THE MEDIUMS OF MUSIC

Like literature, music is an art that deals with sound. In literature, all sounds are produced by the human
voice. In music, however, the human voice is but one of a number of possible instruments. Different
listeners may have different and even opposed associations upon hearing the same musical sounds. It is
helpful for the listener to have some understanding of the various musical instruments most frequently
used in our culture and of the kind of sounds they produce.

A musical instrument is a mechanism that is able to generate musical vibrations and launch them into the
air. These various musical instruments are the means by which the composer communicates to the
listener; they are his medium of expression. Like any artist, the composer must choose his medium for
any given composition according to the requirement of his or her artistic conception.

Before turning to the different mediums of music, it is important to know the four properties of musical
sound and what the term range denotes as we are going to meet them in the course of the discussion of
the different instruments.

The Properties of Musical Sound

Musical sounds have four properties, namely: pitch, duration, volume, and color (timbre).

1. Pitch. All musical sounds have pitch. By pitch, we mean the location of a tone in the musical scale
in relation to high or low. It therefore refers to the highness or lowness of tone. All sounds are
caused by vibration. The musical note and noise are both caused by something vibrating (moving
to and fro) but sounds of definite pitch are created by regular or periodic vibrations. The vibrations
of a musical sound are regular. The sound produced by speaking results from irregular vibrations
and is thus, not of definite pitch while that produced by singing results from regular vibrations
and is thus, definite in pitch. There are many different pitches, ranging from very high to very low.
Pitch is determined by the rate of vibration which to a large extent depends on the length of the
vibrating body. Other conditions being equal, the shorter a string or column of air, the more
rapidly it vibrates and the higher the pitch. The longer a string or column air, the fewer the
vibrations per second and the lower the pitch. The width, thickness, density, and tension of the
vibrating body also affect the outcome.

2. Duration. This property of sound depends on the length of time over which vibration is maintained.
Tones are not only high or low but also short and long.

3. Volume. The term refers to force or percussive effects as a result of which the tone strikes us as
being loud or soft. Forte means loud; piano means soft.

4. Timbre of tone color. This is the individual quality of the sound produced by other instruments.
This depends on how the instrument accentuates the overtones within the sound wave. It is
influenced by a number of factors such as the size, shape, and the proportions of the instrument,
the material of which it is made, and the manner in which the vibration is set up.
 5. Range. The range of an instrument has to do with the total number of tones it can produce from
highest to lowest, and is determined largely by the size of the instrument. Large objects vibrate
more slowly than small ones, and slower vibrations create lower tones. Small objects produce
faster vibrations and hence higher tones. Thus, the range of a cello is lower than that of a trumpet.
The total pitch range is divided into four basic areas: soprano, alto, tenor, and bass which
correspond to the names given to different types of human voices: high female (soprano), low
female (alto), high male (tenor), and low male (bass). Furthermore, each range is divided into
three registers; high, middle, and low. Thus, we speak of the high register of a bassoon, the middle
register of a violin, the low register of a trumpet, etc.

The Two Mediums in Music

We have two mediums in music: the vocal medium and the instrumental medium.

1. Vocal Medium. The oldest and still most popular of all instruments is the human voice. It is the
most personal and direct of all instruments as it comes from within the body. The song projected
by the human voice is the most natural form of music.

2. Vocal Register. Voices differ considerably in range and register. The six classes of vocal register
are: (1) soprano (high-register female voice), (2) mezzo-soprano (medium-register female voice),
(3) alto or contralto (low-register female voice), (4) tenor (high-register male voice), (5) baritone
(medium-register male voice), and (6) bass (low-register male voice).

If each of the ranges is sung by many singers, the group is a chorus or a choir. Choral music is
either accompanied or unaccompanied. A chorus may be accompanied by any group of
instruments or by a solo keyboard instrument. It is frequently used in combination with the
orchestra.

Vocal Qualities. In addition to the six vocal registers, voices are also classified according to their
timbre or quality of sound. Thus, we distinguish lyric and dramatic sopranos (or altos, etc.).

A. The coloratura soprano is the highest and lightest of all voices. The music written for this voice is
full of runs, trills, and light ornaments.

B. The lyric soprano voice is less high and flute-like and usually sings less ornamental music. The
voice is especially suited to sweet song-like melodies which beauty of tone is the predominant
quality.
C. The dramatic soprano voice is heavier and can convey intense emotions in dramatic situations.
D. The mezzo-soprano voice is between the soprano and contralto in quality and range.
E. The contralto voice is low and rich in quality.
F. The tenor is the highest type in men’s voices.
G. The lyric tenor, like the lyric soprano has a voice especially suited to sweet songlike melodies.
H. The dramatic tenor, like the dramatic soprano has a heavier voice and is capable of conveying
intense emotions in dramatic situations.
I. The baritone voice has a range between tenor and bass.
J. The bass voice has the lowest and deepest quality.
The Different Musical Instruments

Musical instruments have always been a source of wonder to both the player and the listener. They figure
in our music either singly, in small groups (chamber music), band, or as part of the ensemble-orchestra.

