the large irrigation scheme is 3,000ha (Smith, 1988).

According to FAO (1986) large-scale irrigation is an irrigation area of at least 500ha and some

times 10,000ha or more. Medium scheme roughly in the range of 50 to 500 ha and small scale

development, comprising usually of 10 to 50 ha although sometimes a little larger. These are

village level schemes usually of 10 to 50 ha and individual or family operated development of

less than 10 hectares.

De Lange et al. (1997) defines SSI are the development of traditional irrigation systems, which

are used as complement to rain-fed crop production involving predominantly horticultural

crops. One important distinction of small scale is the level of risk with which the farmer prefers

to operate. Intensive, highly commercial farming is high risk. In contrast small-scale farmers

often seek to reduce risk. Consequently, optimal production is often at lower input and yield

levels than those recommended for high-risk farming.

11
In Ethiopia the classification of irrigation scheme goes as follow (Desselegn, 1999 and

FAO, 1995):

Small scale: Small holder project for a single peasant association and up to 200 ha in size.

Medium scale: Extending between 200 to 3000 ha extending beyond peasant association,

and requiring greater degree of government assistance in development provided through

the Water Resources Development Authority (WRDA).

Large scale: Centrally managed state farms for commercial production, and covering

3000 ha or more to be planned and designed by WRDA and constructed under its

supervision.

The traditional SSI is simple water diversions it is very old in Ethiopia and has been practiced

for decades in the highlands were small farmers could divert river, spring water seasonally for a

limited dry season cropping (FAO, 1994). However, irrigation development in the modern

sense has recently been introduced comparatively to the traditional in the country. It was

during the time of Hailesillase in the 1950s and 1960s that modern commercial large-scale

irrigation development was introduced to Ethiopia mainly in the Awash Valley (IFAD, 1985).

With 1975 rural land proclamations those large-scale irrigated farms were placed under the

responsibility of the ministry of state farms. Small-scale landlord holdings of SSIs were placed

under producers’ cooperatives. At present government, SSIs are widely flourishing in the

country under the management of peasant farmers with the objective of increasing food self-

sufficiency and food security. This is because irrigated agriculture is considered to be at the

heart of ADLI and food security strategy of the Ethiopian smallholder farmers’

www.ilri.cgiar.org/infoserv/webpublic/fulldocs/workp30/small.html

12
 2.3 Small Vs Large Scale Irrigation

According to Desselegn, 1999 SSI has the following advantages:

They have much lower investment costs, and in the majority cases these costs are born

by the community; they do not involve dams [and] storage reservoirs, hence no

population displacement involved; they are less demanding in terms of management,

operation and maintenance; they have no serious land tenure or resettlement

implications; they have no serious adverse environmental impact; they allow a wider

diffusion of irrigation benefits and they permit farmers to learn irrigation techniques at

their own pace and in their own way.

There are empirical studies in Africa on irrigation of small-scale and the following observations

were documented (FAO 1997):

• In the areas of low rainfall farmers enjoy the human dignity of producing their

own food instead of depending on the handouts from the department of social

welfare.

• Irrigation development has made possible for further rural infrastructure

development in the areas, which could otherwise have remained without roads,

telephones, schools and clinics.

• SSI users have developed a commercial mentality; and

• Crop yields have gone up many folds.

13
Fuad (2001) in his empirical study in central Ethiopia observed that the development of SSI
has helped considerably peasant agriculture in drought prone areas. He indicated that use of SSI
has detached farmers from regular food aid and enabled them to stand on their feet. His study
verified that in drought prone area households with access to irrigation have doubled their
incomes particularly through cash crop (onion and tomato) farming there by improved their
household income and food security. Some vegetable crops cropping indicated to have been
stimulated the economy within and outside the area of irrigation development. His finding as
well showed that SSI users cash crop producers were integrated to subsistence food crop and
livestock production. Thus, SSI development was pointed out to be a promising intervention
area for improving agricultural productivity and income. The income obtained from cash crops
was invested in food crop and livestock production so as to improve their productivity.

2.4 The Ethiopian Irrigation Strategy

Ethiopia has a huge water resource potential to be utilized for irrigated agriculture and

hydroelectric power generation. Since the 1950s large-scale irrigation scheme with

mechanization of agricultural activities especially in Awash valley were under taken for the

production of industrial crops (cotton, tobacco). But, from 1980s the significance of small-scale

system was identified as a response to tackle the recurrent drought.

The broader national development strategy, ADLI, coordinates and promotes different

programs for increasing food, cash and industrial inputs production by using SSI as an option.

To this effect priority has been given to SSI schemes with an indicative cost up to USD1500

(FDRE, 1996). One objective of SSI was Production of higher value crops (fruit and vegetable

and import substitutes like sugar and cotton for local consumption and export) with other

objectives of Improve food security in drought prone area and Opening up new agriculturally

marginal land (FDRE, 1996).

14
 2.5 Horticulture: Concepts ant its Roles

The word horticulture is derived from the Latin word Hortus, which means garden and clere

meaning to cultivate. Thus, According to Clayton (1985) horticulture is the scientific cultivation

of fruits and vegetables, flowers and shrubs.

I.P Mathew (1994) defined Horticulture as a branch of agriculture that deals with certain

aspects of fruits, vegetables and flowers. Janick (1979) defines horticultural crops as fruits,

vegetables, and all the plants grown for ornamental purposes as well as spices and medicines.

This paper also deals with some horticultural crops i.e., vegetables and fruits grown under

peasant SSI in the study area. For the number of the horticultural crops is limited and possible

to handle all of them.

It is estimated that about 40% of the food consumed in a developed country is grown by

horticulturalists. This figure may be lower in other countries and may be attributed to

differences in taste and food habits of people, but still it must be noted that the fruit and

vegetable are consumed quite extensively in one form or another. Horticultural practice demand

for intensive management in order to increase production per unit area, then require for

intensive labor use, input application and use of irrigation (I.P Mathew et al, 1994).

Horticultural crops render different benefits. It provides widely acceptable sources of essential

vitamins (A, C, Niacin Riboflavin and Thiamine) and minerals such as calcium and iron as well

as supplementary protein and calories. Some vegetables such as roots and tubers and leafy

green are capable of producing protein and calories at the rate per hectare per day comparable

to those of the most efficient cereal crops. Vegetables promote intake of essential nutrients from

15
other foods by making them more palatable; it provides dietary fiber to improve digestion and

health. They are also essential for properly balanced diets and especial for children who are

nutritionally the most vulnerable groups in the population (AVRDC, 1991). Fruits and

vegetables (Horticulture) are universally considered vital elements in a health diet. Not only

they provide crucial vitamins and proteins, but also have health giving qualities. The fiber

content of horticultural products is believed to be valuable source in preventing heart disease

and bowel complaints. Vitamin C can help provide stomach cancer and gum diseases. Vitamin

D in the vegetable derived carotene reduces the incidence of lung cancer. On the other hand,

lack of vitamin A causes irreversible eye blindness (FAO, 1989).

Some horticultural crops like sweet potatoes have high carbohydrates while others such as

banana and plantain have high carbohydrates and low fat contents, particularly important in the

low fat diet. Additionally, horticultural crops are sources of many vitamins and minerals.

Banana has vital importance to food security of millions of people. In the Eastern African

Highlands banana provides the staple food for around 20 million people, and this region alone

provide 15 million tones annually Ogazi (1986). Banana is especially important in the Southern

part of Ethiopia. It covers some 2066 hectares. The crop is used as a source of cash source and

supplementary food all the year round to the farm family. It also used as livestock feeding

during serious drought periods (Shamebo, 1999). Horticultural crop has a much-diversified

varieties and this help in environmental conservation. It is grown on slopes, in gorges and water

banks where it is difficult to cultivate other crops such as cereals (Lemma et al, 1994; Shamebo,

1999).

16
 2.6 Horticulture in Ethiopia: Production and Economic Importance Under Small

Scale Farmers

Vegetables and root crops play an important role to the total food production and economic

performance of the country; however, there is no or little information about their contribution to

the country’s total agricultural output particularly in terms of area coverage as well as volume

of production obtained up to 2002 (CSA, 2002). For the same year 74, 980 ha of land were

covered with Vegetable with total production of 2.9 million quintals. While 19,440 hectares

cultivated to fruits among which 4600ha (23.6%) is irrigation fields owned by small-scale

farmers.

Some studies conducted in Ethiopia on SSI farmers in North Wollo indicated that the SSI users

households have increased their income twice as much high as their non-irrigated and non cash

crop (some horticultural crops) producing counter parts. Similar observation was made in East

Shewa at an irrigation scheme of Doni Kumbi. Those studies attributed the increase in income

mainly to high value horticultural crops (Seid 2002 and Fuad 2001). SSI schemes observed to

provide self employment and employment, food security in addition to increasing income by

growing high value crop- horticulture. The adoption of cash crops* and successful performance

of SSI considered as a viable intervention area to break vicious circle of rural poverty and food

insecurity (Seid, 2002). Nugussie (2002) and Fuad (2001) recognized that SSI development has

contributed to employment creation, diversification and intensification of crop production, and

*
Cash crop and high value crop were used alternatively to refer to horticulture. The crops indicated were onion and tomato mostly in the
papers of Fuad, Seid and Nigussie. EARO also uses similar term high value crop to indicate horticulture and many other authentic literatures
call some horticultural crop as cash crop.

17
availability of livestock feed then livestock products. The accessibility is facilitated by income

as of income earned from cash crops (horticulture) and investment in those areas and irrigation

facilitate livestock feed.

In Ethiopia, in view of the existing deficiency of food crops horticultural production is one of

the key alternatives to improve food insecurity and alleviate malnutrition and

undernourishment, particularly in the rural and pre urban areas (Yohannes, 1994).

According to Semeret, 1994 the major producers of vegetables are smallholder farmers. The

producers use mainly rain and a few produce under irrigation in Ethiopia. As fruit crop

production is concerned the country has favorable agro climatic condition, which permit to

produce tropical, sub tropical, and few temperate fruits. Fruit production under small-scale

holder is not organized as commercial farms though the largest share of fruit cultivation and

production is however under individual farms. He more asserts that lack of appropriate

knowledge about fruit production among peasants has restricted them.

The country has got an immense potential to develop intensive horticulture on small scale as

well as on commercial scale. That is because of its proximity to lucrative market, agro climatic

suitability and rich water sources to diversify irrigated horticulture and growth of demand for

horticultural crops, particularity the urban areas. The current malnutrition in the country calls

for production of vegetable and fruits of high nutritional value. The high productivity of

horticultural crops compared to cereals, root or tuber crops may be the viable alternative to

supplement the food supply of farmers of subsistence level. Export possibilities for these crops

18
are very encouraging; the crops are very remunerative and would help to improve the standard

of living of small-scale resource poor farmers (ibid).

The production productivity of the horticultural crops is low. The gap between research field

and farmers field is so high. Not only that, the difference in yield between demonstration field

and farmers field indicated to be in the range of 60% to 200%(EARO, 2000). Ethiopia has

favorable environmental conditions to grow a number of horticulture. In addition to this the

country is at the nose of Middle East market; but fell to use those opportunities.

Some efforts have been made to exploit the potential for irrigated agriculture in the rift valley

region of Awash River and the lakes. An intensive breeding research has been carried out to

generate appropriate crop varieties for high value horticultural crops that can be grown using

the available lake and river water resources. Though some achievements were recorded there is

still quite a lot remaining. Some problems of horticultural production indicated to be lack of

high yielding, diseases and pest resistant varieties with adaptation to specific agro-ecological

zone, proper harvesting and handling implements, marketing and transportation system, lack of

sufficient quality and quantity seeds and insufficient awareness of the producer farmers in the

sub-sector. (MARC, 1997 and Lemma et al. 1994).

Aleligne et al (1994) conducted an economic study in East Shewa zone on marketing

constraints of fruits and vegetables. They identified poor packing, storage and transportation

facilities as constraints. Because of their variety, perishability, and variability in quality, fruits,

vegetable generally call for rather complex marketing system. The existing techniques in those

19
areas entail loss of quantity and quality as the commodities move from the production areas to

the markets and consumers.

Aleligne et al (1994) and Yoahannis et al (1994) explained transportation facilities play a

significant role since the perishability and bulkiness of the commodities have considerable

impact on the marketing efficiency. Upon these there is no public information in the country to

inform the producers and consumers of fruit and vegetable about the existing farm gate price

and the retail price. As a result, traders take advantage of this ignorance and offer lower farm

gate price to the producers. Tahal and Shawel (1988) identified producers lack their own

storage and transport facilities and depend on the traders for the provision of transport; and

those basic factors strongly affects farm gate price. There is also limited competition among

whole sellers, which is a barrier to the entry of the traders, hence limit price setting by collision.

As presented in the previous paragraphs and sections studies made in the country dealt with

horticultural production general terms. Those studies made SSI schemes revealed that it has a

significance in terms of increment in income, access to food and livestock and crop production

integration by giving due attention to horticultural crop production for household income

boosting (Seid, 2002 and Fuad 2001).

20
Yet, there is little information in having clear knowledge of problems and opportunities of

horticultural production Using SSI.

