The boundary layer equations are valid only as Iar downstream as the point of

separalion. Bcyond it the boundary layer becoma so thick that the basic underly-
ing assumption.. bccome invalid. Moreover,the parabolic character of the boundary
from: P.K. Kundu,
layer equations qujnx I.M.
thatCohen, Fluid
a numerical Mechanics,
integration Academic
is possible Press,
only in 2001.
the dkc-
tion of advection (along which informationis propagated), which is rcpstrecunwithin
the w e d flow region. A farward (downstream) integration of the boundary layer
equation. therefore breaks down after the separation point. Last, we can no longer
apply potential thcory to find the pressure distribution in the separated region,as the
effective boundary or thc irrotational flow is no longer the solid surface but some
unknown shape cncompassingpart of the body plus the separated regia

In gcncral, analytical soluticms of viscous flows can be found (possibly in terms of

perturbation series) only in two limiting cases, namely Re << 1 and Re >> 1. Tn
the Re << 1 limit the inertia forax are negligible over most of the flow field; the
Stokes-Oseen solutions discusscd in the p d n g chapter are of this type. In the
w i t c limit of Re >> 1,the viscous forces are neagible everywhere except close
io thc surfacc, and a solution may be attempted by matching an irrotational outcr
flow with a boundary layer near the surface. In the intexmediaterange of Reynolds
numbers, finding aualyticalsolutions becomes almost an impossibletask, and onehas
to depend on experimentationand numerical solutions. Some of these experimental
flow patterns will be describedin thi.. section,taking the flow over a circular cylinder
as an example. Instead of discussing only the intermediate Reynolds number range,
we shall describe the experimental data for the entire range of small to very high
Reynolds numbers.

Low Reynolds Numbers

ZRt us start with a consideration of the creeping flow around a circular cylinder,
charactcrizcd by Rc < 1. (Hen:we shall define Re = U,d/u, based on h e upstream
velocity andthe cylinder diamctcr.) Vorlicity is gcnmed close to the surfacebecause
of the neslip boundary conditioL In the Stokes approximation this vorticity is sim-
ply diffuscd, not advccted, which results in a lore and d t symmetry. The Oseen
approximationpartially takes into accountthe advection of vorticity, and resulk in an
asymmetricvelocity distributionfurihm the body (which was ShowninFigure9.17).
Thc vorticity distribution is qualitatively analogous to the dye distribution c a u d by
a s o w of colored fluid at the position of the body. The color diffuscs symmelrisally
in very slow flows, but at higher flow speeds h c dye source is mn6ned behind a
parabolic boundary with thc dyc source at the focus.
A q Re is increasedbeyond l., the Oseen approximationbreaks down, and the vor-
ticity iu inueasingly coujined behind the cylinder becawc of advection. For Re > 4,
two small auacbed or “standing”eddies appcar behind the cylinder. The wake is com-
pletely laminar and the vortices act like ‘Wuidynamic rollers” over which the main
stream flows (Figure 10.15). The eddies gct longer as Re is increased.
 Re<4 4eRec40

80 <Re e 200

laminar boundary layer turbulcnt boundary layer

nt

R e < 3 x 10s Re>3xl@

Figure 10.15 Some regimes or flow over a circular cylindcr.

von Karman Vortex Street

A very interesting sequcnceof events begins to develop when the Reynolds number is
incrcased beyond 40, at which point the wake behind the cylinder becomes unstable.
Pholographs show that the wake develops a slow oscillation in which the velocity
is periodic in time and downstrcam distance, with the amplitudc of the oscillation
increasing downstrcam. The oscillating wake rolls up into two staggered rows of
vortices with opposite scnse of rotation (Figure 10.16). von Karman investigatedthe
phenomenon as a problem of supcrpositionolirrotationalvortices; he concluded that
a nonstaggered row of vortices is unstable, and a staggered row is stable only if the
ratio of lateral distance between the vorlices to their longitudinal distance is 0.28.
Because of thc similarity of the wake with footprints in a street, the staggered row of
vortices behind a blunt body is called a von Kurmara vorrex street. The vortices move
downstream at a speed smaller than the upstream velocity U,. This mcans that the
vortex pattern slowly follows thc cylinder iC it is pulled Lhrough a stationary fluid.
In the range 40 < Re < 80, the vortex street does no1 interact wilh thc pair
of attached vortices. As Re is increased beyond 80 the vortex street €oms closer to
h e cylinder, and the attached eddics (whose downstream length has now grown to be
about twice thc diameter of thc cylinder) themselves begin to oscillate. Finally the
attached eddies periodically break off alternatcly from the two sides of the cylinder.
Figure 10.16 von Karman vortex street downstream of a circularcylinderat Re = 55. Flow visualizedby
condensedmilk.S.’IBneda,Jour:Phys.Soc.,Jlrpanu): 1714-1721,1%5,andreprintedwiththepermission
of The Physical society of Ja~#mand Dr.!Watosh‘Taneda

