Memoirs of A Janissary - Konstantin Mihailović

Konstantin Mihailović 1
Memoirs of a Janissary
or Türkish Chronicle
by Konstantin Mihailović, 1490
written at some time between 1490-1500
originally written in either Polish or Bohemian1
1 Report or Chronicle might be better than Memoirs because very little is written about the author.
Copyright Željko Zidarić, 2021

Short biography of Konstantin Mihailović
By the 15th century, the Osmanlıs have been on the attack into Southeastern Europe
and Bartol Đurđević was not the first, nor last, Christian taken as a slave that would
return to Europe to tell his story. As a young man (maybe at about 20 years of age)
in 1455, Konstantin Mihailović, with his two brothers, was captured by the Osmanlıs
after the battle at Novo Brdo in Kosovo. By 1456, he was a soldier in Sultân Mehmet's
army and fought in the siege of Beograd. In 1461 he fought in the siege of Trebizond
and then in Walachia and against Vlad Drakul. In 1463, during an attack on the
fortress of Zvečaj in Croatia, when it was taken by King Mátyás Hunyadi, Konstantin
and a unit of Yeniçeris were captured. After his story was learned, Konstantin was
set free and it is speculated that he served in Hungary and then he moved to live in
Poland where he wrote his memoirs sometime between 1497 and 1501.
His youth
We believe that Konstantin Mihailović was born circa 1430, maybe 1435, but nothing is
known of his early years. His father’s name was Mihail Konstantinović, from a village
called Ostrovica. Unfortunately, we do not know which Ostrovica.1 Most researchers
believe that Konstantin was of Serbian ethnicity because he called himself a Raizen
(Rascian). He was a man of modest education and means, possibly being a silver
miner, living in Novo Brdo with his brothers, but without parents.
In 1453, the Sultân wanted to take Constantinople. He sent a request (order) to
Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković that under his obligations as a vassal to the Sultân, he
must sen a contingent of 1,500 men to join the Sultân’s army for a campaign in
Karaman. One of the men in that contingent was Konstantin Mihailović. Upon arrival,
Mihailović recalls:
“All of us soldiers realized that we had been deceived when they were sent to
besiege Constantinople. We did not want to fight against the Eastern centre of
Christendom, the glorious Byzantine capital, but we were told that returning
home would be very dangerous because an order had already been issued that
all that rebel will be be executed. Thus we hd to obey and help the Türks in the
conquest but fortunately we were of little, if any, use to the Sultân.”
After the fall of Constantinople, Konstantin returned to his home in Novo Brdo.
1 Where was Ostrovica during the Serbian Despotate? We are not sure. It might have been a city
near Rudnik, 75 km south of Beograd, or it might have been near Novo Brdo, about 30 km north of
Niš, or maybe the city today known as Novobërdë in Kosovo, 25 km east of Pristina. There was
also an Ostrovica in western Bosna, about 35 km southeast of Bihać. To add confusion, there was
also an Ostravice in Bohemia.

Siege of Constantinople, from “La Cronicque du temps de tres chrestien roy

Charles, septisme de ce nom, roy de France”, by Jehan Charetier, c. 1470–79.

