INTRODUCTION TO

COMMUNICATIONS

COURSE no. 4

Assoc. Prof. Luminiţa SCRIPCARIU

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 FROM THE PREVIOUS COURSE

 LOSS COMPRESSION TECHNIQUES

 ADC
 PCM, DPCM, ADPCM, DELTA
 DCT
 JPEG, MPEG
 RSA Encryption Algorithm

* What do the abbreviations above mean?

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 QUESTION 1
The operation that rounds the samples’
values of a signal to a finite set of levels
is called:
 quantization
 sampling
 filtering
 coding

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 QUESTION 1
The operation that rounds the samples’
values of a signal to a finite set of levels
is called:
 quantization
 sampling
 filtering
 coding

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 QUESTION 2
The operation of ‘reading’ the signal at
discrete moments is called:
 quantization
 sampling
 filtering
 coding

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 QUESTION 2
The operation of ‘reading’ the signal at
discrete moments is called:
 quantization
 sampling
 filtering
 coding

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 QUESTION 3
In order to maintain a constant
quantization SNR, the quantum must be:
 Adapted to the signal
 Increased
 Decreased
 Constant

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 QUESTION 3
In order to maintain a constant
quantization SNR, the quantum must be:
 Adapted to the signal
 Increased
 Decreased
 Constant

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 QUESTION 4
Nyquist frequency is equal to:
 The maximum frequency of the signal
spectrum
 The maximum frequency’s double value
of the signal spectrum
 The signal’s bandwidth
 The cut-off frequency’s double value of
the pre-sampling LPF

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 QUESTION 4
Nyquist frequency is equal to:
 The maximum frequency of the signal
spectrum
 The maximum frequency’s double value
of the signal spectrum
 The signal’s bandwidth
 The cut-off frequency’s double value of
the pre-sampling LPF

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 QUESTION 5
DCT is used for:
 lossless compression algorithms
 loss compression algorithms
 error-correction techniques
 equalizing techniques

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 QUESTION 5
DCT is used for:
 lossless compression algorithms
 loss compression algorithms
 error-correction techniques
 equalizing techniques

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 QUESTION 6
What can be used for audio compression?
 JPEG
 MPEG-1
 MPEG-2
 MPEG-4

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 QUESTION 6
What can be used for audio compression?
 JPEG
 MPEG-1
 MPEG-2
 MPEG-4

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 QUESTION 7
Which of the following algorithms are
used for HDTV?
 JPEG
 MPEG-1
 MPEG-2
 MPEG-4

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 QUESTION 7
Which of the following algorithms are
used for HDTV?
 JPEG
 MPEG-1
 MPEG-2
 MPEG-4

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 QUESTION 8
Which of the following algorithms are used
for 3D image compression?
 JPEG
 MPEG-1
 MPEG-2
 MPEG-4

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 QUESTION 8
Which of the following algorithms are used
for 3D image compression?
 JPEG
 MPEG-1
 MPEG-2
 MPEG-4

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 QUESTION 9
Which of the following algorithms mark the
multimedia files with a digital signature ?
 MPEG-1
 MPEG-2
 MPEG-4
 MPEG-7

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 QUESTION 9
Which of the following algorithms mark the
multimedia files with a digital signature ?
 MPEG-1
 MPEG-2
 MPEG-4
 MPEG-7

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 10. PROPOSED EXERCISE
A sinusoidal signal having 5V amplitude (A)
and 10kHz frequency is uniformly quantized
with 5 quantization bits. Calculate:
1. The quantum value: q (V, mV)
2. The quantization noise power: Nq (W, mW)
3. The dB value of the quantization SNR: S/Nq (dB).
* Tip: S = A2/2.

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 DATA CODING TECHNIQUES
• COMPRESSION
• ENCRYPTION
• ERROR-CORRECTION
• LINE CODING

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 BASICS OF ENCRYPTION
• Encryption – Decryption algorithms

• Cryptografic Algorithms

• Plaintext

• Ciphertext

• Key

• Cryptanalysis

• Cryptographic Attacks
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 Cryptographic Techniques
• Symmetric-key techniques – use private keys
 DES, TDES, IDEA, AES, RC4
 substitution techniques
 transposition techniques
• Asymmetric-key techniques – Public-Key
Cryptography use public encryption keys but
private decryption keys
e.g. RSA, El Gamal, Backpack Algorithm
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 Acronyms
• DES – Data Encryption Standard
• TDES = 3DES – Triple DES
• AES – Advanced Encryption Standard
• IDEA – International Data Encryption
Algorithm
• RC - Rivest Cipher 4
• RSA – Rivest, Shamir, Adleman