Figme 10.17 Spiral blades used for breaking up the spanwise coherence of vortex shedding fmm a
cywcalrod.

Whilean eddy on one sideis shed,thaton the other side forms, resulting in an unsteady
flow near the cylinder. As vortices of opposite circulations are shed off alternately
from the two sides, the circulation around the cylinder changes sign, resulting in
an oscillating “lift” or lateral force. If the frequency of vortex shedding is close
to the natural frequency of some mode of vibration of the cylinder body, then an
appreciablelateral vibration has been observed to result. Engineeringstructures such
as suspension bridges and oil drilling platforms are designed so as to break up a
coherent shedding of vortices from cylindrical structures. This is done by including
spiral blades protruding out of the cylinder surface, which break up the spanwise
coherence of vortex shedding, forcing the vortices to detach at different times along
the length of these structures (Figure 10.17).
The passageof regularvortices causes velocity measurementsin the wake to have
a dominant periodicity. The frequency n is expressed as a nondimensional parameter
known as the Strouhal number, defined as
Experimentsshow that for a circularcylinder the value of S remains close to 0.2 1. for a
large range of Reynolds numbcrs. For small values of cylinder diameter and moderate
values of U,, the rcsulting frequencies of the vortex shedding and oscillating lift lie
in the acoustic range. For example, at U, = 10m/s and a wire diameter of 2mm,
the frequency corresponding to a Strouhal number of 0.21 is n = 1050 cyclcs per
second. The “singing” of telephone and transmission lincs has been attributed to this
phenomenon.
Wcn and Lin (2001) conducted very careful experiments that purported to be
strictly two-dimcnsional by using both horizontal and vertical soap film water tun-
nels. They give a revicw of the recent literaturc on both the computationaland exper-
imental aspects of this problem. The asymptote cited here of S = 0.21 is for a flow
including three-dimensional instabilities. Their experiments are in agreemcnt with
two-dimensional computations and the data are asymptotic to S = 0.2417.
Below Re = 200, the vortjces in the wake i m laminar and continue to be so for
very large distances downstnam. Above 200, thc vortex street becomcs unstable and
irregular, and the flow within the vortices themselves becomes chaotic. However, the
flow in the wake continues to have a strong frequency component corresponding to
a Strouhal number d S = 0.21. Above a very high Reynolds number, say 5000, thc
periodicity in the wake becomcs imperceptible, and the wake m a y bc described as
completely turbulent.
Striking examples of vortex streets have also been obscrved in the atmosphere.
Figure 1.0.18shows a satellitephotograph of the wakc bchind several isolated moun-
tain peaks, through which the wind is blowing toward thc southeast. Thc mountains
picrce through the cloud Icvel, and the flow pattern becomes visible by thc cloud
pattern. The wakes behind at least two mountain peaks display the characteristics ofa
von Karman vortex street. Thc strong density stratificationin this flow has prcvented
a vertical motion, giving the flow the two-dimensional character necessary for the
formation of vortex streets.