Captivity
After the fall of Constantinople, Sultân Mehmed II, known as el-Fātiḥ (the Conqueror),
began to develop a long-term plan to take Hungary but first had to take Serbia, then
defeat the Magyar defensive fortresses along the Danube, and then march into the
Kingdom of Hungary. To defeat Hungary, he first had to defeat the Serbs, not only to
control the land and take the resources, including the wealth-producing mines but also
to force the Serbs to contribute soldiers for Ottoman campaigns. During the Serbian
Despotate (1402–1459), Novo Brdo was one of the largest cities in Southeastern
Europe due to the mining and production of iron, silver, and some gold. Production of
silver and gold peaked between 1420 and 1440. Circa 1433, from Novo Brdo, Đurađ
Branković, was receiving 200,000 gold coins annually.
Due to the wealth produced in Novo Brdo, the Sultân wanted it. In the first half of
1441, the Ottomans besieged had the suburbs and by the end of June of 1441, the
fortress surrendered. In 1443-44, a Christian Crusade, called the Long Campaign,
marched all the way to Sofia, liberating many lands including Novo Brdo and
Smederevo, which were returned to Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković by the Peace of
Szeged, signed on August 15, 1444. The Magyars broke the peace and the Sultân
attacked.
In 1445, the Osmanlıs were again on the attack and Novo Brdo was one of the targets.
After a 40-day-long siege, on June 1, 1455, Novo Brdo was again in Osmanlı hands.
Konstantin and his brothers were taken captive by the victorious Osmanlı army and all
three were sold as slaves.1 Within three years, the mint at Novo Brdo was producing
Osmanlı akçe. About what happened after the fall of the city, Mihailović wrote:
“After the city surrendered, the Sultân himself, had the gates closed, leaving open
only one exit. The survivors were told to walk through the gate and on the other
side they were separated and placed into groups: boys in one area, girls in
another, women in a third, and men in a fourth place. On the spot, he had the
important men immediately beheaded. He then selected 320 boys and 704 girls.
The girls he gave to his soldiers2 and took the boys for himself to become his
Janissaries, The remainder were allowed to return to the city.”
By the end of 1455, János Hunyadi, the Regent-Governor of the Kingdom of Hungary
and Voivode of Transylvania, realizing the importance of Beograd, a vital city in the
defence of the Danube and the Magyar lands, began to upgrade the defence of the
fortress but, while the people saw him as a folk hero, his fellow Magyar nobles feared
1 Being either 20 or 25 years old, of low status but with experience at the Fall of Constantinople,
Konstantin was assessed to have some military value and thus was taken alive. Possibly by the
end of August, he was in Anatolia and received some training. It is believed that Konstantin did not
receive the full Janissary training, probably because men were needed to fill the ranks thinned by
many battles. He might have received only 6 months of Janissary training.
2 Some stories claim that the attractive young women and girls were given as wives to Sultân’s
commanders, while the less attractive women were given as sex slaves to the soldiers.

his growing power more than they feared the Osmanlıs and thus did not help him. The
Sultân, knowing that Beograd would be too difficult to take once Hunyadi strengthened
it, decided to take the vital fortress as soon as possible believing that once he took
Beograd, that two months later he would be in Buda having a celebratory dinner for
conquering Hungary. By July 4, 1456, he had encircled Beograd and Konstantin was
there, most likely an auxiliary to the Janissaries because he was not fully trained. By
July 22, János Hunyadi and San Giovanni da Capestrano (John of Capistrano) broke
the siege and saved the city.1
After Beograd, Konstantin was in battles across the Peloponnese (1458–60), at war
against the Empire of Trebizond (1461), and a campaign against Vlad III Draculea
(1462). After the conquest of Bosna (1463), Konstantin, who had risen in rank, was
appointed to command the small fortress called Zvečaj, near Jajce, on the Vrbas River
in Bosna. The next year, Mátyás Hunyadi, son of János Hunyadi, returned to Bosna
and liberated some places, including Zvečaj. Konstantin was taken captive, and after
his identity was confirmed, he was released.
Warning Europe
Konstantin might have settled in a Serbian community in the south of the Magyar
kingdom. Some believe that while in Hungary he was very critical of the Magyars and
their nobles, and therefore, by 1468-69, he was no longer living in Hungary, but in
Bohemia or Poland. The cause of his flight from Hungary is not known. It is believed
that he lived in Poland for the next 30 years. While in Poland, at some time between
1497 and 1501, Konstantin wrote Pamiętniki Janczara czyli Kronika Turecka
Konstantego z Ostrowicy (The Memoirs of a Janissary or Türkish Chronicle written by
Konstantin from Ostrovica).2 The book, in the format of historical chronicles and
travelogues that were popular at the time, was dedicated to Jan I Olbracht, King of
Poland, and twice he requested the king to go to war against the Türks.
What was his motivation for writing the book? Some believe that it was initially an
attempt at gaining a position in the Polish or Bohemian courts but a higher purpose
might have been to educate Christendom of the Osmanlı Empire and its military threat,
hoping to move the rulers of Europe to, end their petty bickering, unite in the fight
against the threat from the East, to push the Osmanlıs out of Europe.
1 János Hunyadi and San Giovanni da Capestrano, the leaders of the victorious Christian forces that
saved Beograd, died of the plaque shortly after the battle.
2 It is believed that the Polish book was written between 1497 and 1501, but the original manuscript,
today lost, might have been written years earlier, possibly in the Slavic Church liturgical language.
From the original manuscript, the Bohemian and Polish translations were made.

