4.

4
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

Shamanism as the Ultimate Reality and

. .Meaning of the Oroqen Peoples
of Inner Mongolia

Xianpeng Qiu, Chinese National Museum of Ethnology, Beijing, People's Republic

of China

] • SHAMANISM IN CHINA

Shamanism has existed since ancient times in China, especially among the minority
peoples of the north. Its origins may be traced to Mongolia and to what is today
North Korea, and various ethnic groups such as the Oroqen, Evenki, Manchu,
Hezhe, Daur, and Xibe tribes still retain many shamanistic beliefs and practices. In
nearby Russian Siberia, indigenous inhabitants of the region around the Artie
Circle, such as the Eskimos, also continue to observe shamanistic customs.
Shamanism acquires its name from the term 'shaman'. As explained in the
Religious Dictionary of the Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House of China, a
shaman is 'one who dances crazily because of excitement' (Guan 2003, p. 12). But
this explanation does not reflect the original intention or the main connotation of the
. term. In the Tungus language, the true meaning of shaman is 'the one who is wise',
a 'representative of humanity', who is interprets the will of the gods and helps other
human beings to understand how the gods wish them to act. The explanation of the
shaman as ·•the one who is wise' appears in the Union of Three Dynasties, ·an
ancient book of the Song Dynasty, which states that: "'Shaman" in the Nvzhen
language (that of the Manchu nationality's ancestors) means "'the witch who can
change like a god"' (Guan 2003, p. 185). The book al~o records that Wanyan Xiyin
was the shaman who originated Nvzhen writing.
Especially during the Song Dynasty, the shaman enjoyed a high status in society,
participating in significant ceremonies, in every kind of sacrificial offering, and in
important tribal events such as the enthronement of a new emperor, the bestowing
of honorific tiiles, the taking of a queen, making annual imperial tours of inspection,
and drafting declarations of war, to name but a few. The shaman was believed to draw
the power and the support of the gods from incantations, so as to cause the tribe's
enemies to suffer disaster. At the same time, shamans could treat illness and relieve
the sufferings of the people, especially those endured by women and children who
sought the shaman's aid. For these reasons, the shaman 'enjoyed a high status and

232
 earned his or her title as 'the wise one', which was recognized by both the ruling class
and the populace. In ancient times, tribal chiefs and clan leaders often held the post of
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

shaman concurrently. Particularly in the earliest dynasties, shamans tended to be

women, but, in time, male shamans replaced them. Interestingly, although male
shamans later presided at ceremonies of sacrificial offering, they were required to
don a 'goddess skirt', just as the· female shamans had done. Clearly, this practice
owed to clan society's initial matriarchal structure, and also testifies to the important
position that women held in family life in nomadic societies.
While the wisdom of the shaman "(as his or her greatest claim to knowledge, a
myriad of phenomena in the realm of faith and belief also fell under the shaman's
purview, such as having mystical powers gained through the worship of a clan or
through the tribe's ancestors. The shaman exercised particular powers through
totemic practices, which were also joined with a lively worship of nature.
Shamanism dealt with the complete pantheon of tribal gods. Ther~ was widespread
worship of both inanimate objects,. such as natural phenomena, and of animate
beings such as plants and animals. Especially in the Oroqen tradition, shamans
showed respect to a multitude of gods by making sacrificial offerings to them.
These sacred deities included the sun god, the moon god, the gods of the stars, the
god of thunder, the wind god, the water deities, the river god, the fire god, the mountain
spirit, the.dragon god, the hawk god, the grass god, the badger god, the bear g9d, and
the gods of the ancestors, to name but a few. Unfortunately, shamanism did not
produce written classics, did not establish any religious organization, did not have a·
specific founder who has been identified by history, did not have any temples, was
not unified, and did not have standardized religious ceremonies. Mostly, shamans
transmitted their arts to the next generation of a tribe or clan through the oral tradition,
by the sharing of time-honored personal experiences (Guo 2001, p. 20).