There need to learn the under lying problems and suggest solutions and make use of the

opportunity from the business in Ethiopia typically where the country has relative advantages

such as the central rift valley, were there is a great potential in terms of irrigation water

availability and accessibility to the central market. The question is urgent especially among SSI

users farmers as the horticulture crop production is more suited to irrigation than rain fed

agriculture of Ethiopia in general central rift valley of East Shewa zone in particular and it is

practices by SSI users. Thus this paper tries to examine the challenges facing small-scale

horticultural producers and opportunities they make use of.

In this paper deals all horticultural crops (vegetables and fruits) produced under SSI because

few such crops are produced under irrigation. The important ones to mention are onion, tomato,

peeper, papaya and cabbage that produced by greater number of farmers.

21
CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Research Methodology

3.1.1 Sampling Procedure

For this study purposive and multistage sampling techniques were adopted. Accordingly, the

study woredas Dugda Bora and ATJK were purposively selected depending on personal

familiarity of the investigator and their endowment with SSI schemes under which horticulture

is produced.

At the second stage household survey was made. To get the individual farmers for survey data

collection two-stage sampling was introduced. The first was the selection of the SSI schemes.

This was done on criteria basis. Accordingly, SSI users those have three and more years of

production experience under SSI were selected anticipating that those farmers would have more

exposure to the real situation of irrigated horticultural production and can provide adequate

information for the study. On this criterion and functioning of the schemes in the immediate

three years (200 to 2003) and 16water users associations/cooperatives were selected. Before

embarking on selection, monitoring was undertaken to confirm personal presence and

membership of the individual members. On the second stage systematic random sampling was

employed to get individual respondent. Accordingly 90(around 20%) farmers were selected

among 421 irrigation water users household heads (Annex 1).

22
 3.1. 2 Data Collection Techniques

Primary and secondary data were collected for the study. The collection of primary data were

involved structured questionnaires, group discussions (five groups of farmers containing 3 to 7

individuals) and personal observations was used. To administer the structured questionnaires

enumerators were recruited from the locality and trained for one day. Questionnaires were pre-

tested for correct wording and interpretation (Annex 2). In addition, discussions were held with

agricultural development and cooperative promotion and irrigation development experts.

The secondary data were collected from published and unpublished sources. Dugda Bora and

ATJK Woredas Agricultural Development Offices, Cooperative Promotion Offices, Irrigation

Development Desks, Meki Batu Fruit and Vegetable Growers Union and Melkassa Agricultural

Research Center and Oromia Bureau of Economic Development Planning and Oromia

Irrigation development Desks were the important sources. .

3.1.3 Data Analysis

Qualitative and quantitative techniques were employed for analyzing the data. The Statistical

Package for Social Scientists (SPSS Version 9) was used for coding, compiling, and analyzing

of the quantitative data collected.

The quantitative data collected were analyzed using simple descriptive statistical tools. Such as

frequency distributions, mean, percentage, standard deviation and correlations were employed.

The results of the data analysis were presented using frequency tables, graphs, and

23
diagrams/charts as needed. Discussions were also made on results. Important references were

made to appropriate Tables, Charts, diagrams, sections and Annexes.

3.1.4 Significances and Limitations of the Study

This study is deemed useful to understand the socioeconomic, institutional and management

(both agronomic and SSI) problems constraining horticultural crop production at the SSI users

level and the opportunities the farmers might utilize. The result of the investigation is believed

to give useful information for researchers, development practitioners, policy makers, farmers,

and government and non-government development organization for better intervention in the

area.

On the other hand, this study is not without some limitations. These data collection from the

questionnaire survey depend on the sole memory of the respondents. Households in the study

area do not keep records of production and marketing such as yield, inputs used and income. As

a result, the quantitative data may be short of accuracies. Some household might have under

reported their harvest and income assuming that this kind of response would help them get

some kind of assistance. Though the survey team and the investigator had always used every

possible opportunity to explain the respondents that the study has nothing to do with any kind

of assistance. In addition to this some data such as production data on horticultural production

in terms of area, volume, number of produces market information (i.e., in put and out put

prices) was scanty. On the other hand, there is no sufficient literature works to be used as a

reference related to the study topic.

24
 3.2 Description of the Study Area

This study deals with two woredas of Oromia regional State Dugda Bora and ATJK. They are

located in East Shewa Zone. Before embarking on description about the woredas an over view

of East Shewa zone will be presented.

East Shewa zone occupies central part of Oromia region. It is the most densely populated zone

with 128 person/km2 whereas; the Oromia Regional State population density was 56

persons/km2 (OPDEDEZ, 1999).

Regarding physical conditions, the soils of the zone are Andosols(36.47%), Vertisols(16.12%),

Rendizome and Phaeozomes(22.94%) and Fluvisols(2.05%). The major reliefs of the East

Shewa Zone are the Rift valley (the floor and the escarpments), the Northwestern and North

Eastern high lands as well as isolated cinder cones. The rift valley is the most prominent feature

of the zone. There are two sub basins in the Zone. These are the Awash Rivers and the lakes

sub-basins. Most of the lakes of the region and the country are found in East Shewa zone.

Concerning climate of the zone, the mean annual temperature is 15 to 27oC, and mean annual

rainfall is 410 to 820mm with marked seasonal variability from year to year (OPDEDEZ,

1999). An average of 763mm rainfall was recorded at Melkasa (MARC, 1997). Agro

ecologically, seventy per cent of the Zone is Badda Dare or Woina Dega (1500 to 2300 masl

and 15 to 23oC) (OPDEDEZ, 1999).

25
Water balance (Budget)*: The knowledge of water balance is useful in assessing the appropriate

agronomic practices such as suitability of an area for a particular crop, the favorable planting

and harvesting time, in determining water-crop-yield relationship and in developing irrigation

scheme. In East Shewa zone the floor of the rift valley is by and large associated with high

annual water deficit (750 to1000mm) (OPDEDEZ, 1999).

Land use and land cover pattern of the zone classified into intensively cultivated lands and

moderately cultivated lands (39.09%), forest (1.35%), woodland, bush land and shrub lands

(7.78%), grass-land (11.49%), water bodies (8%), others (mountain, gorges, swamps, marshes

and residential areas (32.29%)) ibid.

3.2. 1 Physical and Socio Economic Characteristics of the Study Woredas

East Shewa zone is divided in to 12 Woredas. Among which Dugda Bora and ATJK occupy its

central part (Annex 3). The Woredas are endowed with lakes and rivers. The main occupation

of the population is agriculture with relatively growing urban population (27%) (OPDEDEZ,

2003). With this introductory statement the summary of physical settings and socio economic

condition of the woredas is in Table 1 below.

*
It is the difference between the annual amount of rainfall and potential evapotranspiration taking into account
maximum soil field capacity of 100mm.

26
Table 1: Description of Physical Settings of Dugda Bora and ATJK

Pyhysical Woreda

Characteristics Dugda Bora Adami Tullu Jido Kombolcha

Location 8001’to 8025'N Latitude and 38032'to 39004'E Longitude 7037'-8004'N latitude and 38032'-39004' E Longitude

Surface area 1468km2 1403.25 km2

Relief 1500 to 2300masl but Mountain Bora 2007masl 1500 to 2300masl Except Mountain Aluto 2335

Spring A cold spring on mount Bora O'itu on Lake langano

Streams The major stream in the district are Manko and Sulula Hata -

River(s) Awash (forms a boundary) and Meki River (these river play Bulbula, Jido(Jido and Gogessa), Hora Qal'o

quite a vital role in the promotion of agricultural practices).

Both rivers contribute to SSI development

Lakes Koka(man made), and Elen Tute( formed from over flow of Abjata, Langano and Zway (used for irrigation and

Awash river and flood water), Zway(irrigation and fishing) Fishing)

Climates All regions of the district lie within sub tropical agro It is within subtropical climate locally named Badda

climatic zone. Temperature 15 to 200and rain fall of 700 to Dare or Woina Dega. Average temperature of 15 to

800mm. 200C and rain fall of 800mm

Soils Rendzinas & Phaeozomes (68.77%), Andosols(16%)and Andosols(60.35%), Rendzinas and phaeozomes

vertiluvisols 6.39%. The usual problem of Andoslos is (30.4%), Luvisols(9.25%). Andosols as a result of

linked to water holding capacity. Thus requires irrigation low water holding capacity require irrigation to

backing to make agriculture sustainable. sustain production. Rendzinas and Phaeozomes are

well drained offering better media for plant growth.

Luvisols are good agricultural soils

Vegetation and Most part is sub tropical grass land Chrysopogon Aucheria Wooden land savannah of Juniperus tree (51.12%),

wild life and Dactylocyenium Scindium (56.41%). Western part of Subtropical grass land of Chrysopogon Aucheria and

the woreda covered with Podocurpus 34.71% and the Dactylocyenium Scindium types (46.26%),

remaining is natural and man made forest (8.88%). Podocurpus (2.62%) natural and man made forests.

Among wild life pig, hyena, monkey, warthog, fox, daiker

and rabbit are common.

Source: Adapted form OPDEDEZ, March 2003

27
 3.2.2 Socio Economic Characteristics of Dugda Bora and ATJK

The population of Adami Tullu in 2003 is estimated to be 143,983 with density of 100persons

per km2. While that of Dugda Bora was 166,151 with population density of 133 persons per

km2. The average household size was 4.6 (4.9 for rural and 4.2 for urban) in ATJK.

The Population of Dugda Bora and Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha Woredas

Total 156087 154047 310134

Male
Urban 42237 42838 85075
Female

Total
Rural 113850 111209 225059

0% 50% 100%

Figure 1. Population of Dugda Bora and ATJK by residence and sex.

Source: Adapted from OPDEDEZ, March 2003

28
 3.2.3 Agriculture practices

Agriculture is the mainstay of the population. It employs 92% labor forces in ATJK. The farmers

in both Woredas grow annual and perennial crops and rear livestock, practices fishery, charcoal

production, irrigation and sand mining (OPDEDEZ, 2003).

3.2.4 Farmers’ Organization and Cooperatives

In 2002, In ATJK there were 38 Peasant Associations under 8 farmers service cooperatives.

Dugda Bora Woreda is organized in to 54 Peasant Associations and five urban kebeles with 3367

household members. Dugda Bora has 93% and 7% male headed and female-headed households

respectively (OPDEDEZ, 2003).

29
 3.2.5 Land Use and Land Cover of Dugda Bora and ATJK Woredas

The major land uses are annual crop cultivation (Rain fed and irrigation), livestock grazing, open

wooden land, and fishery and charcoal production (OPDEDEZ, 2003).

Table 2: Land Use and Land Cover of Dugda Bora and ATJK Woredas in
2002 and 2003
Land Use/Land Cover Woreda (area in Hectare and Per Cent)
Dugda Bora1 ATJK2
Annual crop 63417.5 43.20 54511 38.85
Perennial crop 161.5 0.11 - 0.00
Grazing land 36700 25.00 25405.7 18.10
Swampy and marshy areas/water body 13038.5 8.88 22100 15.75
Forest and shrub land 20191 13.75 6346 4.52
Community forest - 0.00 385 0.27
Degraded land and eroded barren land 13291.8 9.05 7678 5.47
and housing area
Uncultivated land - - 19864 14.16
Land occupied by Industries - - 115 0.08
State farm - - 1127 0.80
Habarnosa ranch and Agricultural - - 2793 1.99
research center of Adami Tulu
Total 146800.3 100 140324.7 100
Source: 1Dugda Bora Woreda Agricultural Development Office, March 2004
2
Adapted from OPDEDEZ, March 2003

The land holding size of ATJK is three quarter (0.75) of a hectare to four hectare (4) while the

regional average is 1.5 hectares (OPDEDEZ, 2003). In both woredas, food crop production

mostly limited to main season or Meher. The major crops produced are maize, wheat, tef,

sorghum, bean, chickpea and field pea. Production of horticultural crops practiced on small-scale

mainly by farmers who have access to irrigation. Cabbage and green peppers are grown under

rain fed and irrigated condition. Onion, tomatoes, and fruit crops such as papaya, banana and

citrus produced on small-scale level using irrigation. Production of horticultural crops is becomes

growing in terms of area coverage in the locality. In Dugda Bora the area under perennial

30
horticulture (fruit crops) increased by twelve folds over four years (1999 to 2002) ibid. This

implies the increasing importance of the crop in the economy of the locality.

There are several SSI schemes developed in the two woredas. The schemes were established in

the last 20 years and so especially from the mid of 1980s by Government and NGOs. In addition

to those there are traditional irrigations formed by diverting rivers and lakes. Up to the mid of

March 2004 there were 32 SSI schemes in ATJK (11) and Dugda Bora(21) with one large scale

irigation managed by farmers with a close technical support of some government employee in

Dugda Bora.

3.2.6 Organization the Paper

This paper is organized into two parts. Part I contains three chapters. These are: chapter one

Introduction and Background, chapter two Literature Review and chapter three Methodology.

Where as Part II is basically composed of the results and discussions and has divided into four

chapters to facilitate reading and maintain balance among the whole content of the paper. The

Chapters included in this part are Chapter four Demographic and Economic Characteristics of

SSI Users, Chapter Five Farming System, Chapter Six Horticultural marketing, income sources,

food security issues and opportunities and Chapter Seven Summary, Conclusions and

Recommendations.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.2 Demographic and Socio- Economic Characteristics of SSI Users

4.2.1 Household Sex, Age and Age Compositions

31
Eighty three per cent (75) of the household heads were male and 17%(15) were female. The mean

age of the household heads was 42 with a standard deviation of 12.33 years. The maximum and

minimum ages were 70 and 20 years respectively.

