1 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL STUDY

1.1 GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURE OF THE NEPAL HIMALAYA

The Himalaya, which extends for over 2,400 km, is the most spectacular example of the
continental-continental building mountain collision currently on Earth. From northwest
(Nanga Parbat, 8125 m) to southeast (Namche Barwa, 7755 m), the Himalaya extends
essentially east-west, with a slightly convexity towards the south. This, the youngest
mountain system of the world, covers an area of approximately 600,000 sq. km in south
Asia. More than one-third of the Himalaya belt lies in Nepal, and is known as the Nepal
Himalaya (Figure 1). Gansser (1964) has longitudinally divided into five tectonic zones south
to north (Figure 3) as follows:
Tethys Himalayan zone North

-------STDS-------

Higher Himalayan zone

-------MCT-------

Lesser Himalayan zone

-------MBT-------

Sub-Himalayan zone (Siwalik Group)

-------MFT-------

Terai zone (Indo-Gangetic Plain) South

Figure 1: Subdivision of the Himalaya (modified after Gansser 1964).

1.1.1 Gangatic Plain

A northern fringe of the Indo-Gangatic Plain is the Terai Plain in Nepal forms the
southernmost unit of Nepal Himalaya. It is the part of the Ganga Foreland basin filled with
Pleistocene to recent sediments (Hagen 1969). It is bounded to the North by Main Frontal
Thrust (MFT) and enclosed with Ganga River to the South. This plain has elevation less than
200 meter above the sea level and is made of thick (nearly 1500 m) alluvial sediments. The
alluvial sediments contain mainly boulder, gravel, silt and clay which are originated from
peak of the northern parts. The width of the Terai Plain varies from 30 km in the western
Nepal and from 25 to 30 km in eastern Nepal (Hagen 1969).
Figure 2: Generalized geological map of Nepal (modified from Amatya and Jnawali, 1994)

1.1.2 The Sub-Himalaya

The Sub-Himalaya Zone, also called Siwalik or Chure ranges in the altitude varies from 300
m to 2,000 m. Siwalik is bounded by the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) to the South and the
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) to the North. This zone is mainly represented by sedimentary
rocks consisting dominantly of the mudstone, shale, sandstone, siltstone, marl and
conglomerate of the Middle Miocene to Early Pleistocene age. They were deposited by the
fluvial system and comprises a fining upward sequence on the individual cycle and a
coarsening upward succession as a whole fossils of plants, pisces, reptiles and mammals
(Carnivora, Proboscidea, Arthiodactyla, Rodentia and Primates) have been reported from
Siwalik. On the basis of data of Paleomagnetic studies age of the Siwalik Group ranges from
14 Ma to 1 M (Tokuoka et al. 1986). The three-fold classification of the Siwalik in the Potwar
region of Pakistan and Western India, Himalaya was freely applied to the equivalent Siwalik
of Nepal (Burbank et al. 1996) from the geological studies in the Nepal such as the Upper
Siwalik, Middle Siwalik and Lower Siwalik.
The Lower Siwalik consists of irregularly laminated beds of the fine grained greenish
sandstone and siltstone with mudstone. The alternative mudstone beds are thickly bedded.
The Middle Siwalik is composed of medium to coarse grained salt and pepper sandstone
inter-bedded with mudstone. This is differentiated from Lower Siwalik in lacking variegated
mudstone and sandstone.
In Upper parts of the Middle Siwalik pebbly sandstone are also found. In Middle Siwalik,
sandstone beds have thickness mostly ranges from 1 m to 45 m. The Upper Siwalik is
composed of conglomerate and boulder beds and subordinately sand and silt beds. The
mudstone beds of the Upper Siwalik are massive and irregular bedded and contain many
invertebrate fossils including Brachiopods and Gastropods. The Upper parts of this
sequence contains conglomerate beds, which have mostly boulder and cobble size rounded
to sub-rounded fragments of the Lesser Himalayan rocks.