2. SHAMANISM IN THE OROQEN TRIBE

Shamanism played a very important_ role in the cultural patrimony of the Oroqen, as it
reflected the most important achievements in Oroqen culture and complimented many
Oroqen customs. These included prehistoric Oroqen religion, their history, economy,
philosophy, marriage system,' rules of moral conduct, literature, art, sports, and folk
customs. What is more, shamanism among the Oroqen gave rise to the tribe's knowl-
edge of the natural sciences, such astronomy and geography, and its attempts to prac-
tice medicine. Shamanistic practices among the Oroqen also led to advancements in
gathering, hunting and fishing, in agriculture, in shipping, in handicrafts, and in the
arts of survival as a nomadic tribe.

2.1 Oroqen Culture under the People's Republic of China

Since the 1980's the government of the People's Republic of China has arranged for
the Oroqen to settle down, prohibiting hunting and attempting to force the tribe to
forego its nomadic practices and turn to agriculture. Modern civilization has taken a

233
 great toir on the Oroqen culture, bringing to the verge of extinction, as the writer
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

himself has witnessed in his travels of over 3000 kilometers to reseach th.e Oroqen
people in the. Greater Hinggan Mountain region of Inner Mongolia. At present, the
agricultural economy which the Chinese government has encouraged among the
Oroqen has not taken root, however the nomadic life has become increasingly difficult
to pursue. Under such attempts to civilize the tribe, shamanism's status has been
greatly diminished, even to the point that the last Oroqen shaman, Guan Kouni, is
living out her final days the in Heilongjiang province of China. As the Oroqen way
of life has been greatly curtailed, scattered concentrations of Oroqen culture are no
longer able to support a fully shamanistic cultural system. Shamanism itself has just
about vanished, however its spirit has left a profound mark on the Oroqen people.

2.2 The Shamanistic Heritage among the Oroqen

2.2.1 The Selection and Fonnation of the Oroqen Shaman

Among the Oroqen, the shaman is chosen by the tribe through an unusual process in
which a candidate's qualifications are ev3.luated. One must undergo a rigorous program
of study, which includes a difficult test ceremony at its conclusion. Other, more mys-
terious criteria are sought, which are considered to be cl~ar indications of the will of the
gods. For example, the main way in which the Oroqen gain a new shaman is by choos-
ing a child that has recovered from a grave illness. Upon recovery, the child's parents
ask the blessing of the gods, and implore that the child be chosen as a new shaman so
as to serve the ancestors and the gods of the tribe. The child must be judged by all
members of the clan or tribe, accepted, and then presented as a new shaman.
In a similar process, adults who have suffered from mental illness can also become
shamans. After having been cured by a shaman, the individual may now be chosen to
study and become a new shaman. Yet the qualification of study alone is not enough.
The candidate must study with 'aoyun ', a profound level of concentration that culmi-
nates in a ceremony marking the 'call from the gods', after which he or she can be
recognized by everyone in the clan or tribe as a shaman. It should be noted that in
the Tungus languages, 'aoyun' refers to a technique by which the candidate reaches
a state of stupor or a trance, in which the candidate can control his or her own soul
as it flies back and forth between the sky and the earth back. Different shamans
possess different magical powers, which are measured by degree. For example, the
shaman may possess techniques of 'three aoyun', 'five aoyun', 'seven aoyun', or
'nine aoyun ', with each digit signifying the ability of that shaman to move back and
forth with greater ease and increased frequency, and therefore indicating closer relation
to the gods. The final ceremony marking the 'call from the gods' consists of the singing
of songs which are sacred to the gods, ritual dancing, and acts of sacrificial offering
that include various feats of physical prowess.