The average household size was found to be seven with 50.1% male and 49.9% female. The

mean age o a housejold was found to be a8 years. The dependency ratio was 98% with the young

age dependency ratio was 95.54% and the old age dependency ratio 2.86%. In an agricultural

society, people of the ages 12 to 75 years do participate in agriculture activities (Beyene, 2000),

thus can be taken as farm labor. Thus the actual dependency may be lower age wise, i.e. it would

become below 98%. This age group (12 to 75) again constitutes 60% of the SSI user farm

families and makes up a crude average of 4.15 farm labor per household. In addition to this, the

number of potentially economically active people (individuals of ten years and above) was

considerable i.e., 65.5%. This is an enormous labor force for horticultural production in particular

and agriculture in general. It is an opportunity in terms of labor availability for labor-intensive

horticultural production.

32
 4.1.2 Formal Schooling of the Household Heads

Years of formal schooling are considered valuable for technology use and thereby enhance
productivity. A positive impact of formal schooling on agricultural technology adoption was
documented in some studies in our country (Beyene, 2000 and Tesfaye et al, 2001). In line with
this, the farmers were inquired about years of their formal schooling. Accordingly, the average
year of formal schooling was about 4 with a standard deviation (SD) of 3.26 years, and very few
have attended non-formal education. Eighteen per cent have seven or more years of formal
education and a good number of them 31(35%) have never attended formal education. The more
a farmer is educated, the more competent s/he is in management of intensive system of
horticultural production and marketing. For horticultural crops, by their very nature, require
intensive management in terms of land preparation, input application, harvesting, marketing,
transporting and storage. Thus, there need usually to keep records on production activities,
income and expenditure to appropriately utilize the benefit of the business. Upgrading such level
of education through different means of teaching (training, demonstrations, workshops, tour, etc)
is important to enable them mange their farms and market better.

50

F
r 43
40
e
q
u
30 31
e
n
c
y 20

16
10

0
N o 1 -6 >=7

Y e a r s o f F o r m a l S c h o o lin g

Figure 2. Years of formal schooling of SSI user household heads

Source: Field Survey, March 2004

33
 4.1.3 Experience in Farming

Farm experience in general, farming in irrigated horticulture in particular is considered to

positively contribute to horticultural crop production and marketing from accumulated

knowledge and skill. In Ethiopia, it is obvious that the farming activities are learned from life

long experience rather than from formal training and education. Hence, in this study, experiences

in the production of field crop and horticultural crops were considered. The study also reveals

supporting evidence that many farmers reported to have learned irrigation application frequency

and other agronomic practices from relatives and friends in time through experience.

The average farming experiences for field and horticultural crop were 21 and 9 years with

standard deviation of 10.5 and 6.7 in field and horticultural crops respectively. The average

experience the farmers in irrigated horticulture farming-nine years-is a bit higher than the average

ages of their irrigation schemes i.e., seven years. This is because the farmers gained the

experience in earlier times by working as daily laborers on state farm, private farms or own farms

using small motor pump and some were members of producers’ cooperatives in previous regime.

This shows that farmers have a good experience in field and irrigated horticultural farming. Such

long experience is a fertile ground to build up on the accumulated knowledge and skills of the

farmers in enabling them to utilize improved agricultural practices through training,

demonstration and other means of information delivery systems.

34
 4.1.4 Land Size of the Households

Land holding is a critical production factor for the type of crop grown and size of crop harvest.

An increase of about 80%(http://www.ossrea/ssrr/no26-03.htm) in agricultural out put in Africa

has been attained through the expansion of cultivated land. Similarly, availability of pastureland

is important asset for livestock rearing. Under mixed farming, land holding size is expected to

play a significant role in increased farm household crop production and income.

For this reason the farm holding size and its categories were observed. Accordingly, the land

holding size of the SSI user found to be 3.2 hectares per household and Standard Deviation (SD)

of 2.68ha. With the area composed of rain fed, irrigated, pasture and homestead holdings. There

are large disparities among farm households holding categories by use. That is mainly attributed

to family size of the holders. Land size is significantly correlated with Pearson coefficient of

correlation of .444 and P<. 01 (.000).

This average household holding of SSI land is high as compared to regional and national

averages. The mean land holding size of Oromia region is 1.5ha while the national average is

0.95ha per household, (OPDEDEZ, 2003 and CSA, 1999). It is interesting was that the average

irrigated holding is as high as (0.632ha) or 66% of the national average holding of the Ethiopian

farmers. This size is an enormous resource for these irrigation user households in the nation with

so small average of 0.95ha per household, and where most plots are inaccessible (CSA, 1999 and

Abebe, 2002) (Table 3).

35
Table 3: Land Holding Size of SSI Users by Use Categories

Land Use Category Average (Ha) Standard Deviation Coefficient of

(SD) Variation (CV)
Rain fed 1.939 1.585 81.74
Irrigated 0.632 0.585 92.56
Grazing 0.369 1.172 317.61
Homestead 0.257 0.365 142.02
Total 3.197 2.684 83.87
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

Average Landholding size by use

8%
12%
Rain fed
Irrigated
Grazing
20% 60% Homestead

Figure. 3: Average Landholding Size By Use

Source: Field survey, March 2004

While the above is an overview of the total holding by land use the holding category by size of

small-scale farmers is presented as follows. Table 4 shows that 47% of the farmers have up to 2.2

ha on average whereas three quarters of the farmers own up to four ha and slightly more land

while 22 (24.4%) farm households have more than four hectares. The holding is high that the

majority of the farmers own more than two hectares which considered a holding size for surplus

producing farmers in high potential areas.

36
Table 4: Land Holding of SSI Farmers by Size Categories

Holding Categories Number of Farmers Percent Cumulative Percent

0.2 -2.2 42 46.7 46.7
2.3-4.2 26 28.9 75.6
4.3-6.2 14 15.6 91.1
6.3-8.2 5 5.6 96.7
10.3-12.2 1 1.1 97.8
14.3-16.2 2 2.2 100.0
Total 90 100.0
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

4.1.5 Livestock Holding

Most of the households 80(89%) own livestock. The mean equivalent livestock holding in

Tropical Livestock Unit was 8.1TLU* with a standard deviation (SD) of 7.88. Whereas the

maximum was 34.3 and the minimum was .04TLU. Twenty-one (23.3%) of the farmers do not

have farm oxen where 23 (25.6%) each own an ox and the remaining have a pair of oxen or

more. Oxen ownership is an important asset in household crop production and income. Almost all

of the farmers prepare their land by oxen power. Hence, timely land preparation and the size of

land that is cultivated are affected by oxen ownership. There is a significant and positive

relationship between numbers of oxen owned and cultivated land. The chi-square test (Chi-square

value321.8 significant at P<. 01(0.009)) shows dependency of cultivated land on the oxen

holding. Shortage of oxen has been indicated in horticultural production.

*
TLU is equivalent to livestock weight of 250 kg; and the conversion factor varies according to the livestock type.
Accordingly, an ox=1.12TLU, other cattle=. 7979TLU, a sheep=0.0892TLU, a goat=0.07TLU, a horse=1.3TLU, a
mule=0.9TLU, A donkey = 0.35TLU, a camel=1TLU and poultry=0.01
37
Table 5: Oxen Ownership of SSI Users

Oxen Owned Number of Farmers Per Cent Cumulative Percent

0-1 44 48.9 48.9
2-3 29 32.2 81.1
4-5 12 13.3 94.4
6-7 2 2.2 96.7
8-9 1 1.1 97.8
10-11 2 2.2 100
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

As the size of farming is associated to oxen number and their ownership, lack of oxen has

negative effect on land preparation of the farmers and agricultural production activities. So some

means of alleviating this has to be considered.

38
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Farming Practices and Horticultural Production

Dugda Bora and Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha woredas are characterized by mixed subsistence

farming system. A large number of the two woredas population earns their livelihood by

cultivating a variety of crops (See Annex 4) and rearing livestock simultaneously. An individual

farmer undertakes production of a number of crop types and different livestock breeds.

Most of the agricultural production activities are carried out through rain fed crop production

system, with few producing under irrigation. Field crops except maize are generally produced by

rainwater. For production of maize, farmers with access to irrigation use supplementary irrigation

or produce under irrigation water depending on the main season harvest. Horticultural crops are

mostly produced under irrigation while pepper and cabbage are produced also under rain fed

condition.

Horticultural crops have less significance in terms of area, however it has important part in terms

of production volume. In 2003, the area share of small-scale peasant horticulture was 2.25%

while its production volume share was 18% in Dugda Bora woreda.

39
Crop area (ha) and production (Qt) of Dugda Bora in 2003

Area and Yield Share of Field and Horticultural crops

per cent yield 82 18

Yield (Qt) 914470.68 200855

Field crop
97.75 2.25 Horticultural
per cent area

Area (ha) 54519.65 1255

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 4: Yield and Area Share of horticultural crop in Dugda Bora Woreda

Source: Dugda Bora Woreda Agricultural Development Office, March 2004

40
 5.1.1 Crop Production, cropping pattern and Livestock Farming by SSI

The types of crops produced are field crops, pulses, and horticultural crops. Among field crops

maize, tef, and wheat are principal both in terms of area and yield while haricot bean is a

dominant crop among the pulses (Annex 4). Onion, tomato, pepper, cabbage, and papaya are

important among horticultural cxrops.

Generally, in the main season /maher, sole cropping is dominant in the area. SSI users also

practice multiple cropping. Intercropping is rarely practiced for field crops i.e., only

intercropping of beans and maize is practiced around homestead. Intercropping is hardly

practiced in the study area.

Table 6: Horticultural crop production in Dugda Bora Woreda

Crop Production Year 2003
Area (ha) Per cent Production Per cent
area (qt) yield
Pepper 310 24.70 10850 5.40
Tomato 505 40.24 106050 52.80
Onion 70 5.58 14000 6.97
Cauliflower 70 5.58 14000 6.97
Cabbage 35 2.79 2275 1.13
Carrot 3 0.24 540 0.27
Beet root 4 0.32 1000 0.50
Habhab 21 1.67 5235 2.61
Sweet pepper 17 1.35 720 0.36
Dabarjan 9 0.72 1620 0.81
Kiyar 10 0.80 2000 1.00
Papaya 172 13.71 20200 10.06
Mango 7 0.56 215 0.11
Banana 5 0.40 2150 1.07
Sugar cane 17 1.35 20000 9.96
Total 1255 100 200855 100.00
Source: Dugda Bora Agricultural Development office

As shown above, tomato, pepper, onion and papaya have greater yield and area share. This could

be an indication of the economic importance of the crops in the area.

41
SSI irrigation user farmers also practice supplementary irrigation for some field crops and

multiple cropping. Accordingly, seventy (78%) of SSI users indicated that they practice multiple

cropping using irrigation or rainwater. Such multiple cropping is an opportunity created by SSI

where crop intensity, land productivity and labor efficiency increase.

Table 7: Area (Ha) of Irrigated and Rain Fed Crop Production During 2001 to 2003.
Crop 2001 2002 2003
Irrigated Rain fed Irrigated Rain fed Irrigated Rain fed
Maize 0.05 .96 .14 0.89 0.17 1
Wheat 0 0.289 0 0.306 0 .292
Teff 0 .461 0 0.593 0 .73
Barely 0 0.05 0 0.062 0 0.067
Sorghum 0 .02 0 0.0375 0 .100
Haricot bean 0 .312 0 0.347 0 .523
Line seed 0 0 0 0 0 .001
Onion 0.084 0 0.092 0 .118 0
Tomato 0.189 0 0.194 0 0.199 0
Pepper 0.098 0.080 0.091 0.004 0.1 0.011
Papaya 0.039 0.039 0.057 0.057 0.075 0.075
Cabbage 0.061 0 0.082 0 0.115 0
Banana 0.002 0.002 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
Grand Total 0.523 2.213 0.661 2.301 0.782 2.804
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

As it is indicated in Table 7 increase in area for both horticultural and field crop was observed.

The area devoted to horticulture and field crops increased by around 50% and 25% respectively

over 2001 to 2003. This may be because some perennial crops (papaya and banana) have newly

come in to production and increased intensity of multiple cropping and some area of land might

have been rented in. The productivity of crops for SSI users is also indicated in Table 8.

42
Table 8: Productivity of Some Vegetables and Fruits Crop Of SSI User Farmers
Crop Yield (Qt/Ha) Standard Research 2 Demonstration2 Sites
Deviation (Qt/Ha) (Qt/Ha)
(SD)(Qt/Ha)
Maize 14.4 10.3 38.7
Wheat 40.84 6.75 -
Tef 4.2 41.8 8
Barely 10.33 8.09 -
Sorghum 11.17 8.1 -
Haricot bean 7.86 6.11 15-20
Onion 93 53.52 400-450 150-250
Tomato 90 70.24 300-350 150-210
Green Pepper 24 35 - -
Papaya1 157.6 109 200 -
Note: 1Some field papaya did not reach optimum yield level
2 EARO

Source: Field Survey, March 2004

The productivity of both field and horticultural crops is low as compared to the research results.