1.1.3 The Lesser Himalaya zone

The Lesser Himalaya Zone is delimited by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) to the South
and the Main Central Thrust (MCT) to the North. Rocks of the Lesser Himalayan Zone have
been transported southward in the several thrust slices. Generally, two types of sequences,
namely autochthonous and allochthonous can be distinguished in this zone throughout the
Himalaya. Both sequence of the Lesser Himalaya mainly has sedimentary and meta-
sedimentary rocks such as slate, phyllite, schist, quartzite, limestone, dolomite and so on
ranges in age from Precambrian age along with the Gondwana and Post-Gondwana
deposits of Mesozoic to Cenozoic age. The Lesser Himalaya Zone is unfossiliferous and
highly deformed showing complex geology except the Gondwana and Post- Gondwana.
Pêcher and Le Fort (1977) studied the Ulleri-type of augen gneisses from west Nepal and
inferred their volcana-sedimentary origin. Stöcklin (1980) remarks that the Lesser Himalaya
gneisses occur at various stratigraphic levels and hence cannot be attributed to the volcano-
sedimentary origin for all of them. Sharma and Kizaki (1988) investigated the augen
gneisses and granitoids of the Jajarkot area and remarked that some of them could be of
meta-somatic origin.
Le Fort and Rai (1999) obtained an age of 1.74 Ga (Rb-Sr isotopic dates) for Ulleri-augen
gneisses of west Nepal, whereas Kohn et al. (2010) obtained an age of about 1.88 Ga (U-Pb
isotopic dates) on the Zircons extracted from the augen gneisses of the Langtan area.

1.1.4 The Higher Himalaya zone

The Higher Himalaya extends from Main Central Thrust (MCT) to the Tibetan-Tethys Zone
and run throughout the country. This zone mainly consists of almost 10 km thick succession
of crystalline rocks. According to Bordet et al. (1972), this sequence can be divided into four
mains units as Kyanite-Silliminite gneisses, Pyroxene-Marble gneisses, Banded gneisses,
and Augen gneisses.
The Higher Himalayan Crystalline HHC) are mainly composed of Kyanite-Silimanite grade
gneisses intruded by High Himalayan lecugranites as structurally higher levels (Upreti 1999).
Throughout much of the range, the unit is divided into three Formations (Pecher and Le Fort
1986). In central Nepal, the Upper Formation III consists of augen orthogenesis, whereas the
Middle Formation II is calcsilicate gneisses and marble and basal Formation I is Kyanite and
sillimanite bearing metapelites, gneisses and meta-greywacke with abundant quartzites.
The Northern part is marked by South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS). The protolithic
of the High Himalaya Crystanile (HCC) is interpreted to be late Proterozoic clastic
sedimentary rocks deposited on the Northern Indian margin (Parrish and Hodge 1996).

1.1.5 Tibetan Tethys Himalaya

The Tethys Himalaya generally begins from the top of the Higher Himalayan Zone and
extends to the north in Tibet. This zone is about 40 km wide and composed of fossiliferous
sedimentary rocks such as shale, sandstone and limestone and so on. The rocks of the
Tibetan Tethys Series (TTS) consist of a thick and nearly continuous Lower Paleozoic to
Lower Tertiary marine sedimentary succession. The rocks are considered to be deposited in
a part of the Indian passive continental margin (Liu and Einsele 1994).

1.1.6 Himalayan thrust and fault system

The overall architecture of the entire Himalaya is essentially controlled by movements along
the three major thrust systems- the MCT, MBT and HFT from north to south, respectively
(Figure 3). These extend all along the Himalayan range and come together in a low-angle
decollement known as the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT), deep below the Himalaya. This is
equivalent to the Himalayan Detachment system.

Figure 3: Generalized cross section of the Himalaya showing major thrust systems: STDS,
South Tibetan Detachment System; MCT, Main Central Thrust; MBT, Main Boundary Thrust;
HFT, Himalayan Frontal Thrust; S, Siwalik and T, Terai (modified from Achrya 2008)