High Reynolds Numbers

At high Rcynolds numbers thc frictional elTects upstream of scparation are confined
near the surface of the cylinder, and the boundary layer approximation becomes
valid a.far downstream as thc point of scpamtion. For Re c 3 x 16, the boundary
layer remains laminar, although the wake may be completely turbulent. Thc laminar
boundary layer separates at % 82” from thc forward stagnation point (Figure 10.15).
The pressure in the wake downstreamor the point of separationis nearly constant and
lower than Lhc upstream pressure (Figure 10.19). As Lhc drag in this range is primarily
due to the asymmetry in thc pressure distribution caused by scparation, and as the
point or separation remains fairly stationary in this range, the drag coeflicient also
stays constant at C D 21 1.2 (Figure 10.20).
Importanl changcs take place bcyond the critical Reynolds number or

Re, - 3 x lo-’ (circularcylindcr).

In the range 3 x l.05-= Re < 3 x lo6, the laminar boundary layer hecomcs unstable
and undergoes transition to turbulcnce. We have seen in thc preceding scction that
 ..
9. LksqMwn ofHowpaataChdarQ+k%r 343

Figore 10.18 A von Kannan vortex street downstream of mountain peaks in a strongly stratified atmo-
sphexe. There are several mountain peaks along the linear, light-colored feature Nnning diagonally in the
upper lefi-hand corner of the photograph. North is upward, and the wind is blowing toward the southeast.
R E. Thomson and J. E R. m e r , Monfhly WentherReview 105: 873-884,1977,and reprinted with the
permission of the American Meteorlogical Society.

because of its greater energy, a turbulent boundary layer, is able to overcome a larger
adverse pressure gradient. In the case of a circular cylinder the turbulent boundary
layer separates at 125" from the forward stagnation point, resulting in a thinner wake
and a pressure distribution more similar to that of potential flow. Figure 10.19 com-
pares the pressure distributions around the cylinder for two values of Re, one with a
laminar and the other with a turbulent boundary layer. It is apparent that the pressures
w i t h the wake are higher when the boundary layer is turbulent, resulting in a sudden
drop in the drag coefficient from 1.2 to 0.33 at the point of transition. For values of
Re > 3 x lo6,the separation point slowly moves upstream as the Reynolds number
is increased, resulting in an increase of the drag coefficient (Figure 10.20).
It should be noted that the critical Reynolds number at which the boundary
layer undergoes transition is strongly affected by two factors, namely the intensity
 1

(&3
-1

-2

-3
00 90" 180"
Angle from forward stagnation point
Fiyrc 10.19 Surface pressurc distribution around a circular cylinder at subcritical and supercritical
Reynoldsnumbcrs. Note that the prcsrure is nearly constant within the wakc and that thc wake is n m w c r
for flow at supcrcritical Re.

C, =

1-

I I I I I I
0. I
0.1 I IO 102 lo-' l(r I(Y 106
R e = vU J

Figure 10.24 Measurcddrag coellicient of a circularcylindcr. The sudden dip is due to ihc transition or
the boundary layer to turhulcnce and thc consequentdownstream movement or Lhc point of scpamtim.

of fluctuations existing in the approaching stream and the roughness or the surface,
an increase in eilher of which decreases Re,,. The value of 3 x lo5 is found to be
valid for a smooth circular cylinder at low levels of fluctuation of the oncoming
stream.
9. lhacnption oJF1ow p m l u (.~imdar
C:i.linder 345