It is attributed to erratic rainfall and low in put input use (improved seed, fertilizer) for field crops

(See Annex 4 where the productivity of the field is low on average mainly due to complete yield

failure in 2002, a serious crop failure in the area). On the other hand improved inputs were used by

a few farmers (mostly by those involved in extension program). The majority of the farmers are

using their own personal seed without fertilizers. Input use (improved seed, fertilizers and

agrochemicals) and knowledge of in insect and disease management, irrigation water failure is

important. This are dealt with in more details in the coming sections.

43
 5.1.2 Livestock Farming

Animal husbandry forms an essential source of livelihood for the SSI users. Hence, an account of

livestock for the sample households was carried out. Livestock contribute to the households’

economy in different ways in the area-as a source of draft power (98%), source of cash income

(13%), source of supplementary food, and means of transport. In addition, livestock is one means

of security and coping mechanism during crop failures and other calamities (See Table 25).

Among 90 households surveyed, eighty livestock owners had 290 cows, 175 oxen, 213 heifers

and bulls, 326 sheep and goats, 61 donkeys, 5 horses and 147 poultry. This makes a total Tropical

Livestock Unit of 648. Some of farmers have grazing areas as large as 7.5 ha which they graze

their animals in the summer season when the land is occupied by food crops and the lakeshore

are covered by water. Almost all the livestock depend on grazing field and crop residues for

feeding except in the cases of few owners give some industrial products like molasses to their

farm oxen.

In addition, the irrigation schemes are observed to have a positive effect on livestock rearing as

far as to the SSI users are concerned. Some farmers are observed feeding border-growing grasses,

some weed species and few farmers raise grasses on the shores of irrigation canals for their oxen

and milking cows. These features of irrigation have a beneficial effect on cattle farming and vice

versa. Some of the peasants, particularly those who grow papaya, apply animal manure to their

farms. This was witnessed at Shubi, Sombo Aleltu, Sombo Genet, Melka Aba Godena, Melka

Korma and Wolda Kelina irrigation schemes where papaya plots are common.

5.1.3 Means of Production: Horticulture

5.1.3.1 Labor

44
 Skilled and experienced labor is an essential element in horticultural production activity. In the

study area the farmers have long experience (see section 4.1.3) in field crop farming while their

irrigated horticultural practice is limited largely due to the service age of the irrigation schemes.

(52%) of them have 6 years of experience as the average age of their irrigation schemes.

Family labor is the major source of labor for SSI user farmers. Seasonal hired labor is usually

employed at peak periods by households with larger vegetable fields.

Table 9: Labor Sources for Horticultural Production Activities

Labor Source Sex of The Household Head Total Percent

Male Percent Female Percent
Family labor 25 33.33 5 33.33 30 33.33
Hired labor-permanent 8 10.67 6 40.00 14 15.56
Family and hired labor 39 52.00 2 13.33 41 45.56
Share cropper 2 2.67 1 6.67 3 3.33
Share cropper and family labor 1 1.33 1 6.67 2 2.22
Total 75 100 15 100.00 90 100.00
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

Eighty-one percent of the farm labor was family labor with supplementary seasonal labor at peak

periods. Only female household heads (six out of fifteen) and farmers with larger horticultural

farms use hired labor. Most farmers (three out of four) with irrigation plot of two and more

hectares use seasonal or permanent hired labor whereas those with 0.25 to 1.25 ha of horticultural

farm use combination of labor sources. The latter farmers hire labor at planting, harvesting and

weeding times depending on the urgency of the activities, while those who own below 0.25ha do

not hire any labor. There are also hired laborers on permanent basis for about 100Br per month

on average, which is better, the wage paid to unskilled laborers (taking the accommodations in to

account).

45
Concerning sex composition of the household labor, both male and female are involved in

horticultural production and marketing. The male family members engage in major activities*.

Where as, female household members are involved in most of the activities other then land

preparation (ploughing) and pesticide application of SSI horticultural production management.

They mostly engaged in transplanting (planting), weeding and harvesting. This indicates that

female family labor is essential in vegetable crop production to meet peak season labor shortage.

In addition to this, housewives engage in marketing of vegetable produce and purchase of

consumer goods to raise money to resolve some social obligations (idir and the like).

Forty-seven(85%) of the households that hired seasonal labor, responded that hired labor is

easily available. With regard to the experience of the laborers 45(82%) of the respondents

indicate that the laborers are experienced in the horticultural management activities.

Regarding the casual hired labor, both male and female labor is involved in the production

activity. Male are involve in almost all the activities starting from land preparation, planting,

fertilizer application, watering, weeding, pesticide applications and harvesting. Daily hired

female labor is needed during peak periods in transplanting, weeding and harvesting times. Few

households five (5.56%) sharecrop thier irrigated horticultural lands due to shortage of labor and

other capital resources.

Regarding labor exchange (community labor) none of the farmers has indicated to use traditional

labor exchange labor for horticultural production purpose. During group discussions with some

members of the irrigation user communities, farmers explained that such labor exchange system

has an obligatory power and usually requires for preparations in time, food and drink. So now a

*
Land preparation, planting, Fertilizer application, watering, weeding, pesticide application, harvesting and
marketing
46
day, employing daily laborers is proffered to going for cultural labor exchanges.

5.1.3.2 Farm Power

Almost all the households use oxen draught for land preparation. Eighty-seven (97%) households

employ oxen power while two use tractor and one uses both. As indicated in the previous section

(5.1.2), most of the farmers have livestock with 69 (76.7%) of them having oxen. But the

remaining hired oxen in different terms. That is for land, grain and labor on yearly basis. There

are a considerable number of households with no ox or one ox (see Table 8). The absence of this

important asset is a limitation to horticultural crop production in the area. However, some of the

oxless families are not bare handed in terms of potential draught power. Six oxless households

were observed have one to four cows and six of the farmers had young bulls and heifers. This

may call for introduction of alternative farm power and some improved implements (single yolk)

as alternatives to solve such problem.

5.1.3.3 Farm Implements

Farm implement ownership is an indictor for the level of involvement of the producers. Because

the implements are important through production and marketing processes.

Table 10: Ownership of Farm Implement

Implement Owned Percent
Mofer and Yolk 85 94
Gejera 43 48
Fork 23 25
Hoe 23 25
Spade 74 82
Shovel 70 78
Sprayer 18 20
Sickle 79 88
Bucket 42 47

47
Measuring Tape/meter 8 9
Balance measure 7 7
Box 26 29
Cart (oxen/donkey) 44 49
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

The number of farm implements for land preparation seems reasonable because some of the

respondents have as low as 0.20 ha of land; and they may hire or borrow implements from

relatives and friends. Whereas measuring equipments for chemical and seed are absent or few (no

liquid measures and measuring balance owned only by 7). Generally the number and type of farm

implements is inadequate when compared to intensive management of horticultural crops. Farm

equipments are important in horticultural activities at different stages. Their absence can affect

the management aspects. In addition to this, borrowing of some of those equipments from each

other may contract diseases and insect pests from one farm to another. In this way it becomes

risky in spreading diseases that have importance of economic value in reducingproduction

quantity and quality.

5.1.3.4 Input Utilization

Various studies in our country have proved that appropriate application of modern farm inputs

such as improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, and agrochemicals increase agricultural

productivity. Horticultural crop production predominantly depends on application of improved

seeds, and agrochemicals such as fertilizer, pesticide and insecticide. Typically protection is

critical issue in horticulture than field crops.

Hence, utilization of modern farm inputs is expected to enhance farm households’ production,

productivity and income. For this purpose the farmers were inquired whether they utilize modern

farm inputs to increase yield of their horticulture. Accordingly, most of the farmers’ use fertilizer

and agro chemicals (69% and 72% used fertilizer and agro chemicals respectively).

48
49
 5.1.3.5. Sources of Seed, Fertilizer and Agrochemicals

5.1.3.5.1 Seed Sources

Seed sources for the SSI users are local retailers, cooperative union, Vegetable traders (mostly in

a form of advance) personal savings/sources and Melkassa Agricultural Research Center (Table

11) state farm( to less extent). Addis Ababa as a source for inputs is indicated for its service

either through direct purchase by the better off peasants or for its service delivery as part of

advance both in terms of money and inputs. The local sources are (open market, farmers and

retailer) at Woreda capital and friends.

Dawit et al (2004) reported that in 1996 about 13% of vegetable growers produced onion and

tomato seeds, whereas the number was increased to 50% in 2002 in the Central Rift Valley area

including Dugda Bora and Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha woredas in their report. However, none

of the sample peasants reported to have produced either onion or tomato seed over the last three

years (see Table11). The supply of seeds causes with some limitations for the production of

vegetables and fruits. The seeds from local open market are of unknown purity and usually

susceptible to diseases, pest and low yielding (Lemma et al., 1994 and Lemma, 2004). On the

other hand, the imported seeds are pointed to be expensive and some crop seedlings (tomatoes

and onion) highly attacked by diseases from early on the seedbed and eventually transferred to

the field with the seedlings.

Regarding papaya, banana and avocado seedlings/planting materials sources are friends, relatives

and research center. Regarding papaya, the most important fruit in the study area’ among small-

scale farmers, its seed is produced from the fruit sold for consumption purpose in the local

market, or from own produce and friends. The quality of the variety in terms of yield potential,

free from diseases and pests is unknown for those sold in the open market. For seeds received

from friends, simple visual assessment is made for quality.

50
Table 11: Seed (Planting Material) Sources of Horticultural Crop for SSI Users
Seed Source Onion Pepper Cabbage Tomato Papaya Banana Avocado
Own - 8 4 5 3 - -
Addis A. 4 - 3 3 - - -
Local 21 23 33 13 12 1
Research center 1 - - - 1 1 1
State Farm 3 - - - 1 - -
Cooperative Union 9 - 2 12 - - -
Local & Addis 5 5 4 5 - - -
Local Coop Union 1 1 - 2 - - -
Own and local - 4 1 - - - -
State farm and 1 - - - - - -
cooperative Union
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

Local market is exclusively important source for less expensive vegetables than for more

expensive ones (such as onion and tomato). In a focus group discussion, the supply of seeds was

reported to be untimely and expensive for more cash fetching.

It is indicated that the seed onion and tomato are easily produced in the study area (Dawit et al.,

2004). As long as those crop seeds can be produced in the area it is important to do so through

training and demonstration of SSI users. Therefore, interventions aiming at reducing the seed

shortage or facilitating access should target those SSI user organized farmers. For these have

more communication effect than private individuals.

51
 5.1.3.5.2 Sources of Fertilizers and Agrochemicals

Fertilizer is obtained through Cooperative Union, vegetable traders (as part of advance), and agro

chemical retailers’ shops. The cooperative union supply for its members some selected cash

crops (usually onion and tomato) on request. Fertilizer is rarely available at retailers shop or local

market. It is sold in a kind of black-market in retail shop, if any, with more expensive price (15 to

30% on suppliers price in march 2004). This can pose a pressure on small-scale irrigation user

horticultural production.

Concerning agrochemicals, most of the SSI user farmers get pesticides and insecticides from

local dealers or retailers (30), Cooperative union (8), Woreda Agricultural Development Office

(3), Addis Ababa (2), Trader and broker (2), Retailers and respective Woreda Agricultural

Development Office (3), retailer and Cooperative Union (10), Local Retailer, Cooperative Union

and Addis Ababa* (2). Concerning purity of the agrochemicals concerned, most of the users

51(71%) trust the purity when the remaining do not, or are indifferent. On the other side

Cooperative union was indicated to take longer time in delivery of inputs. The issue is more

pressing for pesticides and insecticides, which are in urgent need in crop protection. A farmer,

during a group discussion stated: “ Vegetable means a child. It gets ill now and then; thus needs

pesticides or insecticides at hand. But, we do not have cash at hand to buy chemicals as soon as a

pest emerges. We go to the Cooperative Union and it brings the chemical after the deaths of our

crops.”

*
Addis Ababa as source here indicates personal purchases by better off farmers, supply by vegetable trader as part of
advance.
52
 5.1.3.6 Input Application Rates

5.1.3.6.1 Seed Rates

The agronomic management such as seeding rate is important in crop production. The seed rate is

among the determinants of the plant population in the field and ultimately of production,

productivity and income. Again, the price of horticultural crop seeds is usually expensive. Hence,

appropriate seeding rate is useful for economical use of resources. As indicated in Table 12

below, there is high variation among farmers in seeding rate. The average seed rate was 4.29

kg/ha for onion with SD of 2.26kg/ha rate. This is true for tomato and pepper as well. Such a

variation is one indicator of poor agronomic practices.

Table 12: Comparison of Mean Seed Rate Applied By Farmers and Recommended Seed Rates
Crop Mean Seed Rate (Kg/Ha) Mean Recommended SD
1
Rate (Kg/Ha) (Kg/Ha)
Onion 4.29 3.5 2.26
Tomato 1.38 0.025 1.65
Pepper 4.41 1 3.34
1
MARC 2002 horticultural production manual Amharic version.
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

Seeding rate depends on several factors such as crop variety, purposes of production, soil type

and other climatic factors. The indicative range of seeding rates is presented in Table 12 for the

area. The seed rate of the farmers was found higher than the recommended rate for all the crops.

