MATR 4354: POWDER METALLURGY

(TERM PAPER)

Members : Muhammad Zakhuan bin Zulkeflee (1629031)

: Noor Jasmine binti Mohd Adli (1621128)

: Nur Fatihah binti Ab. Hadi (1624174)

: Muhammad Rafiq Haikal bin Rosdin (1625699)

Section :1

Lecturer’s Name : Prof. Md. Abdul Maleque

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 Introduction

Manufacturing engineering is a process or steps at which raw materials are transformed

into a final product. It is a crucial part in all products available in this world. This is because

different materials require different types of manufacturing process. By using the correct

manufacturing technique, the product produced will surely perform at its best performance as

well as the production cost can be reduced. In recent years, additive manufacturing (AM) has

emerged as one of the new manufacturing processes available in the market. AM also known

as 3D printing, is a process of creating an object by building it one layer at a time (Lederle et

al., 2016). In other words, AM can refer to any process where a product is created by building

something up such as moulding or 3D printing.

Additive manufacturing is an industrial version for 3D printing technologies that build

3D objects through, 3D modelling software, layering material, machine equipment and layering

material. It is widely used for producing pre-production visualization models. Currently, 3D

printing is used to fabricate end use products in dental restorations, automobiles, aerospace,

medical implants and fashion products. The industrial trend for AM especially in the metal

powders market surpasses $360 million in 2019 and is estimated to grow over 18% on

Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) between 2020 to 2026 (Ahuja & Singh, 2020). This

is due to the technological advancements in the medicine industry, enhanced application scope

in automotive and aerospace sectors, government initiatives to enhance additive manufacturing

technology, and replacement of conventional technology in oil & gas exploration and

production activities are major factors expected to drive the growth of the global market. Figure

1 below shows the infographics of the AM for metals market.

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 Figure 1 shows the infographics for additive manufacturing for metal powder market (Ahuja & Singh, 2020)

Three types of materials can be used in AM. Those materials are polymers, ceramics

and metals. This paper only focuses on AM for metals. There are variety of metals that can be

used for AM process. The most common materials used are stainless steels, aluminium, nickel,

cobalt-chrome and titanium alloys (Williams, 2020). Table 1 below shows the type of material

used in AM process along with their standards. Not all materials can be used in AM, but in

many cases and with the proper equipment the qualification of an available metal powder for a

specific purpose can be done.

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Table 1 shows the type of powdered metals used in AM process along with the standard in German Institute for
Standardisation (DIN) (Williams, 2020)

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 History

The first idea of AM can be traced back from 1977 where Wyn Kelly Swainson patents

directing a laser onto a tray submerged in liquid plastic, fusing a layer of solid plastic on top

(Linke, 2017). Then, in 1981, Hideo Kodama of the Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research

Institute, published an information regarding the manufacturing of a solid printed model

(Schotte, 2019). A few years later, Stereolithography was patented by Charles Hull, creating

models by curing a liquid photopolymer resin using UV lasers. Hull later commercialized the

first rapid prototyping system, greatly reducing the time for designers and engineers to create

3D concepts and prototypes. However, 3D printing was not fully commercialized until in the

1990s, where at this time, three AM technologies were commercialized, including fused

deposition modelling, solid ground curing and laminated object manufacturing (Gornet, 2017).

Nevertheless, the technology was not simply quite there yet at that time. Most of the printed

products are either non-functioning or only survive for a few days.

The early 2000s were a fantastic time for additive technology, with advancements in

printing that brought around the first commercially viable Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

machine, as well as the founding of Objet, which developed a machine that could mix multiple

materials, allowing parts to be created with different material properties in different sections of

the build (Schotte, 2019). In the present day, the accuracy and resolution AM have continued

to improve, allowing more products to be manufactured using this process. Some of the

machines for the AM process also can produce products with certain aesthetics with capabilities

that include full-colour and texture.

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 Types of Powder Additive Manufacturing

Even though the word "3D Printing" is used by many people as a synonym for all

additive manufacturing processes, there are also several individual processes that differ in their

layer manufacturing methods. Depending on the material and system technology used,

individual processes may vary. Thus in 2010, the "ASTM F42-Additive Manufacturing"

category of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) formulated a set of criteria

that classify the spectrum of additive manufacturing processes into 7 categories (Gibson et al.,

2015).