2.2.2 Sacrificial Sites and Practices among the Oroqen

Oroqen shamanism holds various precepts regarding the animate and inanimate world.
It recognizes that: (1) a myriad of things live; (2) there is a mutual connection between

234
 these living things; and, (3) all living things are sacred. As a result, the shaman's sacri-
ficial offerings must be directed to three realities: (1) three worlds exist: the sky, the
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

earth, and human beings; (2) everything in the world has a soul; changes to the
fortune and misfortune of human beings are controlled by demons, ghosts, and
the gods themselves; and, (3) elements such as fire, mountains, rivers, trees, the sun,
the moon, stars, thunder, lightning, clouds, the fog, snow, ice, wind, rain, the
rainbow, and certain animals are personified, and can control nature and the world.
The Oroqen especially fear the souls of their ancestors, disease, and death.
Shamanism needed to respond to each of these realities through ritual ceremonies,
sacrifice, and entering into ever-deepening ·states of 'ayoun', as the Oroqen believe
that each god has personal will, desires, and passions equal to those of human
beings. Different gods have different functions in the world of matter, and all of the
gods hold a status that is roughly equal. In the same way, Oroqen shamans have no
rank or differences between them, even though their powers may be developed to a
greater or lesser degree, nor can any one god or any one shaman control the others.
As the ancient Oroqen lived as nomads, shamanistic sacrificial ceremoni~s gener-
ally did not have a fixed place. In the spring and autumn, important sacrifices would
be performed in areas that were spacious, pure, and quiet, such as on the bank of a
river. Oroqen shamans built tepees for temporary sacrifices, which were much
bigger than the tepees used by families in everyday life. Once the place for building
the tepee was chosen, it might be selected again as a site for sacrifice in the following
year, although the place was by no means fixed or invariable, especially since the large
sacrificial tepee was but a temporary construction.
The sacrificial tepee should have an opening facing southeast. In the opposite direc-
tion should be placed the idol to 'Malu', which means 'god tablet' in the Tungus
language. Malu is positioned at the highest point vertically in' the interior space of
the tepee, which that is divided into three parts corresponding to the sky, the earth
(the realm of human beings), and the underworld. Images of other gods and sacred
idols are arranged throughout the tepee according to a precise order. Idols of the
gods of the sun, the moon, and the stars are arranged in the upper quadrant of the
tepee, along with idols of the gods of the hawk, the dragon, and the god of thunder.
'God-charts' drawn on paper or cloth are placed in the middle of the space, along
with images of the grass god, 'Chuhabuk', the badger god, 'Anakatbuk', and other
land or water-bound creatures. Idols of 'Daborenbuk' - the 'dark-night' god - are
placed in the lower position directly on the ground, as are those of other nocturnal crea-
tures. Offerings such as meat and wild fruits should be presented after enshrining Malu,
followed by the burning of incense. The two most important ceremonies of the year are
the spring and fall sacrifices.

2.2.2.1 The Spring Sacrifice

After the long winter, the arrival of spring announces the renewal of the holy in the
lives of all the members of the tribe. The Oroqen ask the shaman to send offerings
to the gods, asking for a good life in the new year, which would include abundance
in hunting and safety for both human beings and animals (Liu and Zhang 2004,

235
 p. 48). Three or more shamans are normally asked to make the spring sacrifice. Many
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