For pepper and tomato, the seed rate is significantly higher than recommended rate as compared

to that of onion. In the case of pepper, it might based on local (personal savings and local market)

availability of the seed thus reduced cost of production. For tomato, planting high seed rate might

be to in order to get more seedlings survive from diseases reported to emerge on the seedbed

thereby devastating the seedlings.

5.1.3.6.2 Fertilizer Application Rates

53
Fertility management of the farmers irrigation plot is performed through chemical fertilizer

application and use of animal manure (to the lesser extent). Animal manure application here

applies to papaya. This might be because to the application is done under each individual tree

crop, the effect remains over longer and the effective plot size (the area on which fertilizer or

manure applied) is usually small. Regarding chemical fertilizer application, DAP

(Diammonimum Phosphate) and Urea are used. The application of these fertilizer types is

relatively intensive on onion and tomato because the crops considered fetching better cash

income and demanding more management. However, the application rate was lower than the

recommended rate. The recommendations are 200 kg per ha Dap and 100 kg per ha Urea for

onion, tomato and pepper (MARC, 2000).

Table 13: Fertilizer Application Rates By SSI Users horticultural producers, 2003
Crop Fertilizer Rate (Kg/ha)
DAP UREA
Mean SD Number Mean SD Number
of users of users
Onion 113.37 80.83 23 87.62 64.32 23
Tomato 121.72 82.09 29 91.6 66.6 29
Cabbage 75 29.15 16 62.5 38.91 14
Papaya 166.67 115.47 3 100 0 2
Pepper 26 2.23 5 38.33 30.27 6
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

54
5.1.3.6.3 Diseases and Insect Pest Control

Crop protection is critical in horticulture. Horticultural crops grown in Ethiopia experience the

common diseases and pests. Late blight, bacterial wilt, early blight viruses are common (see

Table 14). Small scale irrigated horticultural producers use different chemicals to control diseases

and insect pests (Table 15). The application is exercised from the knowledge gained through

experience rather than timely training or demonstration processes.

Table 14: Major Vegetable Disease and Insect Pests in Dugda Bora and ATJK woredas
Crop Casual agent
Tomato Early blight, Late blight, nematode, leaf spot, viruses
Onion Purple blotch, Downy mildew
Pepper Powder mildew, viruses, stem blight, bacteria, leaf spot, bleaching and rotting
of pods
Source: Adapted From Mohammed et al., 1995

Table 15: Pesticides and Insecticides Used by Farmers

Crop Pesticides or insecticide used
Onion Redomil, Malathion, Mancozeb, Karate, Selectron, Redomil and Malathion,
Koside
Tomato Redomil, Malathion, Mancozeb, Karate, Selectron Redomil and Malathion,
Koside
Cabbage Redomil, Malathion, Mancozeb, Karate and Koside
Pepper Koside

Source: Field Survey, March 2004

The chemicals are used alone or in combination. Specifying the rate is somewhat difficult in this
study because several unlabelled measurements are used, the frequency differs and different
combinations are also applied. However, there is a tendency of applying higher rate or dose than
specification. There is a term mooq, which is used to mean a bit higher rate than the dose. This
practice is intentionally done by anticipating avoiding the pests at once or by applying less
frequently.

The farmers were also asked on the insect pest problems. Insect problem is highly associated to

cabbage and pepper according to 25(54%) and 19(47%) of the respondents. The chemicals
55
applied were Malathion, karate and Mancozeb separately or in combinations.

Associating diseases with insect pest was also common. Many peasants reported insects as

disease while they were asked to name the diseases attacking their crops; and some farmers

reported that they totally lost their tomato and pepper crops from unknown disease to them.

Differentiating between diseases and pests is vital for correctly treating a pest. But, such gross

association of diseases and insects creates problem in proper disease and insect pest management.

such problems have contribution to low quantity production (see Table 8); and this has to be

addressed in order to produce a reasonable yield then reap attractive income.

In addition to this, some cultural practices such as hoeing/kutkuato and weeding are common in

vegetable management; though these were not mentioned. This may indicate that a clear

understanding of added protection advantages of those cultural practices is wanting. Pest

management is done through chemical application. Integrated pest management and other

cultural practices are not practiced for purpose of diseases and insect pest management.

There are various diseases and pests that are constraints to improved production and productivity

Table 14. On top of this, farmers are in trouble on whom to advice in cases of incidence of such

diseases and insect pest problems. The farmers mostly seek for their friends’ advice in the face of

production and marketing problems. They consult their fellow friends 52(64%), traders 4(15.6)

and DAs 13(14.4%) farmers and DA 8(9%). As protection aspect in horticultural production is

critical.

5.1.3.7 Safety Equipment Use

Agrochemicals have their negative side effects on health. This is usually indicated on the

packages and containers with some precautions. On this line, an inventory was made whether the
56
farmer have or use some safety materials to protect themselves from body contact and inhalation

of agrochemicals. Accordingly, only 25 farmers were found out to have some safety materials

while the remaining have not. Some of the materials named are not actually appropriate materials

(handkerchief, for example) for protecting oneself (see Table 16). As some farmers were

observed using chemicals without appropriate care some unforeseen health problem might be

encountered. Thus, taking care is vital for human and environmental health. Appropriate handling

and using chemicals has to be considered.

Table 16: Safety equipment or wears Owned

Safety Wear Number of Farmers Percent
Tuta* 15 16.7
Handkerchief 1 1.1
Tuta and glove only 5 5.6
Tuta and eyeglasses 1 1.1
Tuta and boot 1 1.1
Tutal, glove, and boot only 1 1.1
Tuta, glove, eye glasses and nasal wear and boot 1 1.1
Total 25 27.8
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

*
A close put on during manual works with shirt (the upper part) and trousers stitched together.
57
 5.1.4 Credit Service

Credit is an essential production factor for small-scale farmers with meager capital resource to

invest. Credit service is particularly indispensable for capital-intensive farming like horticulture.

The institution in service of such credit is only Meki Batu Fruit and Vegetable Growers Union for

its members (69) and some potential members. Fifty-five (61%) farmers were indicated to have

utilized credit for their vegetable production. The sources of credit were Cooperative union 45

(82%), relative 1(2%), trader or broker 8(9%), and cooperative and trader1 (2%) (Table17).

Table 17: Cross Tabulation Between Membership of Union and Credit Source
Sources Of Credit Member Of Union Total Per Cent

Yes No
Cooperative Union 41 4 45 81.8
Relative 0 1 1 1.8
Trader 3 5 8 14.5
Cooperative and trade 1 - 1 1.8
Total 45 10 55 100
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

Concerning membership and source of credit, 41 individuals among members of cooperative

union received credit from the union while three of them from trader and one from trader and

cooperative. Four non-union members received credit from cooperative; one from relative, five

from traders or dealers and one from both cooperative union and trader Table 17.

58
In addition, some farmers received money advance for their production purposes.

Here advance is money extended to the farmer sometime (usually) after s/he has started

production activity to complete his production or for marketing purpose.

Thirty-four farmers utilized advance. Sixteen individuals among 61 members of cooperative

union, and 18 individuals among 29 non-members received advance. The source of advance is

entirely traders or brokers. Traders are considered being better in supplying in puts timely when

they come in agreement with farmers at the very start of production. But they are mobile require

for larger area and intensive management practices. The advance resource is also scarce for

which several local producers and investors compete.

Table 18: Cross Tabulation Between Membership of Cooperative Union and Money
Advance Payments
Receive Advance Payment Member of Cooperative Union Total

Yes Per cent No Per cent Number Per cent

Yes 16 26.23 18 62.07 34 37.78
No 45 73.77 11 37.93 56 62.22
Total 61 100 29 100 90 100
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

The members of Cooperative Union receive credit from the institution for selected crops (onion

and tomato) and sale the same through the Cooperative in the central market of vegetables and

fruits, Addis Ababa, Atkilt Tera. The main achievement of the Union is said its ability to enter

this Central market, which is usually considered hard to do so. But it is only twice that the

farmers sold their produce though this institution in the last three years. In this aspect the main

constraint was pointed out to be supply problem (in quantity and quality) as the cooperative

management body indicated.

Credit is scare for non-Union member SSI user farmers produces and for some other produces

(other than onion and tomato). Their bargaining power is limited because the advance they

59
receive from traders, arrangements of transportation facility, and limited information supplies

(i.e., the right market information and market options) and low production volume.

5.1.5 Agricultural Extension Service

5.1.5.1 Extension visits

Agricultural extension service is a means of enhancing the adoption of improved agricultural

practices. In a country like ours, where the majority of the farmers are poor and illiterate

agricultural extension would play a significant role in assisting them in identifying and analyzing

their production and marketing problems and in helping them with awareness of opportunities for

improvements. Effectiveness of the other inputs in production, as well, partly relies on

availability of sound extension service at community level. On this line the farmers were inquired

about extension contact and services they deliver on horticultural crop production and marketing

practices.

The majority of farmers 56(62%) identified themselves to have once or more contacts with

development agents monthly (Table 19). Yet, they indicated that the services delivered on

horticultural crop management were minimal. They pointed out that most of the time

development agents’ deal with field crop management practices i.e. improved cereals like maize,

wheat, teff and beans. For horticulture the services indicated by some of them were that of

demonstration and training (7), oral advice only (10), no service at all on horticulture and

occasional distribution of fruit seedlings with other tree seedlings (if any) in summer season and

under taking different administrative and coordination services (59).

Table 19: Frequency of Development Agents’ Contact/visit With Small-Scale Farmers

Number of Visit Number of Farmers Percent

Twice and more per month 56 62.22

Once every two months 12 13.33
Once every year 8 8.89
No contact 13 14.44
60
Occasional visit to experts 1 1.11
Total 90 100.00
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

Though there was sufficient numbers of contacts the SSI users farmers have with development

agents, extension service delivered to the farmers on horticultural crop is not adequate in quality.

There is a need to give attention in reaching the peasant farmers to enhance the production and

marketing capacity preferably through information delivery and training. There is a need also for

extension service also justified for small scale irrigation user farmers to increase their capacity in

the face of strong competition from private individuals who have better access to working capital,

the ability to hire skilled labor and who are at a better position in gathering and utilizing market

information. Hence, empowering small-scale farmers has a far-reaching effect in terms of

addressing poverty reduction, creating local export economic base and preparing a testing ground

for active investors in the area.

61
 5.1.5.2 Participation in Horticultural Crop Production Demonstration

Demonstration is an important means of extension communication. It has strong effect on

communicating new skills, knowledge and showing step-by-step procedures. Development

workers and educators employ demonstration as an effective means of educating skills. The

national extension system Participatory Demonstration and Training Extension System

(PADEPTS) that developed to implement the country’s development strategy also gives more

attention to this methodology. On this line the farmers were asked on their participation in

demonstration either as a host or invitee. It is practiced intensively for field crops. Such

demonstration would be a good means in horticultural crop production and management.

Twenty-six 26(29%) of the respondents were involved in horticultural crop production

demonstration as a host or invitee (most of them). Such an activity need due attention in order to

bring an intended result in SSI user horticultural development.

5.1.6 Some Constraints in SSI

5.1.6.1 Constraints Related to Irrigation Water Sources

The water sources of SSI users are Lake Zway, Meki and Bulbula Rivers, Lake Zway and well

together, Meki River and well together. The number of users goes as follows: 67 (74.4%),

19(21%), 1(1.1%) and 3(3.3%) respectively for each water source. There were some constraints

facing the farmers. All Meki River users reported that they have water shortage from early dry

seasons. It was pointed out that Meki River was run out of water in 2001/2 from December to

February while during serious drought season in 2002/3 it turned dry from October to March.

This season is when an intensive irrigated horticultural activity is under way. Due to such reason

many horticultural producers were in problem of water shortage. During data collection for this

study many fields of papaya and vegetable crops were suffering from shortage of water.

62
To curb this problem several wells brought in to view in the horticultural production around Meki

River. Several wells (up to four) were observed in a hectare of field. Though this is an option for

irrigation water development from under ground water, study for ground water supply potential

and recharging capacity is required for efficient use of the resource and maintaining

environmental balance.

On the other hand most of the lake users (66%) reported to have some problems (see Table 20).

Siltation of main irrigation canals taking water from lake to the motor pump is indicated to be

one problem. There is a need to clean the main canal at least once a year. The right time of

cleaning over laps with field crop harvesting time and there is a delay to start horticultural

production using irrigation as the dry season comes in. The silt formed some times goes beyond

farmers’ capacity and they seek for support from NGO, government and cooperative Union. This

was witnessed during the field study where some irrigation users were still cleaning the canals to

start the production process (Melka Aba Godana, Melka Korma, and Tepho-140 schemes were

points in case). The delay is reported to be aggravated by a shrinking up of Lake Zway and the

ever extending up of the main irrigation canal from year to year. This situation needs further

verification in order to ensure sustainability and devise mechanism on the appropriate use of the

lake. Other wise, it would have a precarious result on irrigation activity, fish production, tourism

(potential) and the entire environmental health.

63
There were also some inconveniences in irrigation water uses between upper and lower canal

users. Individuals at the borders of the canal were indicated to get in sufficient amount of water

while on the payment is uniformly based on time of base of water release. Such claims always

have to be looked in to cautiously in order to implement a justified water use.