1. Vat photopolymerization

A vat of liquid photopolymer resin, from which the model is constructed layer by layer,

is used for vat polymerisation. Where possible, ultraviolet (UV) light is used to heal or harden

the resin, while after each new layer is healed, a platform pushes the object being rendered

downwards. As the process uses liquid to form objects, there is no structural support from the

material during the build phase., unlike powder-based methods, where support is given from

the unbound material.

Figure 2. Illustration of Vat photopolymerization (Popovich, Sufiiar, 2016).

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Step by step process

i. The build platform is lowered from the top of the resin vat downwards by the layer thickness.

ii. A UV light cures the resin layer by layer. The platform continues to move downwards and

additional layers are built on top of the previous.

iii. Some machines use a blade which moves between layers in order to provide a smooth resin

base to build the next layer on.

iv. After completion, the vat is drained of resin and the object removed.

2. Powder bed fusion

The following widely used printing techniques are included in the Powder Bed Fusion

process: direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), electron beam melting (EBM), selective heat

sintering (SHS), selective laser melting (SLM) and selective laser sintering (SLM) (SLS).

Powder bed fusion (PBF) methods are used to melt and fuse material powder together

with either a laser or an electron beam. Electron beam melting (EBM) methods require a

vacuum, but can be used in the production of usable parts with metals and alloys. The spreading

of the powder content over previous layers requires all PBF processes. To allow this there are

various mechanisms, including a roller or a blade. The supply of fresh material is supported by

a hopper or reservoir under the side of the bed.

Figure 3. Illustration of powder bed fusion (Popovich, Sufiiar, 2016).

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Step by step process

i. A layer, typically 0.1mm thick of material is spread over the build platform.

ii. A laser fuses the first layer or first cross section of the model.

iii. A new layer of powder is spread across the previous layer using a roller.

iv. Further layers or cross sections are fused and added.

v. The process repeats until the entire model is created. Loose, unfused powder remains in

position but is removed during post processing.

3. Binder jetting

Two materials are used for the binder jetting process; a material based on powder and

a binder. The binder functions as an adhesive between layers of powder. Typically, the binder

is in liquid form and the construction material is in powder form. A print head travels

horizontally along the machine's x and y axes, depositing alternating layers of the building

material and the binding material. The object being printed is lowered on its construction

platform after each sheet.

Figure 4. Illustration of binder jetting (Popovich, Sufiiar, 2016).

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Step by step process

i. Powder material is spread over the build platform using a roller.

ii. The print head deposits the binder adhesive on top of the powder where required.

iii. The build platform is lowered by the model’s layer thickness.

iv. Another layer of powder is spread over the previous layer. The object is formed where the

powder is bound to the liquid.

v. Unbound powder remains in position surrounding the object.

vi. The process is repeated until the entire object has been made.

4. Material extrusion

Fuse deposition modelling (FDM) is a common method of extrusion of material and is

trademarked by the Stratasys group. Content is drawn through a nozzle, where it is heated and

layer by layer is then deposited. After each new layer is deposited, the nozzle will move

horizontally and a platform is moved up and down vertically. It is a widely used tool for many

affordable 3D printers, domestic and hobby printers.

Figure 5. Illustration of material extrusion (Popovich, Sufiiar, 2016).

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Step by step process

i. First layer is built as nozzle deposits material where required onto the cross-sectional area of

the first object slice.

ii. The following layers are added on top of previous layers.

iii. Layers are fused together upon deposition as the material is in a melted state.

5. Directed energy deposition (DED)

‘Laser engineered net forming, guided light manufacturing, direct metal deposition, 3D laser

cladding' is a more advanced printing technique typically used to restore or apply new material

to existing parts. Directed Energy Deposition (DED) requires a variety of terms. A typical DED

machine consists of a nozzle mounted on a multi axis arm that deposits melted material where

it solidifies on the defined surface. The process is similar in principle to material extrusion, but

the nozzle can move in multiple directions and is not fixed to a specific axis.

Figure 6. Illustration of DED (Popovich, Sufiiar, 2016).