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 Public-Key Cryptographic System
(PKCS)

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 RSA
• Rivest, Shamir, Adleman
• Public key (PK) algorithm
• Used for digital signature
• Applied on decimal values (e.g. ASCII codes
of the characters)
• It has some weaknesses.
• The keys must be well analyzed in order to
avoid weak keys.
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 RSA Algorithm Design
• Choose 2 prime numbers, p and q.
• Calculate the PK component n:
n  pq
• Compute the Euler’ totient function:
(n)  ( p  1)( q  1)
• Calculate the exponent e (the second PK
component), so that e and the Euler’ totient
function are coprime:
gcd[ e, (n)]  1, 2  e  (n)
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 RSA Algorithm
• Encrypts the decimal value of the message
block corresponding to:
C  M (mod n), M  n
e

• Decryption is made using the decryption

exponent, d:
D  C (mod n)
d

• The private exponent, d, is the modular

multiplicative inverse of e (modulo Φ(n)) :
d  e  1 (mod (n))
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 Remarks

• Long messages are split into short blocks

and separately encoded, block-by-block.

• The encryption key length is the length of n

expressed in bits (e.g. RSA-1024).

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 Example:
p=5, q=11, M=5
n=?
(n)=?
e=?
d=?
C=?
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 Solved Exercise

The bit-sequence 00000111 is encrypted by

RSA algorithm with the PK (3, 391).
Calculate the encrypted binary sequence.

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 Answer Key
Input: 00000111

m=7, e=3, n=391

(3,391) is the public key

c=m^e (mod-n)=7^3 = 343 (mod-391)

Output: 101010111
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 PROPOSED EXERCISE
Let us consider p=3, q=7 and the RSA algorithm.
1. Calculate the component n of the PK, the
Euler’s totient function and the encryption
exponent e.
2. Encrypt the decimal value M = 3 using RSA
algorithm.
3. Convert the encrypted value in binary form.

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 Remarks
• If the number of bits used to express the
input value of RSA in binary form is b, than
the number of bits used to express the
output value of RSA in binary form is b+1.
• Number b must obey the condition
2^(b+1)<=n.

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 How robust is the RSA algorithm?

Its robustness is based on the difficulty of

factorizing large numbers with at least 300
ciphers from 0 to 9.

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 PRIVATE-KEY CRYPTOSYSTEM

C=EKe (M) , M=DKd (C)=E-1 (C)

Ke=Kd

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 Private-Key Encryption
Algorithms

• DES – binary, 64-bit key

• TDES – binary, 128-bit key

• AES – applied on bytes, 128-bit,

192-bit or 256-bit keys
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 DES
DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD
• Symmetric-key cryptosystem
• Binary encryption algorithm
• 64-bit key
Steps:
• Initial Permutation
• 48-bit Subkeys Schedule
• 16 encryption iterations
• Final Permutation

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 1. Initial Permutation

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 2. SUBKEY SCHEDULE
• From the initial 64-bit private key, 8 parity
bits are removed so a 56-bit sequence is
obtained.
• 16 subkeys are extracted from the 56-bit
sequence.
• A subkey is 48 bits long.
• Usually a bit from the initial key is used in
14 subkeys.

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 3. Encryption Iterations

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 One Encryption Iteration

Li 1  Ri Ri 1  Li  f ( Ri , Ki )
Feistel function (f) expands the half-block data sequence from
32 bits to 48 bits, applies the subkey and compresses the
result back to 32 bits with 8 shift-boxes (called S-boxes).
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 4. FINAL PERMUTATION

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 DES EXAMPLE
• Plaintext: Mihaela

• ASCII Codes:

77 105 104 97 101 108 97

• Ciphertext:

48 162 42 254 11 11 117 127

• Displayed Message: 0¢*þ••u•

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 Remark

Permutation is a transposition function.

It changes the positions of the elements

without changing their values.

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 Exercise
• Apply the permutation vector [3 1 2 4] on
the character sequence [e t t i].

• Apply the inverted permutation on the

resulted sequence and check the result.

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 Answer Key
• [3 1 2 4] = [c3, c1, c2, c4]
• [e t t i] = [c1, c2, c3, c4] becomes [t e t i]

• [2 3 1 4] = [c2, c3, c1, c4]

• [t e t i] becomes [e t t i].