Musical instruments are of three main types: the instruments which are bowed, instruments which are
blown and instruments which are struck. These in turn are divided into four groupings. The instruments
which are bowed are the strings. Those which are blown fall into two groups: the brasses, so called
because they are usually made of brass and the woodwinds, so named because they were originally made
of wood. The modern flute and piccolo are almost always made of metal. The fourth group is made up of
instruments which are struck. They are called percussion instruments. :

The most common string, woodwind, and brass instruments used in Philippine music are listed below in
order of range, from highest to lowest. Their size corresponds to their pitch smaller instruments producing
faster vibrations and thus higher sounds, and larger instruments producing slower vibrations and thus
lower Sounds.

Strings Woodwinds Brasses

violin piccolo trumpet
viola flute French horn
violoncello (or cello) clarinet trombone
bass oboe tuba
English horn
bass clarinet
bassoon
contrabassoon

The String Instruments

String instruments, also called stringed instruments, provide the basic orchestral sounds. They produce
tones by means of the vibration of a stretched string. There are two types of string instruments: (1) bowed
strings and (2) plucked strings.

1. Bowed Strings. These instruments produce tone by means of a bow of horsehair drawn across the
strings. The bowed strings, which include the violin, viola, violoncello, and double bass are the
mediums of music that can express the most poignant feeling and can continue playing infinitely
without fatigue. These have four strings which are made to vibrate by drawing a bow across them.
The hair of the bow is rubbed with rosin so that it will “grip” the strings. The player holds the bow
in his right hand. He stops the string by pressing down a finger of his left hand at a particular point
on the finger board, thereby leaving a certain portion of the string free to vibrate. By stopping the
string at another point, he changes the length of the vibrating portion, and with it the rate of
vibration and the pitch.

 The violin is the highest member of the string section of the orchestra. It is universally admired
for its voice-like quality. Preeminent in lyric melody, it is also capable of brilliance and dramatic
 effect. It as a wide range of tones which can be sustained indefinitely. It can be played very quietly
or loudly, very slowly or extremely fast.

Violin and Its Parts

 The viola is slightly larger than the violin. Its strings are lo thicker, and heavier; it is lower in range.
It is used more for harmony. It, however, is an effective melody instrument, particularly for
themes of a mournful or passionate nature.

Viola
 The violoncello, properly known as cello is much longer than the viola. It is lower in range than
the viola and the strings are thicker and heavier than those of the viola. The bow is shorter and
heavier and the instrument as to be held between the knee of a seated performer. It is notable
for its rich and romantic tone. If the violin is the soprano of the string section and the viola is the
alto, the cello is the tenor. Together basses, the cellos supply the foundation for the harmony of
the string choir.

Violoncello

 The double bass, known also as the contrabass, is the largest member of the string family. It rests
upon the floor, and the performer stands to play it. It is the lowest in range of the string group.
Its deep indistinct tones come into focus when they are duplicated an octave higher, usually by
the cello. It is most often used as a support supplying the bass tones for the string choir or
orchestra.

Contrabass
2. Plucked strings. Although instruments of the bowed string class can produce tone by plucking the
strings (pizzicato), the plucked string instruments produce tone solely by this means. The player
plucks the strings either with fingers or with a plectrum held in his hand.

Classical Guitar

Electric Guitar

The guitar family seems to be the most popular stringed instrument today. It varies considerably
in shape, and in the number of its strings, but basically, it consists of a finger board with frets
narrow metal cross strips attached to a light wooden body with flat top and back. It is seldom
used in an orchestra but is nowadays a part of jazz bands. This instrument is associated mostly
with dance band instrumentation and popularly used as an instrument to accompany the singing
of folk songs as well as popular songs.

There are other plucked strings which are seldom, if ever, found being played in symphony
orchestras: the banjo, the flute, the mandolin, and the ukulele.

The string instruments are preeminent in playing legato (smooth and connected). They are
capable too of the opposite quality of tone, staccato (short and detached). A special effect,
pizzicato (plucked), is executed by the performer’s plucking the string with his finger instead of
using the bow. This is used frequently on the double bass in jazz. Some of the special effects
 possible on each of the string instruments are: spiccato, which is playing with short, crisp strokes
of the bow; saltallato, which is bouncing the bow on the string to produce light, detached tones;
martellato, which is hammering the bow quiver on the string making each note separate and
emphatic, and tremolo, which is making the bow quiver on the string to produce a shimmering
effect. Vibrato denotes the rich, throbbing tones achieved when the player moves his finger
slightly away from the back to the required spot. In glissando, the player moves a finger of his left
hand rapidly along the string, sounding all the pitches of the scale.

The string section in the orchestra has come to be known as “the heart of the orchestra.” The
strings figure prominently as solo instruments and in chamber music; in duets, trios, quartets,
quintets, and the like.

The Woodwind Instruments

The woodwind instruments consist of members of four different families: flute and piccolo, oboe and
English horn, clarinet and bass clarinet, and bassoon and contrabassoon. These instruments are blown by
the player. The pitch of the notes are altered by shortening or lengthening the column of air vibrating
inside the instrument. This is done by covering and uncovering little holes with keys worked by fingers or
by fingers alone. They are the most decorative instruments and because they are so different in timbre,
they contribute the greatest variety in the ensemble. Saxophones are also included in this group. Besides
being prominent in the orchestra, the woodwinds possess a solo literature and are widely used in chamber
music.