Though it is not always likely to avoid conflicts, it is possible to develop equitable water use

system through norm studies, discussions and improving the canal efficiency in the cases of

leakages and siltations. In few cases some users also disputed on release of some extra water to

friends plot due to improper uses

Table 20: Cross Tabulation of Sources of Irrigation Water and number of farmers with
Constraints
Source Of Irrigation Water Constraint Irrigation System Total

Yes Per cent No Per cent No Per cent

Lake 59 42 8 100 67 74.44
River 19 23.17 0 0 19 21.11
Lake and well* 1 1.32 0 0 1 1.11
River and well 3 3.66 0 0 3 3.33
Total 82 100 8 100 90 100
*NB: Wells for under ground water.
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

Such water constraints are reported to bring some individuals in to a dispute. Forty-seven of the

respondents reported to have disputed with a fellow irrigation user member friend (see Table 21).

64
Table 21: Reasons of Conflicts on Water Use
Irrigation Water Reasons for Conflicts Total
Source
Water shortage Holding water up at Release of extra
/shift of use the upper canal water and border
problems
Lake 33 2 2 36
River 6 0 0 6
Lake and well 1 0 0 1
River and well 3 0 0 3
Total 43 2 2 47

Source: Field Survey, March 2004

5.1.6.2 Maintenance and Depreciation Funds

The other constraint related to irrigation water is in the management of irrigation motor. All of

the SSI users under study operate by using motor pumps up to 75 horsepower for water supply. It

is inherent for such equipment to require for maintenance and fuel. However, saving for

maintenance and depreciation purposes is lacking in most of SSI water user societies or

cooperatives except those, which were developed by the assistance of Japan International

Cooperative Association (JICA). The irrigation motors have an average age of seven years.

Frequent failures reported to occur on those motor pumps. There was an irrigation scheme (Tuchi

Denbel) that was stopped for such reasons.

Most of the respondents (82) reported to have some problems (break downs of the motor due to

old age) with their irrigation motor pump. The financial for maintenance purposes is collected

from the members’ pockets or supports were requested from Government, Non-Government

Organization or Cooperative Union after breakdown or failures of the motor. This was pointed

out as a challenge in productin process in all group discussions as well in the most cases of the

survey (see Table 20). On top to this, minor motor failure required calling for mechanics that

request for another financial and time cost. Hence, there is call for devising ways of resolving
65
such technical and management problems for smooth running of the schemes. Mechanisms to

solve such problem have to be worked out before embarking on irrigation development in the

future, too.

66
CHAPTER SIX

6.1 Horticultural Marketing, Income Sources, Food Security Issues

and Opportunities

6.1.1 Horticultural Crop Marketing

Market is an essential area in horticulture. Horticultural crop prices fluctuate from year to year,

from start of the season to the main supply of the season, from day to day and from market to

market. There is a great variance in market prices. Such a tendency makes horticultural

production potentially profitable and risky business (see Table 23). As a result, often success

depends on marketing skills and obtaining good prices rather than production expertise (FAO,

1989). Horticultural products naturally demand for a complex marketing system. They are

frequently consumed in fresh state and their water holding content is high (see Annex 5). This

water content enhances its perishability. For this reason timely marketing at reasonable price is

necessitated for horticultural produces. At the study area, the market for horticultural produce is

Addis Ababa and the local markets. Vegetable produces such as cabbage and green pepper are

mostly produced for the local and few for Addis Ababa. Most farmers produce onion, tomato and

papaya for Addis Ababa market. Small portion of the produces that are usually considered of

lesser quality are produced for the local market. Those lesser quality types are sold for retailers

coming directly to the farm, or often housewives market them on the local market days.

67
 6.1.1.1 Transportation and Handling

Most small-scale irrigated horticultural growers sale out their produce on farm field (see Table)

22. The packing and transportation facilities are mainly arranged by traders or brokers, or

cooperative union and/or through contract. Hence, the level of damage during transportation has

reduced due to this condition. The remaining part is transported with donkey cart in the cases of

almost all crops, and by human labor in few cases (pepper and cabbage) to the local market. But,

while a donkey cart transports the produce the damage goes up from little fraction (2%) for

pepper and onion and minor losses for papaya to total loss for tomato. As indicated in Table 22,

in most cases onion, tomato and papayas were sold on farm to traders or cooperative union. On

the other hand, cabbage and pepper are sold in the local market with transporting them by donkey

carts or on donkey back. With respect to the packing materials for local market supply sacks and

rarely baskets are used for green pepper and cabbage and head cabbage is also transported

without packing. This can reduce its quality considerably.

In addition to transportation facility storage facilities were inquired. No structural storage

facilities were indicated, but sacks are used for pepper (dry) that is rarely produced under

irrigation.

The issue of storage for vegetables among small-scale farmers seems secondary. During

discussions and survey study, when the farmers were asked about storage facilities, they replied

the question itself by asking “storage for what? Why should we store?” This indicates that the

farmers are rightly producing for immediate sale after harvest.

Table 22: Vegetable market places for SSI user farmers

68
Crop Market

and Addis
Local and
and local
On farm

On farm

On farm
market

market
Ababa

Ababa

Ababa
Addis

Addis
Local
Onion 21 2 5 12 3 2
Tomato 17 4 4 8 4 3
Cabbage 8 27 1 9 1 1
Pepper 7 22 1 10 1 0
Papaya 4 1 2 6 0 1
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

6.1.1.2 Marketing Seasons for SSI Horticultural Produces

SSI user horticultural producers plan at the period of lent, while orthodox Christians abstain from

animal products and depend mostly on crop products. For instance 77.5%, 64.5% and 80% of

farmers sale their onion, tomato and cabbage respectively in the first six months of the year

(January to July). This might because either the price is higher or larger volumes are sold due to

increased consumption, as rains fed producers are not in a position to supply. The second batch of

farmers plan for mid May to July before the supply of belg rain production comes in. In the

summer season the production decreases for different reasons: The farm shift of farm labor to

staple crop production, disease intensity, and market price reduction due to coming in rain fed

produces.

69
 6.1.1.3 Market Information

Market information is necessary on what to produce, when to produce and where to sale for cash

crop, otherwise it is a risky business. In the study area, farmers learn the price of vegetables and

fruits mostly from a producing friends, traders or brokers, development agents, or any two or

more of them. The main information sources for horticultural market were indicated to be

farmers 42 (48%), cooperative union 14(16%), farmers and development agents 5 (5.6%), traders

or brokers 24(27%) and farmers and development agent 2 (2.2%). There is no public information

on demand and supply of horticulture. This is a factor that limits the bargaining power of the

farmers.

6.1.1.4 Seasonal Price of Some Horticultural Produce

Price of horticultural crop is highly fluctuating. This has both potentials of risk and opportunity to
the farmers. The average vegetable prices are indicated below (See Table 23).
Table 23: Average Prices (Br/Kg) of Vegetables In Meki- Ziway Area, 2003
Month/Statistics Crop Price (Br/Kg)
Onion Tomato Pepper Cabbage Papaya
January 0.75 0.75 1.75 1 0.3
February 1 0.8 1.5 1.5 0.35
March 1.4 0.65 1.25 1 0.4
April 2.3 1 1.25 1.1 0.5
May 1.7 1.35 1 1 0.5
June 1.25 1 0.75 0.75 0.55
July 0.75 1 0.5 0.3 0.55
August 0.75 1 0.3 0.3 0.75
September 0.5 1.25 0.4 0.4 0.75
October 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
November 1 0.6 0.75 0.75 0.4
December 1.2 0.75 1 1 0.4
Mean 1.10 0.89 0.91 0.80 0.50
SD 0.75 1.00 0.50 1.00 0.40
CV 68.2 112.4 54.9 125.0 80.0
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

70
 Price of some horticultural crop price in Meki -Zway area

P 2.5
R
I
C
E
2
B
I
R
R 1.5 Price in birr Onion
Price in birr Tomato
P Price in birr Pepper
E Price in birr Cabbage
R
1 Price in birr Papaya

k
I
L
O 0.5
G
R
A
M 0
Jan Mar May July Sep Nov
Month of the year

Figure5: Average Prices of Some Vegetable Crops In Meki Zway Area

Source: Field Survey, March 2004

71
6.1.2 Personal Monetary Income Sources of SSI Users

The major incomes of small-scale horticultural producers are composed of food crop (cereals and

pulses) production, livestock farming and horticulture, and to a lesser extent non-farm income.

Table 4.24: Monetary Income of Small Scale Irrigated Horticulture Producers.

Income Category Average Standard Coefficient Of Percent Of

Income Deviation Variation (CV) Total
(Br) (Br) Income
Food crop (cereals and pulses) sale 710 1050 147.89 15.29
Livestock farming 589 913 155.01 12.68
Horticultural crop sale (Irrigated) 3096 6330 204.46 66.68
Others (Land rent, tailoring etc.) 248 661 266.53 5.34
Total 4643 7012 151.02 100
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

M ean sources of monetary income for small scale irrigation users

Food crop (cereals and pulses) sale

5% 15%
13% Livestock farming

Irrigated horticultural crop sale

67%
Others (Land rent, tailoring etc.)

Figure. 6: Major Sources Of Monetary Income For SSI Users

Source: Field Survey, March 2004

6.1.3 Food Security Issue and SSI users

72
SSI water developments do serve to tackle food insecurity through supplementary irrigation and

diversification of crop production where rains are erratic and food shortage is common. On this

issue, the farmers were requested whether they encountered food shortage in the last three years.

Accordingly, sixty one per cent of the respondents were reported to have faced complete crop

failure and food shortage. Forty-one percent of them received food aids (See Table 25). This

figure is mainly attributed to the serious drought of 2002 and 2003. However, there are still

people who are reported to have food shortage and to be looking for support starting from the

very time of food crop harvest. This implies that small-scale irrigators are not food secure as it

was reported for Doni Kumbi, East Shewa Boset (Fuad, 2001). Some reasons for the failure to be

food secure are rain failure, asset bases and social problems like age (old), gender, and sickness,

in addition to constraints of horticultural production mentioned in the previous sections. Food

security is a complex subject and cannot be addressed only through SSI development. However

this situation is found to be a bottleneck to the production of horticulture. Such challenge might

call for integrated approaches: such as producing high energy and high yielding horticultural

crops, and food crops and looking for other supplementary income sources.

73
Table 25: Quantity of Small-Scale Irrigation users who encountered Food Shortage and
Means of
Tackling the problem

Major Means Of Food Shortage Tackling Number of Percent of Cumulative

Farmers Total Percent
Food aids 19 33.93 33.93
Income from horticulture and
Irrigate food crop production (maize) 7 12.50 46.43
Food aid, produce food crop by irrigation 3 5.36 51.79
Food aid, producing food crop, 6 10.71 62.50
Food aid and horticulture sale 9 16.07 78.57
Food aid and live stock sale 2 3.57 82.14
Food aid, income from horticulture and livestock
sale 3 5.36 87.50
Producing food crop on irrigation 1 1.79 89.29
Livestock sale 5 8.93 98.22
Credit 1 1.79 100
Total 56 100
Source: Field Survey, March 2004

6.1.4 Opportunities

The production and marketing challenges and opportunities were presented across the

discussions. At this juncture, some opportunities are presented for more emphasis that SSI users

have.

• A great opportunity for small scale irrigated horticultural producers in the area is

accessibility to all weather roads of Addis Ababa to Moyale. This is a big artery of the

nation, which merges into The Aorta (Addis Ababa to Djibouti and Harar roads) in less

than an hour drive. Most of the irrigation schemes 11(69%) with farms 59(66%) are by

the roadside at a maximum of three km, and 91% of them are in 10 km distance. The

mean distance of the schemes is 4.54 km with SD 4. 45km. Such proximity to road

facilitates access to market (central and local), input supply, and helps in delivery of
74
 technical support, etc. It is a great opportunity in a country where 75% of the farms are

located at a distance of more than half a day walk from all weather roads (cited in Abebe,

2002 FDRE 1996).

9 16 1 5

8 14 1 3
7 10 1 4
Distance of the Scheme
6 9 1 2 from Highway

5 8 2 12 No of Schemes

4 7 1 5
Number of Farmers
3 3 1 2
2 2 5 34
1 1 3 23

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure.7: Distance Of Irrigation plot From the Main High Way (Km)

Source: Field Survey, March 2004

In addition to this, the study woredas are located in the center of the country 7037'to 8025'N and

38032' to 39004'E where that of Ethiopia is 3024'to 14053'N latitude and 32042' to 48012'E

longitude. They have geographical proximity and access to all whether road to the several towns

of the central parts of Ethiopia (Adama, Debre Zeit, Modjo, Shashamane, Awassa, Assela and

several other small towns).