Before concluding this section we shall note an inlercsting anecdotc about the
von Karman vortex strect. The pattern was investigated expcrimentally by the French
physicist Henri BCnard, well-hown for his observations of the instability of a layer
of fluid healed from below. In 1954 von Karman wrotc that BCnard became "jealous
because thc vortex street was connected with my name, and several times . . . claimed
priority [or carlier observation of the phenomenon. In reply 1 oncc said '1 agrec that
what in Berlin and London is called Karman Street in Paris shall be called Avenue
de Henri Rinard.' After this wisecrack wc made peace and became good friends."
von Karman also says that the phenomenon has been known for a long timc and is
evcn found in old paintings.
We close this scction by noting h a t this flow illustratcs three instanccs where the
solution is countcrintuitive.First, small causes can havc large effects. If wc solve for
the flow of a fluid with zero viscosity around a circular cylinder, we obtain the results
of Chapter 6, Section 9. The inviscid Flow has fore-aft symmctry and the cylindcr
experiences zero drag. The bottom two pancls of Figure 10.15 illustrate the flow for
small viscosity. For viscosity m small as you choosc, in the limit viscosity tends
to zero, the flow musl look like the last panel in which there is substantial fore-aft
asymmetry, a significant wake, and significanl drag. This is because of the necessity
of a boundary laycr and the satisfaction of the no-slip boundary condition on thc
sur€ace so long as viscosity is not cxactly zero. When viscosity is exactly zero, there
is no boundary layer and there is slip at the surface. Thc rcsolution of d'Alembcrt's
paradox is through the boundary layer, a singular perturbation of the NavierSlokcs
equations in the direction normal to thc boundary.
The sccond instance of counterintuitivity is that symmetric problems can have
nonsymmelric solutions. This is evident in the intermediateRcynolds number middle
pancl of Figure 10.15. Beyond a Reynolds number or 2 4 0 the symmetric wakc
becomes unstable and a pattcrn of alternating vorticcs called a von Karman vortcx
street is establishcd. Yct the cquations and boundary conditions are symmetric about a
central planc in the flow. If one were to solve only a half-problem, assuming symmctry,
a solution would hc obtained, but it would be unstable to infinitesimal disturbanccs
and unlikely to bc scen in the laboratory.
Thc third instance of counterintuitivityis that there is a range or Reynolds num-
bers where roughening the surracc of the body can reduce its drag. This is true for
all blunt bodies, such as a spherc (to be discussed in the next scction). In this range
of Rcynolds numbers, the boundary laycr on thc surface of a blunt body is laminar,
but sensitive to disturbanccs such as surface roughness, which would cause earlier
transition of the boundary layer to turbulence than would occur on a smooth body.
Although, as we shall see, the skin friction of a turbulent boundary layer is much
largcr than that of a laminar boundary layer, most of the drag is causcd by incomplete
prcssurc rccovcry on the downstream side of a blunt body as shown in Figurc 10.19,
wthcr than by skin friction. In fact, it is because the skin friction of a turbulcnt bound-
ary layer is much largcr, as a result of a larger velocity gI'adiml 511 the surface, that
a turbulcnt boundary layer can remain attached [arther on thc downstrcam sidc of a
blunt body, leading to a narrower wakc and morc complete pressure recovery and thus
reduced drag. The drag reduction atwibutcd to thc turbulcnt boundary layer is shown
in Figmr: 10.20 for a circular cylinder and Figure 10.21 for a spherc.
Severalfeatures ofthe description of flow over a circular cylinder qualitatively apply
to flows over other two-dimensional blunt bodies. For cxamplc, a vortex street is
observed in a flow perpendicular to a Rat plate. The flow over a three-dimensional
body, however, has one fundamentaldifferencein that a regular vortex street is absent.
For flow around a sphere at low Reynolds numbers, there is an attached eddy in the
form of a doughnut-shapedring; in fact, an axial section of the flow looks similar to
that shown in Figure 10.15 for the range 4 e Re c 40. For Re > 130 the ring-eddy
oscillates, and some of it breaks off periodically in the form of distorted vortex
loops.
The behavior of the boundary layer around a sphere is similar to that around
a circular cylinder. In particular it undergoes transition to turbulence at a critical
Reynolds number of

Recr - 5 x lo5 (sphere),

which corresponds to a sudden dip of the drag coefficient (Figure 10.21). As in the
case of a circularcylinder,the separationpoint slowly moves upstreamforpostcritical
Reynolds numbers, accompanied by a risc in the drag coefficient. The behavior of the
separation point lor flow around a sphere at subcritical and supercritical Reynolds
numbers is responsible for the bending in the flight paths of sports balls, as explained
in the following section.

0.1 A
I
I I I I I I I
0.1 1 IO I@ IO? lo4 1W 106

Alum 10.21 Measured drag coellicicnl ol'a smooth sphere.The Stnkcs solution is CO = 24/Re, and ihc
Oseen solulion is Cn = (%/Re)( 1 -k 3Re/ 16); thesc two solutions are discus& in Chaptcr9. Sections 12
and 13. The incmsc ol' drag coefficient in the rangc AB ha?relevance in explaining why thc flight paths
ol s p t s balls bend in the air.