 The flute, the first instrument of the woodwinds in the order of ceremonies, has a nature
somewhat distinct from that of other instruments of the section.

The flute is a cylindrical tube made of a silver alloy or metal. It is the coloratura soprano of the
woodwind choir. Its sound is silvery or liquid. It can play rapid, brilliant scale passages. Its tone is
cool and velvety in the low register but in its upper register, the sound is bright, thin and stands
out against the orchestral mass.
 Flute
 The piccolo, which is a smaller flute, produces the highest notes in the orchestra. Tones produced
are piercing and shrill.

Piccolo

 The oboe is made of wood. The body is a tube which gets wider at the end. The double reed in
the mouthpiece consists of two slips of cane so shaped as to leave between them an extremely
small passage for air. Because of this compression, the tone is focused and intense in all registers.
Oboe timbre is generally described as plaintive, nasal, and reedy. The instrument is associated
with pastoral effects and with nostalgic melodies.
 Oboe

 The English horn is a large oboe. The oboe and the English horn look very much alike except that
the English horn is wider and longer and ends in a pear-shaped bell, which accounts for its soft,
somewhat mournful timbre. Its range is slightly lower than that of the oboe and its sound is richer
and more plaintive.
 English Horn

The clarinet is the instrument that often takes the part of the violin in band music. It has a single reed, a
small elastic piece of cane fastened against its chisel-shaped mouthpiece. It has a remarkably wide range
from low to high and from soft to loud and produces three distinct tone colors: (1) in its upper register,
the sound is clear and powerful; (2) in its middle register, the sound is smooth or relaxed; (3) in its lower
register, the tones are rich and hollow.

Clarinet

The bassoon and contrabassoon are the tenor and bass, respectively, of the oboe family. The bassoon is
one of the most flexible and useful of the bass instruments. Its tone is weighty and thick in the low
register, dry and sonorous in the middle, reedy and intense in the upper. It is capable of a hollow-
sounding staccato and wide leaps that create a humorous effect; it is at the same time a highly
expansive instrument.

Bassoon
 Contrabassoon

The saxophone. This wind instrument has a single reed that combines the reed mouthpiece of a clarinet
with a curved conical metal tube. It blends well with either woodwind or brass.

Saxophone
The Brasses

The brasses have been regularly used in many countries. They consist of the trumpet, horn, trombone,
and tuba. They are indispensable for their ability to play very loudly, for melody, for sustaining harmony,
for rhythmic accent, and for the flamelike sonority they contribute to the climaxes. These instruments
have cup-shaped mouthpieces (except for the horn, whose mouthpiece is shaped like a funnel). A player
sounds a brass instrument by: blowing into the mouthpiece, varying the note by altering the tension of
his lips. This allows him to blow a series of notes but not a complete scale.

 The trumpet possesses a firm and brilliant timbre that lends radiance to the orchestral mass.
Because of its military history, it is often associated with martial pomp and vigor or battle calls.
Played softly, the instrument commands a lovely round tone. The muted sound, which is made by
inserting the mute, a pear-shaped device of metal or cardboard in the bell is much used.

Trumpet

 The horn, generally called the French horn, normally has a smooth, mellow tone, but can be made
to sound very brassy. The timbre of the horn blends equally well with woodwinds, brass, and
strings, for which reason it serves as the connecting link among them. The horn has the ability to
project sounds across great distances. By playing a mute or by putting a hand into the bell, the
performer can get a muted sound, a poetic faraway sound which is haunting. By pushing one’s
hand far into the bell and blowing with greater force, one can produce an extremely brassy,
almost threatening sound. The horn is a versatile instrument; as a solo instrument, it is very
satisfactory because it has a wide range and can be loud or soft, lyrical or dramatic.

French Horn
 The trombone, which in Italian means “large instrument,” are of two kinds: tenor and bass. The
two are alike in construction but the bass trombone has a lower range. The trombone’s tone is
rich and mellow. It can play softly, but it is more often used t0 achieve effect of nobility and
grandeur.

Trombone

 The tuba is the bass of the brass choir. Like the string bass and contrabassoon, if furnishes the
foundation for the harmonic fabric. Its sound is rather like the bass trombone, but fuller, richer,
and more powerful.

Tuba
 The cornet is a brass-wind musical instrument of the trumpet family, consisting of a long looped
tube, 9 feet long. It is used in orchestras, bands, and brass bands. This instrument is larger than
the trumpet. It has a shorter body and possesses greater agility. The tone is rounder but less
brilliant than that of the trumpet.

Cornet
The Percussion Instruments
The percussion section comprises a variety of instruments that are made to sound by hitting them with
special sticks, or by striking or shaking their parts together. Some are made of metal or wood. In others,
such as the drums, vibration is set up by striking a stretched skin. The percussion instruments fall into two
categories those of definite and those of indefinite pitch. The percussion instruments of definite pitch are
the kettledrums or timpani, which are used in sets of two or three.

 The kettledrum is a hemisphere copper shell, across which a stretched “head” of calfskin is held
place by a metal ring. The instrument is played with two padded sticks, which may either be soft
or hard. Its dynamic range extends from a mysterious rumble to a thunderous roll.

Kettledrum

 The Glockenspiel (German for a set of bells) consists of a series of horizontal tuned plates of
various sizes, made of steel. The player strikes these with mallets, producing bright metallic
sounds.