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Step by step process

i. A4 or 5 axis arms with nozzle moves around a fixed object.

ii. Material is deposited from the nozzle onto existing surfaces of the object.

iii. Material is either provided in wire or powder form.

iv. Material is melted using a laser, electron beam or plasma arc upon deposition.

v. Further material is added layer by layer and solidifies, creating or repairing new material

features on the existing object.

6. Material jetting

In a comparable technique to a two-dimensional ink jet printer, material jetting

produces artifacts. Using either a continuous or Drop on Demand (DOD) strategy, material is

thrown onto a building platform. Material is jetted onto the build surface or platform, where it

solidifies and the model is built layer by layer. Material is deposited from a nozzle which moves

horizontally across the build platform. Machines vary in complexity and in their methods of

controlling the deposition of material. The material layers are then cured or hardened using

ultraviolet (UV) light.

Figure 7. Illustration of material jetting (Popovich, Sufiiar, 2016).

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Step by step process

i. The print head is positioned above the build platform.

ii. Droplets of material are deposited from the print head onto the surface where required, using

either thermal or piezoelectric method.

iii. Droplets of material solidify and make up the first layer.

iv. Further layers are built up as before on top of the previous.

v. Layers are allowed to cool and harden or are cured by UV light. Post processing includes

removal of support material.

7. Sheet lamination

Ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) and laminated item manufacturing require

sheet lamination processes (LOM). The method of Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing uses

sheets or metal ribbons, which are bound together by ultrasonic welding. Additional CNC

machining and removal of the unbound metal is required for the procedure, often during the

welding process. The manufacture of laminated objects (LOM) uses a similar layer by layer

approach, but instead of welding, it uses paper as material and adhesive. The LOM process

uses a cross hatching method during the printing process to allow for easy removal post build.

Laminated objects are often used for aesthetic and visual models and are not suitable for

structural use. UAM uses metals and includes aluminium, copper, stainless steel and titanium.

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 Figure 8. Illustration of sheet lamination (Popovich, Sufiiar, 2016).

Step by step process

i. The material is positioned in place on the cutting bed.

ii. The material is bonded in place, over the previous layer, using the adhesive.

iii. The required shape is then cut from the layer, by laser or knife.

iv. The next layer is added.

v. Steps two and three can be reversed and alternatively, the material can be cut before being

positioned and bonded.

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 Advantages & Disadvantages

According to Pereira, Kennedy and Potgieter (2019), AM provides versatility that helps

manufacturers to create an optimised design for lean manufacturing. AM has provided the

potential for simplification of the supply chain and has been successfully introduced in many

industries for 'single unit and very low volume production'. AM machines provide versatility

in manufacturing but, relative to conventional manufacturing machines, are still a considerably

costly investment. For low-volume/small batch production with continued centralization, AM

is cost-effective. A study examined the cost of fabricating a small plastic lever using AM

powder bed fusion versus conventional injection molding manufacturing. The study concluded

for a production volume smaller than 10,000, AM had a reduced unit cost compared to injection

molding.

Other than that, AM allows for the creation of bespoke parts with complex geometries

and little wastage. AM can be used to fabricate unique objects or replacement pieces where the

original parts are no longer produced. For instance, thin walls and shapes which are impossible

to produce by casting can be produced with AM. In addition, parts that previously required

assembly from multiple pieces can be fabricated as a single object which can provide improved

strength and durability. Ideal for rapid prototyping, the digital process means that design

alterations can be done quickly and efficiently during the manufacturing process. The lack of

material wastage provides cost reduction for high value parts, while AM has also been shown

to reduce lead times.

AM machines offer production flexibility; the machines do not require expensive set-

up arrangements, making the technology economical for smaller batch production. AM is better

suited to fabricate tooling and fixtures required for conventional Mass Manufacturing molds

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AM offers a reduced lead-time and cost to capitalize on high value, low production of parts

such as those used in ships, automation, aviation and satellites.

However, AM is still a considerably expensive investment compared to traditional

manufacturing machines. For example, entry level printers begin at around US$150, these are

fundamental small bed fused deposition modelling (FDM) prototyping personal use printers.