Table of contents of the entire original book
Translated topics included here are highlighted.
01. Of the various pagans and of Ali, Muhammad’s helper

02. Concerning Mohammed and His Helper Ali
03. How the Heathens Are in Regard to Their Temples and Religion
04. Concerning the Second Temple
05. Concerning the Second Sermon
06. Concerning Their Councils
07. What the Heathens Call in Their Language the Angels, etc.
08. Concerning Turkish and Heathen Justice
09. Concerning the Ancestors of the Turkish Emperor
10. Concerning the Rule of His Son Mustaffa
11. Concerning Aladin, Mustaffa’s Son
12. Concerning Morat, Aladin’s Son
13. Concerning Sultan, Morat’s Son
14. Concerning the Greek Emperor
15. Of God’s punishment for our sins, events concerning the Serbs and Rascians
16. About what happened in the Serbian or Rascian kingdom
17. Concerning the Reign of Emperor Baiazit
18. Concerning the Great Khan and His Rule
19. Concerning the Great Khan and Emperor Morat
20. Concerning the Reign of Emperor Morat
21. How King Vladislav Marched with the Despot against Turkish Emperor Morat
22. Concerning the Turkish Emperor Morat: How He Fared Later
23. Concerning King Vladislav: How His Majesty Fared Later Against the
Heathens
24. How Voivode Janko Marched Against the Turks
25. Concerning the Rule of Emperor Machomet
26. How Emperor Machomet Deceived the Greek Emperor
27. How Emperor Machomet Deceived Despot Đurađ
28. What Happened to the Despot at the Hands of Janko
29. How Emperor Machomet Attacked Belgrade but Gained Nothing
30. How Emperor Machomet Deceived the Morean Despot Dimitri
31. How Emperor Machomet Marched Against Trebizond
32. Concerning Uzun Hasan, the Tatar Lord

33. On the Vlach Voivod, lord of Lower Wallachia

34. About the truce with the Bosnian king
35. How Emperor Mehmet marched back to Bosnia
36. How Emperor Machomet Ordered a Lord to Count the Imperial Treasure
37. How the Two Brothers Dealt with Each Other
38. Concerning the Organization of All Turkish Lands
39. On the arrangement of the Sultan’s Court
40. On war and the Türkish preparations
41. How a campaign and type of battle order should be organized against the
Türks
42. On the Türkish light (fast) horsemen, called aḳıncı
43. On Cerehors, similar to our mercenaries
44. Of the Martolos
45. About the Organization of a Türkish Assault
46. Of the Christians that live under the Türk
47. Of the Türkish expansion
48. How the Sultân presents himself to his courtiers
49. The Imperial Names in the Turkish Language