Glockenspiel
 The xylophone consists of tuned blocks of wood which produce a dry, crisp timbre when struck.
Expert xylophone players attain dazzling speed and accuracy. The marimba, a xylophone of
African and South American origin, is associated with dance music. It is simply a xylophone with
a resonator. Small tubes suspended under the wooden bass resonate the sound of the vibrating
wood.

Xylophone

 The chimes consist of a set of tuned metal tubes of various lengths attached to a metallic frame
and struck with a hammer. They have a broad dynamic range from a metallic tinkle to a
sonorous clang and are frequently called upon to simulate church bells.

Chimes
  The harp is said to be one of the oldest musical instruments. Its earliest form appeared in the
Babylonian inscriptions several thousand years ago. This instrument is almost extinct today. It
survives in the modern orchestra, as a supporting instrument most of the time. Its strings are
played by plucking, producing a crystalline tone that blends well with the orchestral timbres.
The pedals are used to shorten the strings, thereby raising the pitch. Chords on the harp are
frequently played in broken form; that is, the tones are sounded one after another instead of
simultaneously.

Harp

Keyboard Instruments

These instruments are operated by means of a keyboard which consists of a series of black and white keys.
When a performer depresses a key, a tone sounds. Keyboard instruments produce tones in a variety of
ways.

Although keyboard instruments are normally included with the percussion group, they constitute a special
set which may be considered separately. The piano, celesta, harpsichord, and organ are all keyboard
instruments of definite pitch but each has physical properties quite different from the others. The piano
is basically a string instrument in which the strings are struck by hammers attached to a keyboard; the
celesta, often considered a percussion instrument of definite pitch, has steel plates which are hammered;
the harpsichord is a string instrument whose strings are plucked by quills or leather or brass tongues
attached to the keys; and the organ is a wind instrument whose sounds are made by air forced through
pipes.

The following is a further description of each of the keyboard instruments:

 The piano is the most popular and most widespread of all instruments. It is widely used in the
home, in small orchestras, and dance bands. It has the ability to sound several tones
simultaneously and has the capacity to present complex musical textures by itself, making it an
extremely useful instrument. It is an indispensable instrument for accompaniment.
 Piano

 The organ is a keyboard instrument but as mentioned earlier, it has a physical property which
makes it a wind instrument. Its sounds are made by air forced by mechanical means through pipes.
The pipes are controlled by two or more keyboards and a set of pedals. On the modern organ,
gradations in the volume of tone are made possible by means of small boxes. An organ is capable
of sustaining tones indefinitely. Nowadays, the electronic organ is commonly used. Here, the
sound is produced not by wind but by electrical oscillators.

Organ
 The celesta, which in appearance resembles a miniature upright piano, is a kind of glockenspiel
that is operated by a keyboard; the steel plates are struck by small hammers producing bell-like
tones.

Celesta

 There are a number of other instruments which are played by means of a keyboard. The piano
accordion has a melody keyboard for the right hand. The harmonium is a keyboard instrument
related to the organ in that its tone is produced by air (bellows operated by feet) which sets thin
strips of metal (reeds) vibrating.

Piano Accordion
 Harmonium

Combinations of Instruments
The different instruments discussed are most commonly found not only in Western countries but also in
the Philippines due to its contact with the Western nations

The composer uses them in any combination he wishes, but certain combinations - or ensembles as they
are usually called in music have been found to be particularly satisfying and consequently commonly
used.

 Ensemble Media. When two or more performers are equally engaged in playing or singing a
piece of music, the medium is called an ensemble (an sam’b’l) and the music is called ensemble
music.

Instrumental ensembles exist in almost infinite combinations. Some of these are as follows:

 Orchestra. It is the most spectacular of ensembles, composed of any sizable group of instrumental
performers usually under the direction of a conductor. In the orchestral ensemble, several
instruments of the same kind usually play a given part. This is particularly true of the strings. An
orchestra may vary in size from a relatively small groups to an ensemble of a hundred or more
players. The number of instruments used in the orchestra varies according to the demands of the
music. The orchestra is constituted with a view of securing the best balance of tone. The
performers are divided into the four sections we have described. In large orchestras,
approximately two thirds are string players and one third are wind players. Three to five people
take care of the percussion.

In a typical modern orchestra, there are 34 violins which are divided into two groups, first and
second. Each group functions as a unit and plays a part distinct from the rest. In the woodwind
section, one of the players of the principal instrument generally doubles with another related
 instrument. The third flutist, for example, also plays the piccolo. Saxophones are added when
called for. Certain works call for a larger brass section with additional horns and one or more extra
trumpets. Included in these large ensembles are two harps and, for certain contemporary scores,
a piano. The instruments are arranged so as to secure effective blending and contrast.

 The Symphony Orchestra. The symphony orchestra is a large ensemble which includes all the
principal instrumental types. The modern symphony orchestra has about 100 players, but this
number varies according to the kind of music being played. It is composed of four sections
corresponding to the four instrumental groupings; the string section, the woodwind section, the
brass section, and the percussion section.

Each of these sections has at least one instrument which falls into each of the four basic ranges:
soprano, alto, tenor, and bass.