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 PROPOSED EXERCISE
• Permutate the character sequence:

[t e l e c o m]

using the permutation vector [2 5 4 3 1 7 6].

• What is the inverted permutation vector?

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 Remark
• DES is vulnerable to brute force attack
due to the short encryption key.

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 TDES
• 3DES
• Triple DES – 128-bit key

• DES is applied three times, one after

another:
E – E - E or E – D – E,
using the key combination k1 – k2 – k1.

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 Encryption Algorithms’
Performances
Are evaluated by:
• The length of the encryption key

• The processing time

• Robustness

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 AES

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 AES

• Advanced Encryption Standard

• Defined on finite algebraic fields, called

Galois Fields, with 256 elements
expressed as 8-bit numbers

• This field is denoted GF(28).

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 Galois Field (GF)
• Algebraic finite field

• The elements can be expressed on a

specific number of bits (m)

• 2m elements => GF(2m)

• Internal operations of addition and
multiplication.

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 Galois Fields Applications

• Design of binary codes on GF(2)

• Design of AES algorithm on GF(256)

• Design of error-correction codes on large

GFs with multibit symbols.

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 GALOIS FIELD
• The field elements can be expressed in
binary, decimal, polynomial or exponential
form.
• Do not make any confusion with the
algebraic fields Zn (e.g Z15 which operates
modulo-15 and some elements cannot be
inverted!)

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 GF Arithmetic
• Addition: modulo-2, bit-by-bit.
• Multiplication: the polynomials of the
elements are multiplied modulo-p(x)
• p(x) – m-order primitive polynomial,
irreducible in binary field.
Example: GF(4), m = 2, p(x) = x^2+x+1
GF(4) = {0,1,2,3} = {00,01,10,11} =
= {0, 1, x, x+1} = {0, 1 , 2, 2^2}
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 GF(8)

• GF(8) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
• p(x)=x3 +x +1
• m=3 (3-bit symbols)

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 GF(8) Elements
Decimal Binary
Exponential
Values Values Polynomials
Form
(integers)
0 000 0 0

1 001 1 1

2 010 x α

3 011 x+1 α3

4 100 x2 α2

5 101 x2+1 α6

6 110 x2+x α4

7 111 x2+x+1 α5

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 Particular Feature of GFs

• Any symbol of GF(2^m), raised to power

of N = 2^m-1, is equal to 1!

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 Remarks
• Multiplication, division and raising to power
of numbers is easier done using the
exponential form of the elements!

• Multiplication in GF(2m) can be done by

addition of the exponents mod(2m -1).

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 Inverse of an Element
• b*b-1 = 1
The multiplication’s results of any two elements of
GF(8):
PGF8 = [ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7;
0 2 4 6 3 1 7 5;
0 3 6 5 7 4 1 2;
0 4 3 7 6 2 5 1;
0 5 1 4 2 7 3 6;
0 6 7 1 5 3 2 4;
0 7 5 2 1 6 4 3];
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 PROPOSED EXERCISE

• Calculate in GF(8):

(1+3*5+6^2)/7

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 Other Arithmetical Operations
defined in GF
• Subtraction: a-b = a+(-b) (-b = oposite of b)
• Division: a/b = a*b-1
• The kth root: a1/k = aq
• (q,k) complementary values
• qk mod(N)=1. It exists if m and N are prime
numbers.
• Matrix operations, determinant of matrices.
• n-DFT, n-IDFT if and only if n divides N.
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 DFT, IDFT

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 7-DFT
C  7  DFT (c)  Omega7  c

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 Remark
• All the arithmetic operations between
matrices and vectors are done by obeying
the rules of the Galois field, not like in the
case of decimal numbers!

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 Example

Calculate 7-DFT of the vector [0,1,2,3,4,5,6]

in GF(8).

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W7 Matrix
Omega7 = [1 1 1 1 1 1 1;
1 2 4 3 6 7 5;
1 4 6 5 2 3 7;
1 3 5 4 7 2 6;
1 6 2 7 4 5 3;
1 7 3 2 5 6 4;
1 5 7 6 3 4 2];

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 Answer Key

C  7  DFT (c)  Omega7  c

C = [0 1 2 3 4 5 6]

C = [7 4 4 7 0 3 3]

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 PROPOSED EXERCISE

• Calculate 7-DFT of the vector

[0,1,0,2,0,3,0] in GF(8).

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