Topic 1: Of the various pagans and of Ali, Muhammad’s helper
The pagans who have accepted Muhammad’s laws are varied, including the Argini,
Persians, Türks, Tatars, Berbers, Arabians, and some Black people who do not have fire
scars on their faces. All these people once lived by the Book of Moses are now
governed by the accursed Qur’an, in which Muhammad wrote the law. They believe in
one God, a creator of heaven and earth.
They have one big holiday (before the harvest), which they call Brunk Eid (Buiuk
Bayram), and for it everyone (man) fasts for a month, eating nothing or drinking
anything all day, until the stars are seen. But during the night they eat meat, and drink
water, as much as they want, until the day. And also when the new moon arrives, they
celebrate richly, eating for three days. But wines they do not drink, nor do they eat any
yeast. In celebration, they give out alms to the needy, for some slaves they shorten the
period of service while others they set free. The wealthier lords make sacrifices of
sheep, goats, and camels, and then distribute the meat along with bread, candles and
movie given as charity in the name of Allâh. Whomever they encounter, Muslim or
Christian, for each they have charity. At graves they carry out nightly prayers and burn
tallow candles and incense for the souls of the dead. When I asked the pagan why they
burn tallow candles when wax candles at the gravesite or the temple would be better, I
was given the answer that Allâh deserves a sacrifice of a beast and not of flies. Then
they asked me, how does it seem to you? Is it good or bad? I replied to them, “As
Muhammad did (established) one good, then he must also another.
The second of their main holidays, which happens in the autumn, which they call
Kiczyk Bajram, known as the Little Feast (Celebration). For this celebration, fasting is
voluntary but they do give out alms as previously mentioned. They hold Friday as holy,
as the Jews hold Saturday and we Christians, Sunday, because God created Man on
Friday. They get circumcised. They do not eat pig meat. On these five issues, they
agree but on nothing else. Following their circumcision, they are called Busromane,
meaning in their language “the chosen people of faith” (desiring to be better than
Christians), like the Jews.
They consider Christians to be a sinful people because we have faith in and worship the
Holy Trinity, claiming “It is not three Gods but One God”. For that, the Busromane call
us gâvur (giaour), which means sinners or confused (lost) people. We Christians have
named the Bubromans as pagans (heathens) because of their ignoble deeds of which I
do not want to write here. To be a pagan indicates the person is cruel, inhumane, and
like an unclean dog. They would like to be good, and as they think they speak. But,
one can say, they sin because they do not have good (better) teachers (leaders) who
could teach them better. They could be good if they wanted to be but it might be better
for a leader to pour [something] into a torn bag than to try to lead such vulgar people.

Topic 15: Of God’s punishment for our sins,

the events concerning the Serbs and Rascians
The Serbian king named Milutin (Stefan Uroš II Milutin), a descendant of the first
Serbian king Uroš, had given the orders to have his son Stefan (Stefan Uroš III
Dečanski) blinded. [This may have been at the will of God for after his father's death
he regained his sight and he also had a son whom he named Stefan]. The Serbian
king’s son mobilized an army and then, seeking a fight with the Bulgarian king
Dimitrij, entered the Bulgarian lands and encamped with his army at a river named
Iskar (a southern tributary of the Danube). Likewise, with all his might, the Bulgarian
tsar arrived on the other bank. Both of them, being God-fearing men, began to build
churches on each riverbank. The Bulgarian Tsar built, at great expense, a church in the
name of Jesus, our Saviour, while the Serbian King Stefan constructed a church in the
name of the Virgin Mary. While the churches were being built, the Bulgars and Serbs
held peace talks and these churches still stand to this day. And while they were
building these churches, they were holding peace talks, calmly and without bloodshed.
These two churches have remained undamaged to this day.
The son of the Serbian king gathered an army without his father's knowledge, crossed
the river, attacked the Bulgarian Tsar, defeated his army, caught the tsar, and sent him
to his father, the Serbian (Rascian) king. When the king saw the bad deed of his son,
he was very sad. He accepted the Bulgarian tsar with great friendship, and when they
were sitting at a banquet table, the Serb king placed the Bulgar tsar at a higher level
befitting a tsar. At that moment, the Serbian king's son, with a buzdogan (iron mace)
in his hand, stood up and shouted at his father, “It is unbecoming for you to put the
enemy higher than yourself,” and then he struck the Bulgarian tsar with the mace, with
such force, that the tsar died immediately.
The Serbian king was very upset and gave approval that the tsar is given an honourable
burial in a city called Trnova. The mournful king, not wanting to take the Bulgarian
Empire by the shameful actions of his son, returned to his Serbian lands. Later,
Bulgarian nobles came to the Serbian king and asked (begged) him to accept them and
be their new king. The king approved this but his son, afraid of his father, even though
the father did nothing harmful against his son, moved away to Arbanasi (Albanian)
lands. Afterwards, the Serbian king retreated to a city called Zvеčan.
Soon after, the son stealthily returned to his father’s lands, so that no one knew about
him. On November 11, 1331, without any warning, the son entered into his father’s
castle, snuck into the bedroom, and there strangled his father. At that time, the old
king said, “Listen to me heavens, listen to me earth! My father blinded me, now my
son strangles me.” The father (old king) died and was buried, as was his privilege, in
the monastery of Visoki Dečani, the construction of which he funded.