 Concerto. The concerto is a form written for orchestra and usually one solo instrument (piano,
violin, and the like) is given a prominent role in music.

 Band. A band is an instrumental ensemble, large like the orchestra but consisting mainly or
exclusively of wind and percussion instruments. Although the band is closely associated with
outdoor events (parades, funerals, football games, among others), it is also used as a concert
ensemble.

 The Rondalla. This is the best-known instrumental group in the Philippines today. It is a band made
up mostly of stringed instruments: the banduria, which assumes the lead part and plays the
melody; the laud and the octavina, which carry the alto and contrapuntal parts; the piccolo, tuned
above the banduria, which plays the ornamental passages; and the guitarra and the banjo, which
give solidity to the rhythm and support the harmony. Some percussion instruments have found
their way into the rondalla to add color and varied tonal rhythmic effects.

A very interesting musical ensemble in the Philippines is the Pangkat or Bandang Kawayan composed of
instruments made of bamboo. Among these are the single-note bumbong, the native marimba or
talunggating, the bamboo harp or tipangklung, the gabbang which is patterned after the Muslim-type
xylophone, the tulali or bamboo flute, the bungkaka or bamboo clapper, and the kalatok or bamboo
knockers.

 Mixed Ensembles. A considerable literature of music exists for large mixed ensembles which
include instruments and voices. Such musical types as an opera, oratorio, cantata, Mass, Requiem
Mass, and even symphonies may employ vocal soloists’ chorus, and orchestra. Mixed chamber
ensembles have made their appearance in the 20th century.

 Chamber Orchestra. The term clamber orchestra is applied to small instrumental ensembles in
which there are only a few performers for a part. Chamber orchestras are in a category of
ensemble between a chamber ensemble and the full orchestra.

Chamber Ensembles. Chamber music is a medium which calls for only a few performers (from two to
about eight or nine instruments) with one player to each part.
The most common chamber music ensembles are listed below:
 Solo Sonatas. Music written for a solo instrument (violin, cello, flue, oboe, horn, and the like),
with an accompaniment by such instruments as the piano or harpsichord, belongs to the
category of chamber music ensemble.

 String Quartet. The most common medium of chamber music appears to be the string quartet. It
consists of two violins, a viola, and a cello. When the piano replaces one of the four instruments,
the ensemble is called a piano quartet.

 Duos, Trios, Quintets, and Other. Music in which two instruments have equal importance is called
a duo; music for three instruments is a trio; for five, a quintet; for six, a sextet; for seven, a septet;
for eight, an octet; for nine, nonet. These ensembles may consist of any combination of
instruments, including strings, wood winds, and brass, keyboard, and percussion instruments.

 Special Ensembles. As music evolves, composers search for new media more congenial to their
changing musical ideas. A particularly significant trend in recent years has been the development
of electronic instruments, which many contemporary composers feel are more versatile than
traditional instruments and more suitable for achieving the sounds they want for the music.

In the Philippines, a new kind of ensemble has developed. The Filipinos are overs of music and
perhaps due to strong family ties, have featured family ensembles. The Figueroa and the
Tajanlangit families, for example, are worthy of mention.

It is interesting to note that the members of the Tajanlangit family play various instruments such
as acoustic piano, electric piano, string ensemble, castanets, gourd, lyre, maracas, melodions,
tambourines, accordions, trumpets and trombones, guitars, and electric bass guitars. During a
show, the performers swap instruments in-between numbers as they shift from ballads, to rock
to pop, mixing traditional instruments such as bongo drums with the modern electronic organs
and synthesizers in a two-hour show.

The Organization of the Elements

The four components of tone constitute the basic elements of music. These elements have been
organized in music in the following manner:

 The Organization of Pitch. There are many pitches that exist in nature but one really does not hear
distinct pitches. In Western Music from which we derive our pitch, the “pitch spectrum” is limited
to a total of 12 different pitches. Because of pitch, it is possible to construct musical scales. A scale
is a series of consecutive tones. These tones of different pitches may move in an ascending order,
from tones of lower pitch to higher ones, or in a descending order, from higher to lower pitches
in the same way that one goes up in a staircase. Without the scale, the organization of sounds
into what we call music would be impossible. Although there are many different scale patterns to
be found in music, the most commonly used are the major scale and the minor scale. Every major
and minor scale is a pattern of whole steps (alternate keys on the piano, including the black keys)
 and half steps (adjacent keys on the piano). For example, the C major scale has half steps between
E and F and between B and the upper C, and all other scale degrees are a whole step apart:

The minor scale in its natural form has the following pattern of half steps between the second
and third scale degrees and between the fifth and sixth scale degrees.

One can construct all the scales, major and minor, by using the key signature chart in the
appendix, or by beginning with any tone and applying the pattern of half and whole steps.

The words whole and half refer to the distance between the successive steps in the scale. Thus,
the fact that there is a whole step between the first and the second pitch indicates that one of
the 12 tones, a tone between these two pitches, is omitted from this scale. There are five such
whole steps, indicating that five pitches have been omitted. The two half steps (between the third
and fourth tones and the seventh and eighth tones), however, are adjacent pitches in the total
fund of 12 pitches, and thus, no pitches have been omitted between them. The eighth tone in the
scale is not a new pitch, it is the same pitch as the first, but placed one octave higher. The entire
scale can now be repeated up through the next octave.