Oroqen families gather from different places, bringing fresh sacrificial offerings such
as swans, geese, and wild ducks. Most offerings are of fowl, which are both abundant
and easily procured. An integral part of the spring sacrifice is offerings be placed near
each kind of god-chart and its corresponding idol. As offerings are placed, certain wild
animals should be slaughtered, but without the trachea being cut, which signifies that
the sacrificial animal is complete. As such, everything in the life of the one making the
offering will be complete, and, therefore, the sacrifice will achieve its desired effect.
The entire process requires two elements. First, 'acha', a kind of wild vanilla is lit
and the shaman uses its smoke to clear the sacrificial area of the tepee, and also purify-
ing the field and where it is located and the body of the shaman as well. Second, in the
smoke of the acha, the shaman must wipe the idol's mouth with the blood of a wild
animal, a symbol that the god is drinking the blood. Shamans believed that the
blood could pass through the soul such that the idols would attain supernatural
power after the drinking of the blood. The ceremony continues with the dancing
and singing to the god, when the people offer the blood of the wild animals to the
shaman's drum and the shaman himself drinks the blood. The shaman may also
allow everyone to drink the blootl, throwing the offerings to the people, and thereby
showing that the god is kindly and bestows gifts on believers.
The shaman next petitions the god for the requests of the people by dancing and
singing to the 'jumping god' (Gao 2005, p. 57). The body of the shaman must
vibrate- unceasingly as he sings with encouragement, demonstrating the mystical
state of the trance, which facilitates the shaman's communication with the god. As
the representative of the gods, the shaman must also act as their messenger. All of
this reflects the shaman'.s human spirit.
The music the shaman performs for the 'jumping god' is a special language to com-
municate with that god; the god's drum and waist bells, which are borne by the
shaman, are two highly important instruments in the production of this language.
The shaman's melody and dance for the 'jumping god' may not be well developed,
but the drum music is extremely rich and shows the extreme significance of the
entire ceremony. Without the drum, it would be impossible to speak to the god;
without the drum, the god cannot come to help. Without the drum, the shaman
cannot obtain the god's permission to be his or her messenger. The shaman must
first ask the god to reveal the sacred ideas to his or her soul by changing from a
human being to a god by means of the 'jumping god' ceremony, and then to the orig-
inal human state. The transition process shows the transformation of the shaman's per-
sonality and role. First, the shaman enters the frenzied situation completely, with the
bells and the drum becoming increasingly louder, and suddenly following a clear
rhythm. Everyone in the sacrificial space seems to drift into_ a mystical and illusory ·
state, as one feels like he or she is in blurred atmosphere and an other-worldly situation.
In this kind of atmosphere, the shaman is overcome by .an intense and nondescript
mood and cannot control his or her body or mind. The shaman shares in this kind
of psychic experience that is the culmination of the drumbeats, the bells, the songs,
and the dances. The shaman commits the god's ideas to paper in order to capture

236
 the sacred words. The assistant to the shaman explains these words to the other people,
transforming the individual experience of the shaman into a ~ocial experience of the
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

entire group.
The shaman's drum is the soul of his or her music; its thunderous drumbeat reflects
the belief that the shaman regards the drumbeat as a thunderclap. The drum can also be
beaten to simulate the voices of many other kinds of gods (i.e., the different voices of
wild animals, such as the tiger, the leopard, the wild boar, and others) to help the
shaman to hasten the departure of evil spirits or monsters. The shaman gains particular
courage and spiritual strength from the coordination of the deafening ring of the waist-
bells joined with the thundering drumbeat. When the shaman encounters certain
demons and monsters, he or she strikes the god-drum furiously and swings the waist
bells crazily, frightening and driving the evil spirits and monsters away, for they
have met their match.
The entire sacrificial atmosphere is grave and intimate, offering praise to all the
might and capacities of the gods, and expressing the Oroqen people's hope for a
good life and a happy new year. What is more, they also ask some bad gods like
'the fox god' to forgive them for accidentally injuring or killing foxes. After the
'jumping god' ceremony, people gather around to have a bonfire, drinking and
eating wild animals like moose and deer in a great celebration. The ceremony and cel-
ebration usually last throughout the night and end at daybreak.
The Oroqen also place Malu in their everyday tepees. The idols and images are
installed in the 'god boxes' that are made of birch skin. In nomadic life, the 'god
boxes' are carried on the horseback, and women are forbidden to approach Malu.
The fall sacrifice is approximately as same as spring sacrifice. Between these two ·
great sacrifices, the Oroqen sacrifice to most of the gods in which they believe. All
sacrificial offerings manifest the Oroqen's strong worship of nature worship, totemism,
and ancestor worship. Finally, it must be observed that the form and content ofOroqen
sacrificial offering is extremely utilitarian. -