• Agro climatic and soil conditions: The study location under consideration is within

subtropical climate locally named Badda Dare or Woina Dega. The mean temperature is

15 to 20o C and rainfall 700 to 800mm with available supplementary irrigation is

favorable for horticultural crop production. A great number of recommended vegetable

75
 varieties in the country could grow in this climatic area (see Annex 6). The soils of the

lakeshore are of recent alluvial formation, young topsoil with important nutrients for plant

growth. Thus, it is a great opportunity to be endowed with such a virgin soil regarding its

use for cash crop production. The area is relatively a tested area in vegetable production

where a bulk is produced with such suitable climate, soil condition, irrigation

infrastructure, and market out lets

• Physical proximity of SSI schemes to each other: The physical proximity of SSI

schemes by itself has easy communication advantages to share information of technical,

social, and economic benefits as they do for market information. It facilitates also to

strengthen of organizations or society formations as well as bargaining power in the

market. In addition, physical proximity facilitates consultation for contractual production

agreement that can be made on mass basis than on individual level. Hence, the producers

can consult each other on what to produce and may diversify their products and can keep

in touch the whole year. The physical proximity is indicated in Sketch (Annex 7). It is

observed that the irrigation water user societies form a crescent around Lake Ziway, of

course, within scattered farms of private horticultural growers.

• Establishment of Meki-Batu Vegetable and Fruit Growers Cooperative Union: It is a

community-based institution with economic reasons on international cooperative

principles such as an open membership. It is one type of infrastructure for the rural

community. It may be effectively utilized for market search and input supply to develop

bargaining power of the farmers as it has already started in the last two years. It is

indicated that the union has been able to enter the country’s vegetable market in the last

two years. The supply constrained it from continuous marketing. Even if the performance

76
 evaluation of the union is far from assessment and conclusion for its efficiency, it has a

potential of serving small-scale horticultural producers from the very principle of

cooperatives formation as rural infrastructure.

• Holding Sizes: The mean land holding size of small-scale farmers is found to be high

from the national and regional state point of view. Only the mean cultivated land (rain

fed and irrigated) constitute 2.57ha when the average is 3.2ha.

77
Chapter Seven

7.1 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

7.1.1 Summary

The study has attempted to identify and describe some technical, institutional and management

constraints of small-scale irrigation users horticultural production systems as we as their

opportunities in Dugda Bora and Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha woredas. Various approaches

were employed to generate the necessary data from primary and secondary sources. The main

methods of acquiring data included household sample survey, group discussions and field

observations. The woredas reports (quarter and yearly) and other published and unpublished

documents represent the source of the secondary data.

Qualitative and quantitative techniques were employed for analyzing the data. The statistical

package for Social Scientists (SPSS) was used for coding, compiling, and analyzing the

household questionnaire data. The specific statistical tools used were simple descriptive statistics

frequency distributions, mean, percent, standard deviation and coefficient of variation, and

correlations.

7.1.2 Conclusions

SSI user farmers in the study area have large average family size (seven), long experience in

farming, and few years of formal schooling. Regarding the economic base of the farmers the

average land holding size is 3.2 hectares that is considerably high as compared to national and the

regional averages. The mean livestock holding is 8.1 in terms of Tropical Livestock Unit while

the average the number of oxen owned is 1.94. The farming experience, their land holding size

and the live stock asset is a good base for the farmers for horticultural production. However

farmers’ low level of education is observed to be constraining the activity.

78
The area is characterized by mixed farming system. Several crop varieties are grown and

livestock are reared. Major crop types grown are field crop (cereals and pulses) and horticultural

crops. The agro ecology of the Woredas fits to several recommended horticultural crop varieties.

The share of horticultural crops is considerable in terms of volume (18%) while it is only 2.5% in

terms of area. This figure is an indicator of a huge relative potential that horticulture has in the

local economy.

The major labor source for the farmers (for 81% house holds) is family labor while there is

supplementary seasonal or permanent hired labor. Female labor has considerable role in

horticultural crop production activities. Female usually participate in planting, weeding,

harvesting and marketing. The area has also created job opportunity for daily laborers as it is

observed from crowds of people in Meki and Zway during intensive periods of vegetable

production (September to January).

The average crop productivity is low especially for horticultural crop as compared to the yield

obtained on research centers and demonstration sites. Diseases, insect pests, irrigation water

failure, timely unavailability of inputs, shortage of credit service, inadequate agricultural

extension service, lack of adequate knowledge about irrigation agronomic practices, poor field

management, inadequate market information on supply and demand of horticulture are deemed

the major limitations.

Pertaining to institutional credit service only one institution (Meki-Batu horticultural growers

cooperative union) is in operation. Fifty-fife farmers utilized credit service, among which forty-

79
one received from the Union and the remaining from personal sources. Thirty-four of the

respondents indicated that they received advance payments in their horticultural production.

Sixteen out of thirty four advance users were obtained credit. This situation (utilization of

advance) and the number of farmers remained without credit service (35) indicates that there is

shortage of this service for horticultural crop production.

Agricultural extension services such as production demonstration, training, market information

and advice on horticultural crop production and marketing activities was found to be inadequate.

In addition to this, more concern and the expertise of the development agents is towards field

crops rather than horticultural crops.

The other constraint is related to irrigation water availability and the scheme management. It

required longer time to bring irrigation plots into production at the begging of dry season. In

Most of the SSI user societies or cooperatives do lack reserve funds for maintenance and

depreciation purposes. The majority of the farmers reported frequent irrigation motor failure.

There are also water shortages for Meki-River users mainly due to erratic rain fall while, every

year, new producers joining the business divert water at the upper stream create additional load to

water distribution. This may call for water use arrangements and searching for alternative water

use sources such as ground water development but with great cautions for its potential.

The target market for small-scale farmers is Addis Ababa for important cash crops such as

tomato, onion and papaya, which are produced at greater bulks. For cabbage and pepper Zway

and Meki local markets are more important. Trader or Cooperative Union arranges transportation

and package facilities for Addis Ababa market because the actual sale is performed on the farm

itself as far as onion and tomato and papaya concerned. The prices highly fluctuate and advance

80
payment limits farmers bargaining power in the face of the daily changing market prices. Low

information supply as well as low production and productivity are putting challenges.

Moreover, almost all the farmers are producing similar crops. A few crop varieties namely

tomato, onion, green pepper, cabbage and papaya are cultivated that means product

diversification is minimal. Horticultural food crops such as root crops with considerable energy

source are absent. As to farmers bargaining power some of the farmers were organized into a

cooperative union for economic reasons. It entered the Central Vegetable and Fruit market

through their Union only twice since its establishment in 2002.It is not in a position to regularity

work in the market. The main constraints indicated were low level of output, production

seasonality and low product diversification.

Horticultural crop production occupies a greater portion of the average monetary income of the

SSI users. This is an indicator of the importance of horticultural production in that local economy

and changing the economic tendency to market oriented farming from subsistence.

Though small-scale irrigation horticulture has great contribution in terms of production volume

and relative average income in the area, its average productivity is low and market is not also

adequately utilized.

7.1.3 Recommendations

Several factors involved in production and marketing activities of horticulture call for integrated

approach of dealing with the problems of SSI user farmers’ horticultural development. Hence,

the following can be the major areas of intervention.

81
Horticultural production and marketing has strong potential in the locality in terms of changing

subsistence economy into cash crop (non traditional farming). It has created employment

opportunity for agricultural labor force, means of living and may improve food situation or

access to food. Hence, Government and Non-Government development actors and researchers

have to give due emphasis to irrigated horticultural crop production i.e., they should elp in

horticultural production and marketing. To this effect some possible options can be:

1/ Ensuring availability and access to improved horticultural inputs and packages of

practices.

2/ Training technical personnel/development agents by giving special focus to

horticultural crop management, marketing skill development and information delivery,

3/ Strengthening farmers training and demonstrations on horticultural crop irrigation

agronomy,

4/ Promoting crop diversification for improved income and improved household food

security. Some crops of high production and nutritional energy such as root and tuber

crops should be introduced and promoted

5/ Identifying and promoting some crops with export importance beyond production for

domestic dishes alone.

6/ Ensuring availability and access to some rural infrastructure such as rural road, credit

service, farmers’ organization and to enhance market information and utilization.

7/ Devising some means of adding value to horticultural produces: such as establishment

small-scale vegetable food processing agro industries.

The other area of possible intervention in the development of the irrigation water it self. Here,

Government and Non Government actors involved in small-scale irrigation development should

design means of ensuring the sustainability of irrigation schemes especially in terms of motor

82
pump in particular and the irrigation scheme in general management. In this aspect planning

ways of raising funds and reserving funds for maintenance and depreciation is of paramount

importance. In addition to this, designing equitable water use mechanisms between the water

users association and other private individuals; and within water user association members is

needed. For this reason up stream and down stream water users arrangements should be worked

out. Regarding for equitable distribution of water among water users association/cooperatives

developing a fair distribution and payments for fuel has to be dealt with; otherwise it would have

a great repercussion on irrigation development. Beyond this, a developing under ground water

for irrigation can be an option. However, care has to be taken in using this source. Otherwise, it

would have serious environmental and economical consequences. Thus, underground water

potential and recharging capacity need to be studied before embarking on developing wells. The

other option can be improving the irrigation water efficiency and up grading the users knowledge

in irrigation agronomy can be considered.

83
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www.fas.usda.gov/htp/circular/2002/20-07stats/circular
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Annex 1: Dugda Bora and Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha Woredas Selected Small Scale

Irrigation Water Users Association

No Name of water Kebele Year of Woreda Number of Number of Irrigated Area (ha) Holding pr Donor institution
user Establishment Members sample head (ha)

1 Tepho-140 Tepho korke 1996 Dugda Bora 43 9 13 0.302 ESRDF1

2 Lega Meki Shubi Gemu 1996 Dugda Bora 11 2 32.5 2.954 Individuals
3 Doddota Denbel Dodot Denbel 1996 Dugda Bora 15 3 10.5 0.7 SHDI3
4 Melka Korma Wolda Kelina 1997 Dugda Bora 21 4 16.625 0.791 SHDI
5 Wayo Gabriel Wayo Gabriel 1996 Dugda Bora 22 5 13.75 0.625 SHDI
6 Cheleleki Denbel Dodot Denbel 1997 Dugda Bora 24 5 10.875 0.453 SHDI
7 Kelina Denbel Wolda Kelina 1997 Dugda Bora 16 3 8.625 0.539 SHDI
8 Tuchi Denbel Tuchi Denbel 1996 Dugda Bora 15 3 8.0 0.533 SHDI
9 Melka Abagodana Wolda Kelina 1997 Dugda Bora 13 3 7.75 0.596 SHDI
10 Wayo Seritti Wayo Gabriel 2000 Dugda Bora 48 10 17.0 0.354 ESRDF
11 Shubi Shubi Gemu 2001 Dugda Bora 17 4 5.75 0.338 JICA2
12 Sombo Genet Shubi Gemu 2001 Dugda Bora 22 5 6.25 0.284 JICA
13 Sombo Aleltu Shubi Gemu 2001 Dugda Bora 19 4 5.25 0.276 JICA
14 Elka Somayan Negelign 1988 Adami Tulu 54 12 49 0.907 SHDI
15 Rassa Woranto Negelign 1988 Adami Tulu 47 10 46 0.978 SHDI
16 Bochessa Bochessa 1980 Adami Tulu 34 7 17 0.5 Yugoslavia
Total 421 90 267.875 .636
1
ESRDF: Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation and development Fund.
2
JICA: Japan International cooperation Agency.
3
SHDI: Self help Development International

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 Annex 2: QUESTIONNAIRE and Guidelines

A Questionnaire Designed To Assess Challenges and Opportunities of

Small Scale Irrigation Users Horticulture in Adami Tulu Jido Kombolchaand
Dugda Bora Woredas, East Shewa Zone.
General Information
Enumerator
1. Woreda
2. Peasant association
3. Name of Irrigation Scheme
4. Name of the irrigation users Association
5. Name of farmers
6. Age
7. Sex
8. Level of Education
9. Experience in farming (in years)
9.1 Field crop
9.2 Irrigated Horticultural crop
10. Household characteristics
No Name of the house hold member Sex Age Education level

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

91
92
 Crop and animal Production
11. What was the area of your crop production in the last three years?
Crop Area (ha)
2001 2002 2003
Irrigated Rain fed Irrigated Rain fed Irrigated Rain fed
Cereals Maize
Wheat
Tef
Barely
Sorghum
Pulses Haicot
bean
Others

Vegetables Onion
Tomato
Pepper
Cabbage
Others,
specify

Fruits Papaya
Orange
Banana
Others

93
 12. What was the yield of the crops have you grown in 2003 cropping year?
Crop Yield (Qt/ha)
Irrigated Rain fed
Cereals Maize
Wheat
Tef
Barely
Sorghum
Pulses Haricot bean
Others

Vegetables Onion
Tomato
Pepper
Cabbage
Others, specify

Fruits Papaya
Orange
Banana
Others

13. What area of land do you own (hectare/ Timads)?

13.1 Cropland
13.1.1 under irrigation
13.1.2 rain fed farming
13.2. Grazing and homestead
13.2.1 Grazing land
13.2.2 Homestead and
13.3 Total

94
14. Is there any area of irrigable land you have rented in? Yes
No

14.1 If yes, how much area of land you have rented in?
14.2 For how log you have rented in?
14.3 What is the price of leasing per year?
15. Is there any area of irrigable land you have rented out? Yes
No

15.1 If yes, how much area of land you have rented out?
15.2 For how log you have rented out?
15.3 What is the price of leasing per year?
16. Do you multiple crops on you irrigable land? Yes
No

16.1 If yes, how many times do you grow in a year?
16.1.1. Twice 16.1.2 thrice
16.2. If yes, what crops?
16.2.1. Horticultural & food crops 16.2.2. Food crops only 16.2.3. Horticultural crops only

17. Do you plan whatto produce for every year? Yes
No

17.1If yes, what are your criteria?