 Tonality. This is an element of music into which one should have a clear insight for a better
understanding of it. In almost any melody, one tone can be found that seems more important
more final, than any of the others used in making the melody. Tonality is the key or tonal center.
Here, one particular pitch receives more emphasis than the others. Most music is written in a key.
This means that all its harmony is related to a single tone known as the tonic. The central pitch is
the tonic. Thus, a composition which uses the C major scale and treats C as a tonic is said to be in
the tonality (or in the key) of C major; and a composition which used the C minor scale, again
treating C as a tonic, is said to be in C minor. The tonality or key of a musical composition is
indicated by a key signature, which as mentioned earlier, is placed at the beginning of the piece.
The key signature is determined by the scale which forms the basis of the piece being studied.
 Music in which two or more keys are combined simultaneously in a single composition is polytonal.
A practice of the 20th century composers is shifting rapidly from one key center to another. This
is referred to as multitonality or displaced tonality.

It should be noted that a scale is an abstract arrangement of the pitches in stepwise order forming
the basis of a composition (Dudley and Faricy, 1961). The first and last notes of a scale are always
the tonic, or central pitch. Thus, if one looks back at the example, (C major scale), it will be noted
that the tonic C is the first and last note.

 The Organization of Duration. Sounds can be made to last for a longer or shorter period of time
because sounds have duration. Thus, it is possible to organize sounds rhythmically. The aspect of
music which has to do with the organization of duration is referred to as rhythm, Rhythm is usually
considered the most basic musical element. Any combination of notes of different duration
produces rhythm: e.g. alternating long and short notes, two short note and a lone one, or a long
note and several short ones. Rhythm, in original Greek means flow. A movement that surges and
recedes in intensity. The flow or rhythm assumes many forms in music. Not only the contrast of
strong and weak impulses, but also that of long and short note values, and tones of lower and
higher pitch, as well as the flow of consonant and dissonant harmonies are experienced as
movement which gains or loses intensity.

 Meter. As the term implies, it is a way of measuring durations on a fixed, regular pattern, so that
the listener becomes aware of basic pulse or beat. It is by the yard stick that we judge rapid or
slow events, by the extent of their departure from the tempo.

Our music most commonly assigns the quarter note as the symbol of the metric unit. There are
also note values which are shorter than the metric pulse, and those which are longer. Our note
values are binary; each may be divided into two of the next smaller unit, and two together
comprise the length of the next larger unit.
 If we wish to divide our notes into three units rather than two, we use dotted notes; a dot adds
one half of its value to a note. Thus, a dotted half note is equal in duration to three quarter notes
instead of two, and the dotted quarter note to three eighth notes instead of two, and so on.

Meter, which may be defined as the pattern of strong and weak beats in a measure, is indicated
by a time signature which is placed at the beginning of the piece, just after the key signature. The
numerator tells us how many beats there are in each measure, and the denominator tells us which
kind of note (quarter, half, or whatever) will receive one beat. Thus, if the time signature is 3/4,
this means that there are three beats in one measure and every quarter note will receive one
beat. If the time signature is 4/4, there are four beats in one measure and every quarter note will
receive one beat.

Beats can be equated with the footsteps of a soldier marching. If we think of the command - “Mark
time, march!” given to CAT or CMT students and they react immediately by marching, one-two,
one-two note that the regularity of the steps is emphasized and that “one” is stressed or accented
whereas “two” is not, that is, unaccented or unstressed. Here, we can note a pattern of two beats,
the first accented, the second unaccented. This is called duple meter.

 Tempo. This is an Italian word which literally means time. In music it refers to speed. Music may
move at a fast, moderate or slow speed, and in varying degrees.
 Customarily, tempo is indicated by such general terms as allegro (fast), vivace (lively), moderato
(moderate speed), andante (moderately slow), adagio (slower than andante), lento (slow), largo
(very slow), and so on. These terms are still employed but today, tempo is more accurately
indicated in musical scores by metronome designations, which show the number of beats per
minute. For example, = 60, which means that there are 60 quarter notes in a minute (thus each
quarter note would equal one second).

 Melody is that element of music which makes the most direct appeal. It is generally what we
remember and whistle or hum. By melody, we mean an orderly succession of tones or musical
sounds. It consists of a series of pitches and durations. It displays an overall balance between
ascending and descending motions. Leaps in a melody are generally filled in immediately after the
leap occurs. The most fundamental feature of melody is continuity. It appeals to the emotion.
Oftentimes we say that a melody is either sad or melancholy or gay and happy.

A melody may be compared to a spoken sentence in which words have been arranged in certain
relationships to one another, and then spoken with varying pauses and inflections. (Ortiz et al.,
1976).

We notice that the melody divides itself into two halves. Such symmetry is frequently found in
melodies dating from the 18th century. Each half is called a phrase. In music, as in language, a
phrase denotes a unit of meaning within a larger structure. Two phrases together form a sentence,
a musical period.

The smallest melodic unit is the motif which expands into a phrase, a succession of tones easily
encompassed in one breath. The phrase usually rises to a high point from which it falls to a point
of rest or cadence. A “cadence” in music means a closing phrase. An entire melody is formed out
of repeated and contrasting phrases.