3. OROQEN WORSHIP OF ANIMALS AND ELEMENTS

3.1 Oroqen Zoo/atry

The Oroqen people believe strongly in the worship of many animals, such as the bear,
the fox, and the hawk, among many others. Originally, they thought that bears were
their ancestors, and so it was forbidden to hunt them. After the spread of guns, the
Oroqen gradually began to hunt for bear, however, whenever one was killed, they
held a ceremony at which the entire tribe was present, and during which they would
cut the bear's head off, place it on a tree, and then kneel down to incense it, reciting
the following prayer: 'Grandfather!' (a female bear would be called 'grandmother'),
'have you fallen asleep? Do not blame us, we didn't intent to injure you; this was man-
. slaughter' (in fact, they would tell the bear god that someone else had killed it). 'Do not
become angry; please give us good luck in the future to hunt more wild creatures!'.
Kowtowing repeatedly, they would bum grass to incense the bear's head; only then

237
 did they believe that the bear's soul could go far away. After this simple ceremony, the
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

people would carry the bear meat back to,a tepee, shouting 'ga, ga' like crows, and
then sitting together around the fire to boil the bear meat. They also called out, 'ga,
ga' or 'gu, gu' while eating the meat. After meal, the men collected the bones into
a wicker basket, lifting it up to bury the bones in a tree. This method of burial is
called 'wind burial', and includes the practice of mourners feigning sobs of grief.
The hawk god, called 'Dayi' by the Oroqen, is the shaman's god of protection. They
believe that the hawk's double wings can protect the master and its eyes can see
through demons and monsters. Its sharp claws can seize the ghost and dispel oncoming
disasters. In Oroqen fable, the hawk god was thought to be the mother of the human
race, and so it is also called the 'goddess of the shaman'.

3.2 Fire Worship

The Oroqen people believe that fire originates from the sky. It is the holist, purest,
· kindest god, and can wash away all contamination, and drive away devils.
According to Oroqen belief, the fire god, 'Hantbaruk', is an old lady. Whoever
offends her may not set the family fire and is forbidden to stir the fire with the irons
with or a sharp stick. Also, one may not splash water on the fire or contaminate it in
any way. While drinking and eating around the fire, one must feed it with wine and
meat in order to prove the family's devotion and piety towards the go_d.

3.3 Worship of Mountains

Mountains are thought of as the Oroqen ancestors' residence, and the mountain spirit is
believed to control most wild animals. The word 'Oroqen' itself. means '.people on the
top of the mountain', and Oroqen hunters believe that wild animals are raised by the
mountain spirit, Bainaqia. What kinds of animals can be hunted daily, and to what
degree, depends entirely on the whim of the mountain spirit. Legend says that the
mountain spirit can change itself• into a tiger or an old person, and walks day and
night in the forest and the mountains. Therefore, when hunting in the forest, loud
noises are forbidden so as to avoid severe punishment from the mountain spirit.
When passing through the forest or along steep mountain cliffs, Oroqen hunters
must ask for good luck, which is given by the mountain spirit. The hunter pares
away the bark of great trees on the mountains and draws men's faces on the. tree to
represent the mountain spirits. Other passing hunters bow politely, and sometimes
offer meat by smearing the blood and fat of slain animals along the representation
of the god's mouth that has been drawn onto the tree ..

3.4 Worship of the Sky

The Oroqens sacrifice to the sun god (Deleqin) during every spring festival. Sacrifices
to the moon god (Biya) are conducted in the first lunar month on the fifteenth or the
twenty-fifth day to pray for lasting peace throughout. The Sacrifices to the star god,
'Orren', are made on the first day of the first lunar month, usually in August during
the mid-autumn festival. 'Orren', also called 'Benetnasch' in the Western tradition,
is the third brightest star of the constellation Ursa Major and is considered by the

238
 .Oroqen to be the god who protects and governs tribal storehouses. The Oroqen also
believe that they can ask the god 'Benetnasch' for a longer life. They believe that if
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

anyone crossing the path of an oncoming tornado may anger the wind god (Kulet),
which will manifest itself in the transgressor developing cramps and a palsy of the
mouth that makes it droop. 'Dragon Prince' (Mudu), the god of the rain, has innumer-
able scales, each of which is loaded with more than one hundred buckets of water.
When Mudu sprays water, it rains. Thus, Oroqen fables about the sun, the moon,
the stars, and other celestial elements account for everything that occurs, all for the
various purposes of the gods.