18. Do you consult on what to produce? Yes
No

18.1 If yes, who do you consult?
18.1.1 Wife/Husband 18.1.2 working age children 18.1.3 a neighbor/ relative
18.1.4 DAs/ an agricultural expert 18.5 Water users association/cooperative 18.6
other, specify

95
Animal production

19. Do you rear livestock? Yes
No

20. If yes, what animal do you keep on your farm?
No Animal Number
1 Cow
2 Ox
3 Sheep and
4 Goat
5 Donkey
6 Horse
7 Mule
8 Poultry (hen)

21. What is the feed source for your animal?

21.1 grass from open grazing field, 21.2 Crop residues 21.3 forage raised by
irrigation water, 21.4 some product of horticultural 21.4 other specify

Production constraints on horticulture

22. What problems you have in horticultural production and marketing?

96
No Horticultural Problem (Rank them)
Crop

Seed/

Transport
Shortage

Package
planting

Storage
Market
Disease

specify
Other
Insect
Pest
of
Onion
Tomato
Pepper
Cabbage
Others (specify)

Papaya
Orange
Banana
Others (specify)

Seed sources
23. Do you use improved seed or planting materials? Yes
No

23.1 From where do you get seed or planting material?
No Hort Crop Source
State farm

Neighbor
Research
market

specify
Ababa
Addis
center

Other
Local
Own

Onion
Tomato
Pepper
Cabbage
Other (specify)

Papaya
Orange
Banana
Others (specify)

97
24. Seed rate per hectare
Crop Seed rate (kg /ha)*

* Record in the local material unit, it will be converted then to kg/ha.

98
 Storage facility
25. Do you have storage facilities for your horticultural crop? Yes
No

26. If yes, for how long can you store?
No Crop Name of storage
Storage period

27. What means of transportation do you use to take your horticultural produce to the market?
No Horticultural produce Means of If there any damage, at what level (%)
transport No Yes
0 =<10 11-20 21-29 >=30
Onion
Tomato
Pepper
Cabbage
Others, specify

Papaya
Orange
Banana
Others

99
28. Where do you sell your Horticultural produce?
No Crop Market
Cooperative Local Addis Ababa Other/ specify
union Market
Onion
Tomato
Pepper
Cabbage
Others, specify

Papaya
Orange
Banana
Others

29. Do you know the retailing price of your produce in the market during your sale? Yes

No

30. If No, how do you set you farm get price?

31. Do you receive some advance payment for your horticultural production? Yes
No

31.1 If yes, who give you the payment?
31.1 A whole seller 31.1.2 Cooperative union 31.1.3 A broker
31.1.4 Local fruit and vegetable retailer 31.1.5 other specify

100
32. In what months you take your produce to the market (2003)?
Horticultural crop Month in which it is taken to market (Price)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Onion
Tomato
Pepper
Cabbage
Others (specify)

Papaya
Orange
Banana
Others (specify)

33. What packaging materials do you use horticultural produces?

No Crop Packaging material

34. Do you use Fertilizer for your horticultural production? Yes
No

34.1 Have used fertilizer in 2003 production period for your horticultural crop
Production? Yes
No

35. If yes to Q#34.1, what fertilizer rate did you apply in 2003?
No Horticultural Fertilizer Rate Time of application
Crop DAP Urea At planting After planting / specify time

101
102
36. What amount of horticultural crop you have produced last year 2002?
Crop Produce in Kg Sold Used Damaged

Pesticide use
37. Do use pesticides? Yes
No

37.1 Have you applied Insecticides in 2003 cropping season? Yes
No

37.2 If yes. For what pest you have applied?
38. If yes to Q #37, for what pest you have used?
No Crop Disease Pesticide

39. From do you get pesticides?

39.1. Local Market 39.2 MoA 39.3 Cooperative 39.4 Research center
39.5 Other, specify
40. Do you get the pesticide at the right time? Yes
No

41. Do you trust the purity of the pesticides? Yes
No

42. If no to Q#40, why?

103
Insecticide use
43. Do use Insecticide? Yes
No

43.1 Have you applied Insecticides in 2003 cropping season? Yes
No

43.2 If yes. For what pest you have applied?
No Crop Insect pest Pesticide Rate of Time of application
application

44. Do you use some other cultural practices to control disease pests? Yes
No

44.1 If yes? Disease pest and cultural practice employed e.g. digging, weeding

No Crop Diseases pest The cultural practice used

45. Do you exercise some other cultural practices to control insect pests? Yes
No

46. If yes to Q #45, Insect pest and cultural practice used
No Crop Insect pest The cultural practice used

104
45. Do safety materials to use during pesticide and insecticide application?
Yes
No

48. If yes to Q#47, what materials do you use?
Safety wear Yes No
Tuta
Glove
Eye glass
Nosal wear
Others

Labor source
49. What labor sources do employ for your horticultural production?
49.1 Family 49.2 Hired 49.3 family and hired labor
50. If you employ family labor what activities they perform?
Family Activities
labor Land preparation Planting Weeding Harvesting Watering Marketing Pesticide & Sell
insecticide
application
Male

Female

51. If you use hired labor what activities they under take?
Hired Activities
labor Land Planting Weeding Harvesting Watering Marketing Pesticides sell
preparation and
insecticide
s appll
Male
Female

52. Is hired labor readily available? Yes
No

105
 If yes, from where they come in 2003?

53. Are the laborers experienced in horticultural crop management? Yes
No

54. How much you have paid for hired daily laborers for horticultural production in
2003 cropping yearyear?

55 What is the average labor cost per day?

56. Do you have some permanent laborer(s)? Yes
No

57. If yes to Q#56, how many laborers?

58. What is the wage rate?

59. Do you get credit for your horticultural production? Yes
No

60.1 If yes to Q # 59, from whom?
60.1.1Cooperative 60.1.2 MoA 60.1.3 Bank 60.1.3 Micro finance 60.1.4 Other,
Specify

61. If no to # 59, Why?

61.1 No credit delivering institutions 61.2 No credit for such crops
61 .3 Others, specify

Farm implement for horticultural crops

62. What implements you own in your horticultural production and management?
No Implement Yes NO
1 Spade
2 Shovel
3 Sprayer
4 Cart (hand/oxen/ donkey pulled)

106
5 Fork
6 Sickle
7 Meter (for meaure)
8 Balance (weight balance)
9 Measuring cylinder for liquids
10 Box
11 Gajara
12 Mofer and yolk

63. What draught power do you use to prepare your horticultural land the land?
63.1. Oxen 63.2. Machine/Tractor 63.3. Human labor
Agricultural Extension Service
64. How often local DAs or Experts contact you?
64.1 More than twice a month 64.2 once every two months 64.3 once
every three months 64.4 other specify

65. What services do you get from DA?

65.1 Advice on horticultural production 65.2 Training on horticultural
65.3 Method demonstration on horticultural production 65.4 in put delivery, 65.5
Others, Specify

66. Have you ever participated in any horticultural crop production demonstration? Yes

No

107
66. 1 If yes to Q # 66, in what crop and when
No Crop Year

67. Whom do you consult whenever you face some problem in you horticultural production and
marketing?
67.1 A producing Neighbor / friend 67.2 A producing friend 67.3 DA or an
expert 67.4 local market 67.5 a Broker 67.6 Other specify

68. From whom do you get market information for horticultural produce?
68.1 A producing Neighbor 68.2 A producing friend 68.3 DA or an expert of
agriculture 68.4 Local market 68.5 other specify

Irrigation

69. What is the source of your irrigation water? 69.1 Lake
69.2 River
69.3 Well
70. Is there any problem with your irrigation system? 71.1 Yes
71.2 No

71. If to Q #70 yes, what are they?

72. From whom did you get the irrigation motor pump do use? 72.1 It is my own
72.2 Bought in cooperative 72.3 Get in support from government or NGO 72.3
Other, specify

108
73. Do you save for the maintainer/ replacement of your irrigation motor? 73.1 Yes
73.2
No

74. If yes, what amount you save each year?

75. If no, why?

76. From whom you get the maintenance service?

77. Do you pay for irrigation water? 77.1 Yes
77.2 No

78. Do you have any conflict during irrigation water use? 74.1 Yes
74.2 No

79. If yes to Q #78, what is/was it?

80. If yes again to Q#78, how did you solve the problem?

81. How often do you water your horticultural crops?

No Crop Frequency of irrigation per month

82. From whom you have learned to apply in this way?

82.1 DAs 82.2 Local investors 82.3 Neighbor 82.4 Other (Specify)

83. Have you faced food shortage in the last three years?
79.1 Yes
79.2 No

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84. If yes to Q # 83, in what months did you face?

85. How did you tackle the problem?

81.1 purchase from the local market 81.2 Food aid 81.3 other Specify

86. Do you consume your own horticultural produces? 86.1 Yes
86.2 No

87. If yes Q #86, what portion
No Crop Portion of the produce

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 Income source
88.1 Farm income in 2003 cropping year season?
Crop Amount produced Amount used /to Amount Income from
be used sold sale
Field crop

Horticultural crop

Total

88.2 Income from livestock

Livestock Livestock sold Income from sale
Sheep/goat
Donkey
Cattle
Total

88.3 Non-farm income

88.4 Off farm income
88.5 Total income
89. For what purposes you spend you income?
89.1 Cloth 89.2 Consumables (Salt, Coffee etc) 89.3 tax payment 89.4
purchases
of inputs 85.5 Consumption goods
89.6 Agricultural land lease 89.7 other, specify

Thank you

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Guidelines For Farmers Group Discussion

1. What crops do produce using Irrigation water?

2. Is there any problem with your horticultural production? What?

3. Is there problem with your irrigation system? What?

4. Where do you sale your produces?

5. Do you receive credit for your production purpose? Source?

6. Do you get agricultural extension services?

7. Do you get in puts you require on time?

8. Whom do you consult whenever you face some production and marketing problems?

9. Are the prices for your produce fair?

Thank you

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Annex 4: Field Crop production and productivity in Dugda Bora and ATJK Woredas over 2001 to 2003

Crop Area (ha) Yield (Qt) Productivity (Qt/ha)

Maize 106967.25 822839.65 7.69
Wheat 68437.11 543725.72 7.94
Tef 55985.39 267877.43 4.78
Barely 6404.75 46796.93 7.31
H.bean 93247 541978.5 5.81
Lentiles 331.75 1043.87 3.15
Sorghum 1003 11676.4 11.64
Beans 1611.25 1048.5 0.65
Chick pea 1386.1 218.42 0.16
Peas 1042 672.64 0.65
Source: Adapted from Adami Tulu and Dugda Bora Woredas reports March, 2004

Annex 5: Average nutritive value of vegetable per 100gm edible portion

Crop Moisture Vitamin Vit C (mg) Protein (g) Iron ((mg) Calcium (mg)
A(microRe)
Tomato 94 111 23 0.9 0.5 17
Hot pepper 89 200 119 1.7 1.3 11
Sweet pepper 92 292 103 1.3 0.9 12
Egg plant 92 83 12 1.4 0.7 6
Onion 89 0 9 1.6 1.0 30
Shallot 84 128 13 2.1 2.0 104
Garlic 88 114 32 2.4 2.0 112
Water Melon 93 150 7 0.5 0.4 14
Potato 78 0 18 2.0 0.8 9
Sweet potatoe 79 145 16 1.6 1.1 72
Cabbage 94 23 41 1.4 0.4 42

Source: AVRDC, 1991

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Annex 6: Recommenced crops and vegetables varieties in different area of Ethiopia, 1983 to 2002

Crop Type Variety Yield (ton) Altitude (masl)

Onion Adama Red 30-35 500-20001
Melkam 30-35 500-20001
Tomato Marglobe 32-35 600-20001
Melkashola 40-45 1000-20001
Money Maker 40-45 500-20001
Melks Salsa 40-43 1000-20001
Roma VF 40-43 700-20001
Cabbage Copen Hegen 27.5 500-30002
Early Drum head 15.8 500-17002
Cauliflower Glavier 21.6 1700-30002
Beet Root Cross by Egyptian 24.8 500-30002
Deriot dark red 20.58 500-30002
Switch Chard Long white rebbed 31.0 1700-30002
Ford hook grant 15.9 500-17002
Carrot Nates 21.0 500-30002
Chantey 24.7 500-3002
Pepper Bako fana 20.0 1400-19002
Merako Fana 30.0 14000-22002
Sweet potato Koka 12 13.95 1400-18002
White star 13.39 1400-18002
Cemasa (Bako) 22.16 1400-18002
Cesma (Awassa) 24.32 1400-18002
Koka-18 28.7 1400-18002
375 24.96 1400-18002
AJAC-1 23.27 1400-18002
Tis1499 21.98 1400-18002
Awassa 83 20.7 Mid and high land
Source: 1Melkasa Tresearch Center Vegetable and Fruit production Manual Amharic version 2002
2
WWW.knu.ac.kr/-iatc/report.Ethiopia.doc
.

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