Melody has four other characteristics or properties: dimension, progression, direction, and
register.

 Dimension. Melody has two dimensions: (1) length and (2) range. Some melodies are
characterized by being short and fragmentary. Such melodic fragments are called motives. Other
melodies are long and extended. Many melodies are neither extremely short nor unusually long.
The length of the melody is relative to the number of measures which compose it. Generally
speaking, popular songs consist of one, two, or more melodies which are repeated several times.
This means that the entire song is not only one melody from its beginning to its end. The second
dimension of melody is range. The range of a melody is the pitch distance from its lowest to its
highest tone. Some melodies are wide in range; other melodies may be narrow in range; and many
melodies have only a moderate range.

 Register. Register is the relative highness or lowness of the aggregate tones of a melody. A melody
may have a high, medium, or low register. In a given composition, the same melody may shift
from one register to another. In any case, register affects the quality of a melody.
 Direction. Melody moves in two directions of pitch: (1) upwards and (2) downwards. Either
direction may predominate in a melody. Moreover, a melody may move rapidly or gradually in
either direction: rapidly ascending, rapidly descending, gradually ascending, or gradually
 descending. A melody which remains at a given pitch level, moving neither up nor down any
appreciable distance, is called a static melody. Usually, a melodic line moves towards a high point
which is the climax of the melody: A melodic climax may appear near the beginning, in the middle,
or at the end of the line. Observation of melodic contours will greatly increase your perception
and enjoyment of the world’s great melodies.

 Progression. Melodic progression refers to the intervals (pitch distance) between the tones as a
melody moves from one tone to the next. A melody may move mostly stepwise; that is, it
progresses to adjacent notes of the scale or adjacent keys of the piano.

 Function of Melody. Melody is the element of music that arouses interest. It is what most listeners
can easily identify. It is the musical idea around which a composition is constructed. This melodic
idea or basic tune of the composition is called a theme. The theme is of paramount importance
to a composition, and it provides one of the most important approaches to intelligent listening.
The ability to recognize one or more themes, when they recur in a composition, is a clear
indication that you are moving toward full appreciation.

Harmony
Another element of music is harmony. It is the simultaneous sounding of two or more tones. Harmony is
apparent when a singer accompanies his melody with chords on the guitar or when the pianist plays the
melody with his right hand while the left strikes the chords. We are jolted if the wrong chord is sounded,
for at that point, we become aware that the necessary unity of melody and harmony has been broken. A
chord is two or more notes or tones sounded at the same time and conceived as an entity.

The most common chord in our music is a certain combination of three tones known as triad. Such a
chord may be built by combining the first, third, and fifth degrees of the do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do scale:
do-mi-sol.

 Chord Progression. Chords are not only constructed in a variety of ways, but also progress from
one to another according to many different plans. The scheme by which chords change is called
chord progression.

Harmony, like melody, has rhythm; that is, chord changes may come at regular or irregular
intervals of time, thus producing a harmonic rhythm. Sometimes harmonic rhythm is independent
of melodic rhythm which means that it is not determined by melodic rhythm; sometimes it is
dependent on it. Harmonic rhythm is static when a given chord is maintained for a number of
measures, or chord changes may come frequently, producing a more energetic and exciting effect.

 Consonance and Dissonance. The distinction between consonance and dissonance is necessary in
the discussion of harmony. Certain combinations of tones produce a quality of repose or
relaxation, called consonance. Certain other combinations of tones produce a quality of unrest or
tension which is called dissonance. The dissonant chord creates tension. The consonant chord
resolves it. What suspense and conflict are to drama, dissonance is to music. It creates the area
of tension without which the areas of relaxation would have no meaning. Each complements the
other: both are a necessary part of the artistic whole.
 One who hears much 20th century music will develop a greater tolerance for dissonance than he
who limits his exposure to Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven. Tone combinations regarded as
dissonant in their own time come to be accepted by later generations as consonant. One’s
capacity to tolerate novel chords has grown steadily. The leader in this development is always the
composer, whose imagination grasped the possibilities of new combinations while they were still
unacceptable to his fellows; who dared break the tradition, only to be roundly abused; who by
sheer force of will impose his vision on the world; and who, after having expanded the artistic
horizon of his time, became in his turn the venerated founder of a new tradition that had a new
set of rules set forth by disciples who would attack the next innovator as zealously as once their
idol had been attacked.

Diatonic and Chromatic Harmony. A diatonic harmony is one in which there are very few altered
tones (i.e. sharps, flats, and natural signs).

Tonality
One of the qualities of music which is closely related to and dependent upon harmony is tonality. It is an
element of music which is difficult to define but for our purposes, we shall define tonality as a musical
property which creates a sense of gravitation toward a key or tonal center. Here, one tone assumes
greater importance than the rest. Most music is written in a key. That means all its harmony is related to
a single tone known as the tonic. The key of C, for example, will have as its tonal center do (C) because
this is the first and last tone in the scale of C. When the tonic is F, the key is F, and so forth. Most music is
written in a single key, and this is the reason an accompanist a guitarist or a pianist usually asks the soloist
in what key he wishes to sing. Once a key is given, he can construct chords to provide harmonic
accompaniment to the song.