3.5 Ancestor Worship

Ancient worship may be considered the principal aspect of the shamanistic worship of
the Oroqen people. Each Oroqen tribe or family has its own ancestor gods. Any
deceased member of the family who lived before the paternal great-grandfather can
be a god, however most are male ancestors. The tribe's own shaman is called the
'hadge1y' shaman, meaning that the office has been handed down from generation
to generation. Each tribal shaman is believed to be chosen by the ancestor gods. In
the sacrificial ceremony, the shaman invites the ancestor gods to enter his or her ·
body, and then has the power to fight against ghosts. This form of worship fills the
minds of the Oroqen people on a daily basis. Whenever someone becomes ill, it is
thought that the ancestors have been angered. At the same time, indications comm4-
nicated through dreams and other special phenomena may be pointing to the fact
that the ancestor gods may· be in some kind of trouble, so the shaman must stipulate
the many different ways to conduct the sacrifice; so as to dissipate the taboo and
banish the gods' problems.

3.6 ldola11y
Shamans consecrate most idols, which are made of stone, wood, bone, grass and/or
animal skin. Other kinds of sacred images include drawings of human beings on
animal skin or paper. After the idol is completed, it must be sacrificed-in a ceremony
in order to acquire power, just as a god would. Most gods can be represented in the
form of idols, and the Oroqen people carry them when they undertake nomadic
migrations.

3.7 Delivering the Soul

The Oroqen frequently hold ceremonies to deliver the souls of the deceased. They con-
struct a human figure of straw, and tie it with laces. Children and other family members
in mourning grasp laces from behind the figure. The shaman also grasps one lace while
chanting incantations and praying, telling the dead not to miss their homeland and
asking them to depart quickly. The shaman then uses a 'god stick' to cut the laces,
and throws the straw figure as far as he can such that the dead soul can go along
with it. After the corpse is placed in the coffin, it is buried in the trees through
_'wind burial', or, possibly, underground, the method that has come to be favored in
recent years.

239
 3.8 Ceremonies Asking for Favorable Hunting
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

When Oroqen hunters find it is hard to hunt or if something unfortunate occurs, they
hold ceremonies to beg for favorabie hunting. To begin, the hunters make straw models
of deer or moose, putting them near the 'Malu' that is usually placed near an idol. They
then pretend to shoot the model with arrows or guns, as the others shout out: 'Hit!
Hit!'. The .hunters immediately pretend to remove the animal's skin and internal
organs, placing them on shelves. Another practice, conducting at night, is to set a
pot out on the hunting ground as the hunters kneel and pray to the moon god. If
there is some kind of fur in the pot the next morning, the hunters know that this is
the kind of wild animal they are permitted by the gods to hunt for the day.
Oroqen sacrifices continue unceasingly throughout the entire year. Whenever they
surround a bonfire to prepare a meal, especially during a wedding ceremony, they must
worship the bonfire. When seeking to re-direct flood waters, they feel it necessary to
worship 'Mudulihan', the river god. During a drought; they offer sacrifices to the
water deity, 'Mudumubuk', with the celery stalks. In short, the Oroqen hold sacrificial
ceremonies whenever they feel prayers are needed.