a) South Tibetan Detachment System

The South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) is a down to the north, low angle normal
fault system and that is traceable along the length of the Himalaya (Burg et al. 1984;
Burchfield et al. 1992). The STDS places low grade Tethys meta-sediments over the Great
Himalayan gneisses (Hodges et al. 1996).
b) Main Central Thrust
The MCT was the first thrust to break the Indian crust. The MCT is a deep intra-crustal
fracture in the Himalaya (Heim and Gansser 1939). The MCT is defined by a thick shear
zone of a few kilometers to 10 km thick (Grasemann and Vannay 1999). It carried southward
on its back a pile of rocks 25 to 30 km thick for 200 km or more (Schelling 1992; Srivastava
and Mitra 1994; Parrish and Hodges 1996). The name MCT was first given in the Kumaon
Himalaya of India by Heim and Gansser (1939). They defined MCT as a tectonic contact
surface between the ferruginous-carbonate autochthon in the south (Lesser Himalaya) and
overlying metamorphic complex of mica schist and gneisses in the north (Higher Himalaya).
c) Main Boundary Thrust
The Sub-Himalaya zone and Lesser Himalaya zone are separated by Main Boundary Thrust.
It is a shallow intra-crustal feature in the Himalaya (Gansser 1964). The MBT exhibit
moderate (30°-50°) to steep (60°-85°) northward inclination (Stöcklin 1980). The movement
along the MBT is considered to have much younger than MCT.
d) Main Frontal Thrust
It is the youngest thrust system also called Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) in the Himalaya
that separates Plio-Pleistocene sediments of the Siwalik from Quaternary sediments of the
Indo-Gangatic Plain (Nelson et al. 1996). The HFT marks the principal present day tectonic
displacement zone between the stable Indian plate and the Himalayan with the convergence
rate of 10-15 mm/yr., about one-fourth of convergence rate between Indian and Eurasian
plates (Yeast 1992).

1.2 REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF PROJECT AREA

Ishida and Ohta (1973) prepared the regional geological map of the area between the Tama
Koshi and the Dudh Koshi and gave the concept of two MCT: the Lower MCT and the Upper
MCT. They included the augen gneiss and the highly deformed schist between their two
MCT (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Geological map between the Tama Koshi and the Dudh Koshi area (Modified from
Ishida and Ohta, 1973)

Shrestha et al. (1984) compiled the geology of the eastern Nepal and published a compiled
map from the Department of Mines and Geology (DMG) as shown in Figure 5. They divided
the rocks of the area into the Midland Group and the Kathmandu Group. These two groups
are separated by the MCT. They further divided the Midland Group into the Ulleri Formation,
Kushma Formation, Seti Formation, Naudanda Formation, Ghan Pokhara Formation,
Galyang Formation, Sangram Formation, Syangja Formation, Lakharpata Formation and the
Takure Formation in ascending order. Similarly, they divided rocks of the Kathmandu Group
into the Dware Kharka Schist, Panglema Quartzite, Himal Gneiss, Shiprin Khola Formation,
Udaipur Formation, Maksana Formation, Tawa Khola Formation, Sarung Khola Formation in
ascending order (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Regional geological map of the eastern Nepal (Source: DMG, Shrestha et al., 1984)

1.3 GEOLOGY OF PROJECT AREA

The Khimti Those Siwalaya Hydropower Project is located in Ramechhap - Dolakha District,
District of Province 3 of Nepal. Dhital (2015) presents a simplified geological map of the
Koshi region. Source Based on Stöcklin (1980), Shrestha and Shrestha (1984), Shrestha et
al. (1986), ESCAP (1993), Amatya and Jnawali (1994).
According to the map, the project area lies in the Ulleri Formation of Pokhara Sub Group,
Midland Group. The rocks composing the project area are represented primarily of the
Lesser Himalaya with a minor proportion of the Higher Himalaya rocks (Figure 6).
The Ulleri Formation of Pokhara Sub Group represented by strongly lineated augen and
banded gneiss. The Kushma Formation and Seti Formation of Pokhara Sub Group
represented by quartzite, phyllite and schist. The Ghan Pokhara Formation of Pokhara Sub
Group represented by phyllite and slates. The Dware Kharka Schist Formation of Himali
Group represented by granitic gneiss and kyanite bearing gneiss. The metamorphic grade in the
project area steadily increases towards the Main Central Thrust, as evidenced from the appearance, respectively,
of chlorite, biotite and garnet. (Will be Verify in Fieldwork)
Figure 6: Simplified geological map of the Koshi region. (Source: Dhital 2015, Based on
Stöcklin 1980, Shrestha and Shrestha 1984, Shrestha et al. 1986, ESCAP 1993, Amatya and
Jnawali 1994)

1.4 THRUST AND FAULT

Among large tectonic thrust, MBT is located to the south of project area at a distance of
about 35 km and MCT is located to the 6 Km north as shown in Figure 5.