However, production level printers can range from US$5,000 to near US$1,000,000. Machine

purchase aside, material cost varies for polymers, elastomers, and even metallic feedstock

(powder, resin, wire, sheets). Additionally, running costs for the machine, and gas used for AM

machines requiring an inert environment and several other contributing costs add to the high

expense of the process. Other than that, the AM possesses slow build rates and limited

component size such as restricted by the size of the build chamber. Not only that, AM also

requires considerable effort for application design and setting process parameters. The size of

the producible component is also limited because it depends on the chamber size. Due to

component anisotropy, surface finish and dimensional accuracy may be inferior, which requires

post-processing. (Duda, Raghavan, 2016).

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 Applications

Additive manufacturing (AM) is becoming one of the most exciting technologies in the

aerospace industry. One of the major advantages is the ability to construct complex shapes

within one mould, with complex internal dimensions and complex geometry. Engines and

turbines work well with this process, as it allows the production of small batches of components

at a low cost. Turbine blades, fuel systems and guide vanes or even parts which carry oil and

water can be made using metal additive manufacturing techniques, such as metal printing. By

comparison to conventional manufacturing, additive methods are very quick, flexible and

economical.In addition to the functional parts of an engine, additive manufacturing is used to

create a 3D printed turbine as well as internal parts too. Air conditioning, belt buckles, heating

elements and cockpit equipment can all be made using this technique, and many companies are

opting to do some because of the lighter weights that can be achieved with these techniques.

(Winick, 2017) stated in his article that GE has one of the best-known examples of integrating

3D printing into the manufacture of jet engines. The company developed the fuel nozzles in

2016 using direct metal laser melting for its new LEAP family of engines. This method allowed

the weight of the nozzles to be reduced by 25%, the number of parts used to manufacture the

nozzle to be reduced from 18 to 1, and more intricate cooling pathways and supports, giving

the nozzle a five-fold increase in durability.

Next, AM has also been utilized in the automotive industry. Figure 9 Illustrates the

current and future applications of AM in an automobile. Some common applications are

bumpers, windbreakers, pumps and valves, cooling vents and etcetera. Selective laser

sintering was used to manufacture bumpers and windbreakers, while pumps, valves and

cooling vents were developed using selective laser melting.

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 Figure 9. Illustrative applications of AM in an automobile (Giff et al., 2014)

In addition, metal-AM technology has found extensive applications in the biomedical

area including orthopaedics, dental, and cardiovascular. For example, orthopaedic implants

should match the anatomical bone defect where the shaping of the implant and assurance of the

graft’s mechanical stability during the healing period would take protracted time and become

more complicated. Since each patient has various anatomies, the technology opted for the print

implant as well as other particular biomedical applications with various material properties,

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external and internal structures, and porosity. The technology includes customising products

for tissue scaffolds, vessel stent, dental work, and biomedical tools (Harun et al., 2018).

Some other selected industrial and consumer applications of AM are custom mountain bike

frame with joints made by selective laser melting, which connect carbon fibre tubes, figurines

of South Park characters, made by binder jetting, diamond engagement ring made by lost wax

casting with a 3D-printed mold and sunglasses with frames made by selective laser sintering

of a polymer (Quinlan et al., 2017).

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 Conclusion

Additive Manufacturing allows many companies to accelerate or even revolutionise

their production processes. Lightweight manufacturing and functional complexity, for

example, can help minimise resource use for the process and the product itself, streamline

manufacturing processes, make products more sustainable, and simplify supply chains. For AM

technologies to take the step into serial production, existing knowledge and skills need to be

pooled, and projects initiated for the benefit of potential users. Broad application will only be

successful if the transfer of research findings to industry is ensured. Furthermore, today

production dashboards and cooling vents in some vehicles are already made using AM. With

new improvements in process and materials technology and a wider adoption of AM, it is

possible that we could see AM-based production of a greater number of components in the

future. Meanwhile, Engineers across several industries have been attracted by these

technologies due to their potential to extensively transform the nature of manufacturing

processes, for example by enabling “Freedom of Design.” Using AM especially for the creation

of highly complex parts can be an economically viable alternative to conventional

manufacturing technologies. Therefore, the aerospace industry is one of the leading industries

in developing AM.

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