4. THE SHAMAN AS A CONDUIT TO THE WORLD OF THE GODS

Among all of the shaman's sacrificial activities, one of his or her most important roles
may be called the 'Shaman's journey', a kind of transformation of consciousness (Wu
1989, p. 11 !). This transformation is a psychic condition in which the shaman appears
to be beyond thought, as ifhe or she were dead. The shaman's body becomes a bridge
between the present world and the world of the gods, beyond. Of equal importance is
the shaman's ability to cure illnesses. No matter what messages the shaman may
receive from the gods, either in the form of knowledge or the power to cure, she or
he must have a repertoire of other treatments. The shaman must be able to cure not
only him or herself and others, but also the whole earth, whose scope includes the
material world, the body, the mind, and the psyche. Both of these roles of the
shaman have the same goal: to maintain the health of all and to promote the good
of the entire world.
Traditional shamanism believed that humanity fell ill for two reasons: either one
had been invaded by non-essential forms of energy and strength, or, one had been
drained of them. Shamanism speaks of a 'separation' in the human person as being
the cause of most illnesses - a loss of energy and strength. When one had lost strength
and energy, non-essential strength and energy invaded this empty interior space. To
shamanism, to be in good health was to enjoy good and intimate relations with
one's environment, ·as well as to be accompanied by one's own spiritual assistant?
powerful animal or sacred teacher who literally walked alongside one's body. The
ability to cure meant that the ·shaman had the power to retrieve lost energy and strength.
Shamanism believed that the loss of energy and strength was the loss of one's soul; to
retrieve that soul was, quite literally, to repair it. The work of repairing the soul is the
most basic and essential task of the shaman for in Shamanism, the soul is equated with

240
 vitality. In shamanistic belief, humanity is made whole by uniting the soul with its own
form of vitality .
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

. 5. SHAMANISM AS ULTIMATE REALITY AND MEANING FOR

THE OROQEN PEOPLE

In times both past and present, shamanism has structured the entire way of life of the
Oroqen and of many other tribal societies, governing religious and social activities, and
the political life. Shamanistic activities and sacrifices have bound the people closely
together, strengthened their national spirit, and shaped them into a formidable commu-
nity with the ability to resist n~tural disaster and social oppression. Through blood
relationships, totem worship, and the adoration of natural objects, peoples of different
communities bonded through their shamanistic practices. In this sense, shamanism has
performed the greatest of services by uniting peoples who,· had they .not joined
together, might never have survived. Shamanism played this critical role not only in
the formation of the Oroqen tribe but also in that of other minorities in northern
China throughout its long and turbulent history. By creating a stable sense of national
and tribal identity, shamanism also provided the foundation for stable social systems
and progressive communal development.
Shamanism's system of incantations and spells, which were used to treat illnesses,
led to the slow but steady accumulation of primitive medical knowledge, and also cul-
minated in the establishment of civilizing· social practices and the development of
primitive science and technology. What is more, it greatly influenced the formation
and development of the writing systems, literature, art, and music of the Oroqen and
of many other tribal minorities throughout China. · ·
Shamanism's essence, which is composed of belief in and worship of the gods,
clearly constitutes it as a religion. As a system of beliefs and worship, it allows for
the development of a religious consciousness, which is expressed through established
forms of religious communication. These include adoring the gods, petitioning them
for favors, fighting and ultimately driving away evil spirits, and confronting imbal-
ances in the universe. Shamanism is the vehicle through which established patterns
and practices of religious expression have become part of the Oroqen social fabric.
Shamans have decided how to harmonize the people's beliefs and behavior so as to
serve them through the social order and the shamanistic system of religious expression.
In this sense, shamanism should be regarded as. the core of Oroqen beliefs and their
system of the worship of objects. Shamans have siandardized the people's customs,
religious beliefs, and forms of worship, and have joined the Oroqen people together
by their blood relationships and their interrelatedness to peoples of other local
regions, and thus forming an entire social and cultural system. Shamanism has
allowed the Oroquen to maintain the traditional beliefs of their rapidly vanishing
nomadic culture, despite its unconscious growth and its lack of written texts. The
source of Oroqen social organization and forms of belief, shamanism has helped the
community to organize itself so as to live, worship; work, and celebrate together. To

241
 outsiders, the system of Oroqen shamanism makes it difficult to differentiate between
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

religious belief and practices and common custom.