1.5 SEISMICITY
The existence of tectonic features such as MCT, MBT and HFF further accelerates the rate
of seismic risk to the projects. Therefore, proximity to such structural features is important
factors while assessing the seismicity of the project site. The epicenter map of Nepal
Himalayas shows that the seismic events are mainly concentrated in Far, Mid-Western and
Eastern Nepal. The seismic activity in the Himalaya is experienced because of northward
movement of Indian Plate along the sub-horizontal decollement, which is known as Main
Himalaya Thrust (MHT). The MCT coincide with the Mean Frontal Thrust (MFT) in the south,
MBT below Lesser Himalaya roots along MCT beneath the High Himalaya and southern
Tibet. Convergence rate of the Indian Plate in the Himalaya region is estimated about 20
mm/yr. The magnitude and recurrence of Himalayan earthquakes depend upon the
geometry and velocity of the Indian plate with respect to the Tibetan Plate.
Historical data shows that four great and large earthquakes have occurred in the last century
due to the sudden release of accumulated stresses in the active geological fault of the
Himalaya. Seismicity and the Historical records indicate that the Himalaya has experienced
recurrence of the large earthquake. Earthquake epicenter map Nepal shows that medium
sized earthquakes (6 to7 magnitude) are mostly confined to the MHT between the foot hills
and the Higher Himalaya. The data of the recorded earthquakes during the period
between1994 and 2000 indicate that the average frequency of the earthquakes of 5<M<6 in
the mid and far west Nepal is two per year, however, the recurrence rate of earthquake
6<M<7 is lower i.e. one in six year (Figure 6).

Figure 7: Epicenter map of Nepal (From National Seismological Center)

The specific project related seismicity studies were not carried out so far. The records of
seismic activities are limited in the Nepal Himalayas and hence correlation of seismic events
with adjacent Himalayan region would be a useful source of information for designing the
hydraulic structures. Some seismicity studies have been carried out for the various projects
in the country during the study of engineering design phases. The required seismic design
coefficients are derived for those projects. Based on such information and theoretical
methods the basic earthquake design coefficient can be derived from other projects in the
feasibility study phase. The seismic coefficients have been evaluated based on Nepalese
Standards.
Figure 8: Seismic hazard map of Nepal (after pandey et al., 2002)

The effective design coefficient according to the seismic design code of Nepal is given by
the equation,
αeff = R* α =R* Amax/980
Where, αeff =effective design seismic coefficient
R =Reduction factors (empirical value of R = 0.5 – 0.65)
For the maximum acceleration of 250 – 350 gal according to seismic hazard map of Nepal
(Figure 7), published by DMG, National seismological centre and reduce factors 0.55.
The Project area is located in Lesser Himalaya zone. The horizontal ground acceleration of
this project area is 300 mgal according to the Seismic Hazard Map of Nepal. The nearest
epicenter of 7 Km, M 4-5 to the project area is located to the NE. The effective design
seismic coefficient of this project is 0.14 to 0.19 (Moderate seismicity) (Source:
http://open_jicareport.jica.go.jp/)

1.6 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

For the construction of engineering structures of the hydropower project, the emphasis
should be given to use the local construction material as far as possible with no compromise
on the quality of work. The material such as sand, gravels, large scale boulder for rip-rap
works, gabions, stone masonry if available locally can be very economical to the project.
During the site visits, survey was also carried out for finding the potential availability of the
construction materials around the project area.
The local available construction materials are stone, boulders and coarse aggregates
(Figure). The boulders can also be used as source of stone. From the bank of stream the
stone can be extracted and transported to use for retaining wall and other structures in
headworks, desander and alignment. Coarse aggregate and filter material required behind
the retaining structures may also be prepared from the stream bed material. The aggregate
can be crushed with crusher plant with selected boulder only as there are different qualities
of stone available around the stream bank. The cohesive residual soil materials are available
in the vicinity of the components of project. The colluvium around the project area comprises
of huge boulders of quartzite, metasandstone which can be a good source of required
construction materials. The rocky cliff on the left bank of the Khimti Khola can be potential
site for the excavation of construction materials. Also, the blast and excavated fragments for
road construction present along the bank of Tamakoshi River can be used. However, sand is
not present on the vicinity of the project area, and should be managed from somewhere
else.
Different tests can be performed to check the quality of the available construction materials.
The Los Angeles Abrasion (LAA) test can be performed to check aggregate toughness and
abrasion characteristics. Aggregate abrasion characteristics are important because the
constituent aggregate in concrete must resist crushing, degradation and disintegration in
order to produce a high quality. Specific gravity is a measure of density (mass per unit
volume) of material as compared to the density of water. Water absorption is a measure of
the amount of water that an aggregate can absorb into its pore structure. The sulphate
soundness test can be done on the construction material to determine the durability of
aggregates against physical weathering.