 Polytonality. Music in which two or more keys are combined simultaneously in a single
composition is polytonal. Polytonality is used to bring out the different levels or planes of the
harmony. Piano music especially lends itself to this usage, the right and left hands playing in
different keys. |

 Multitonality. This is sometimes called displaced tonality. Here the composer rapidly shifts from
one key center to another so that the entire key feeling is disturbed.

 Atonal music is an innovation of Schoenberg. It is music that rejects the framework of key. Here,
the composer avoids any feeling of key at all times. The technique is named as “the method of
composing with 12 tones.” Atonality and polytonality are characteristics of modern music, a great
contrast to the tonal music composed in previous centuries.

 Dynamics. When intensity is applied to a piece of music, rather than to a single tone, it is referred
to as dynamics. The term refers to force or percussive effects: degrees of loudness and softness
and the process involved in changing from one to the other.

Certain Italian words are used to indicate dynamics. The most important are forte (loud), piano
(soft), fortissimo (very loud), pianissimo (very soft), mezzo forte (moderately loud), and messo
piano (moderately soft). As to the directions to change the dynamic, the most common are
 crescendo (becoming louder), diminuendo (becoming softer), and sudden stress (sforzando)
accent on a single note or chord.

A number of terms embrace both tempo and dynamics. Andante maestoso (fairly slow and
majestic) implies a stately pace and full sonority. Morendo (dying away indicates that the music is
to become slower and softer). Scherzando (playful) requires a light tone and brisk movement.
Conbrio (with vigor) suggests an energetic pace and vibrant sonority.

 Tempo refers to the rate of speed, the pace of the music. It determines the speed of the beats in
the measure, their duration in actual time.

There is a close connection between tempo and mood; tempo markings indicate the character of
the music as well as the pace. Like dynamics, the terms used to indicate tempo and those that
indicate changes in it, from fast to slow and vice versa, are generally in Italian. Most frequently
encountered are the following:

Very slow: Largo (broad)

Grave (solemn)

Slow: Lento
Adagio (gently, leisurely, slowly)

Moderate: Andante (going at a walking pace)

Andantino (a little andante, somewhat faster than andante)
Moderato (moderate speed)

Fairly fast: Allegretto (a little lively not as fast as allegro)

Fast: Allegro (happy, cheerful, lively)

Very fast: Allegro molto (very lively)

Vivace (vivacious, lively)
Presto (very quick)
Prestissimo (as quick as possible)

Music does not always move along at an even, regular pace. It may speed up or slow down
gradually or abruptly. Gradual increase of speed is called accelerando; gradual decrease of tempo
is called ritardando. When tempo becomes faster, the music is in general more tense and exciting;
when the music slows down, relaxation usually takes place. A ritardando is often employed in the
concluding measures of a composition.

 Timbre is tone quality. Every musical medium has its own distinctive quality of tone. The tone
quality of each of the following instruments a piano, an organ, an orchestra, a band, a voice, and
the like can be easily identified by anyone who has heard these instruments.
The same can be stated of the human voice. The human voice can produce a variety of tone
qualities. These qualities are evident in the different vowel sounds of a song. Each human voice
has its own characteristic quality, so that it is easy to distinguish between the voices of different
 singers even when they sing at the same pitch. The composer has at his disposal the selection of
the medium that will best express the quality and the meaning of his ideas. Like harmony and
rhythm, tone color is part and parcel of the composer’s idea.

Texture
In music, texture refers to the melodic and harmonic relationship of musical factors.

Types of Texture
The relations between melodic and harmonic factors exist solely as a single melody; it is without either a
harmonic accompaniment or other vocal lines. Any instrument or voice performing a melody without an
accompaniment is effecting a monophonic texture.

 Homophonic texture. Here, we have a single-melody-with-chords. We hear homophonic texture

when the pianist plays the melody with his right hand while the left sounds the chords, or when
the singer carries the tune against a harmonic accompaniment on the piano. A folk song with
guitar accompaniment is homophonic music.

 Polyphonic texture or many-voiced texture. This is a combination of two or more melodies of more
or less equal prominence. The terms “polyphonic” and “contrapuntal” are nearly synonymous. To
create polyphonic texture, there should at least be two melodies sounded simultaneously. Here,
the composer would consider how the rhythmic, melodic and harmonic elements relate to one
another.

 Nonmelodic texture is created for special effects in which harmonic sounds obscure or partly
exclude the melodic content of a composition. This occurs in contemporary and modern music.

 Sonority is an attribute of texture which is based more on harmonic than melodic consideration.
This refers to quality of richness or thinness of texture. It is determined by: (1) the number of
parts, (2) spacing of tones, (3) register of tones, and (4) timbre.

The number of parts refers to the number of voices involved, whether all or only some of them are to be
sung or played by different instruments. Spacing of tones refers to the musical intervals between the parts,
whether thirds, fourths, or any other interval. The register of tones refers to whether the tones are high,
medium or low, and timbre refers to the tone quality or qualities of the mediums which will play the music.

A polyphonic composition that consists of six parts has a far richer sonority than one consisting of only
two parts. Likewise, a homophonic composition which is accompanied by full chords has a richer sound
than one having an accompaniment of only a few tones.

When the tones of a chord or voice parts are closely spaced, the result is a thick texture; when tones are
widely spaced, the texture is thin.