Although shamanism, which is based in nature, might be known as a kind of primi-
tive intelligence that led to a pious way of life, its ideas and practices offer important
lessons for modern civilization as well. Do the great spiritual needs of the Oroqen call
for a renewed consideration of the power of shamanism in the context of modern life?
To begin, shamanism emphasizes harmony bet~een human beings and the natural
world, and does not pursue other worlds to the exclusion of this one. Shamans may
hold ceremonies in the wild; however, they always return to life and work in their
own society. For example, the shaman seeks.to cure the illnesses caused by the imbal-
ances in the world, just as modem science aims to maintain harmony between the
body, the heart, and the spirit. Oroqen shamanism's drive for perfect self-knowledge
leads to a conception of the body as being sacred and pursuing self-realization
through self-knowledge and self-respect. This corresponds nicely to the search by
many people in society for religious enlightenment without the structures of religious
organizations. Most contemporary faiths would be hard-pressed to be as environmen-
tally engaged as Oroqen shamans, who might very well play a more important role in
future societies.
Shamanism's core concept of strength, energy, and the ability to cure illnesses
reminds us that we human beings must not allow ourselyes to be 'made small' by
the societies in which we live. Modern men and women often feel that they have
lost control of their lives and seek 'higher powers' to provide them with the strength
and energy they need to continue their lives. Some even seek to show that they are
able to control the lives of others through their own power. Yet, Oroqen shamanism
reminds us that energy and strength one come from wisdom. The shaman's energy
and strength do not emanate from power or personal might, but from humanity's vital-
ity. And the true source of Oroqen vitality, its true source of ultimate reality and
meaning, must be traced back to shamanism as the source of its whole way of life
and its ongoing struggle to survive.

REFERENCES
Gao, H. 2005. Ewenke Zu, Elunchun Zu, Dawo' er Zu Saman Jiao Wenhua De Tedian .
[A Comparative Study of the Structure of the Sacred in the Shamanism of the
Oroqen, the Evenki, and the Daur]. Elunchun Yanjiu (February): 56-61.
Gordon, N. 1992. Shaman. New York: Penguin Group.
Guan, X. 2003. Daxing' anting Elunchun [The Oroqen of Daxing'anling]. Harbin, China:
Harbin Publishing House.
- and 'Nang, H. 1998. Elunchun Zu Saman Jiao Diaocha [Survey of Shamanism Among
the Oroqen]. Shenyang, China: Liaoning People's Publishing House.
Guo, S. 2001. Yuanshi Huotai Wenhua: Samanliao Toushi [A Perspective on Shamanism:
Primitive Huotai Living]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House.

242
 Jin, W. and Fu, Y. eds. 2007. Nishan Saman Zhuan [A Study of the Shamanism ofNishan].
Jilin, China: Jilin People's Publishing House.
https://www.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/uram.30.3.232 - Monday, January 16, 2023 5:17:06 AM - IP Address:2409:4072:897:323a:79b:ca44:2d68:33aa

Liu, C. and Zhang, L. 2004. Qianxi Elunchun Zu Saman Jiao Wenhua de Tedian
[Characteristics of the Culture of Shamanism of the Oroqen]. Elunchun Yanjiu
(February): 45-48.
Wang, S. 2004. Yuanqu De Wenming: Zhongguo Saman Wenhua Yishu [The Dying
Culture: Posthumous Works on the Culture of Chinese Shamanism]. Harbin, China:
Heilongjiang People's Publishing House.
Wu, B. 1989. De Saman Shijie: Zhongguo Yuanshi Wenhua Genji [The Mysterious
Shaman World: The Basis of Chinese Primitive Culture]. Shanghai: Shanghai
People's Publishing House.
Wu, Y. 2006. Zuihou de Chuanshuo: Elunchun Zu Wenhua Yanjiu [The Last Legend:
A Study of Oroqen Culture]. Beijing: Chinese Minzu University Publishing House.

243