The son, Stefan Uroš IV Dušan, later became Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks but his
rule suffered from much unrest (turmoil) due to the ignoble deeds by which he took
rule. He sent envoys to the patriarch, the metropolitans and monks of the order of
Saint Basil, on Mount Athos (Holy Mountain), asking them, in the name of God, to
pray for him, and to advise him on how to receive repentance because God is merciful
to those that truly love him and call on him. They told him, “We can give you no other
advice but to return to God, embrace Him, repent your sins and act as best you can —
that will please Him more than building monasteries, paying for masses (rituals), or
giving out alms. Only to embrace the Lord God and repent your sins can you return to
his favour (betterment of your soul). What you do when not despairing is more helpful
to your soul than following commandments, for our Lord God is merciful to those who
truly love Him and seek help.”
Hearing from the holy men the advice, the Serbian Emperor departed for the
monastery where his father was buried, weeping bitterly, and repenting (in regret)
along the way. He arrived at the monastery and had a new cross placed by the road.
Next, he crawled on his bare knees to his father’s grave, sobbing all the way, speaking,
“Forgive me, my dear lord father.” When the others saw his grief they lifted him up,
took him away, and then telling him not to return for such a thing again. For his
repentance, the Serbian king built thirty monasteries, large and small, and he lived in
great piety and giving alms. After nine years, his father was canonized a saint and he
continued to perform many miracles to this day; seeing that the pagans left this
monastery in peace.
His son (who strangled him), later died and left behind a son named Stеfan Uroš IV
who poorly ruled the kingdom because due to the sins of his father, God took away his
wisdom, he released his competent and loyal advisors and took on new and disloyal
ones who called him Ludi Uroš (Uroš the Mad). Stеfan Uroš IV gave the entire empire
of the Bulgarian tsar to two brothers. During those days, there was a custom that only
the emperor, king, or princes could wear red boots but King Uroš gave red boots to the
brothers. Seeing the gifts and knowing the customs of the lands of the Bulgarians, the
brothers spoke out against him, resulting in the Serbian Tsar ordering that they come
to him. When the brothers arrived, they answered him thus: “You gave us red boots
out of which you will not (quickly and easily) get us out.” They added, the Bulgarian
lands were in favour of him because of the work of the tsar's father.
Soon after, the Türkish Sultân Murat came and besieged Adrianople. When reports of
the siege of Adrianople arrived to King Uroš IV in Rascia, the king, with great haste,
began to mobilize a strong army to march to save Adrianople from the Türks. When
they entered the land of Constantine, they encamped on a field named Žеgligova.
There, the king lay down and in his sleep had a dream in which an angel came to him,
took the sword from his hand, and gave it to the Türks. Taking into consideration the
miraculous dream, the army remained on the field and he went to speak with a hermit
(monk) living in the nearby hills. He spoke to the hermit of his dream and confessed,
“I am afraid of my father’s sins”. Not wanting to sadden the Serbian king further, the

hermit told him, “The sins of your father will manifest themselves in the fourth
generation”. And on the basis of this advice, the Serbian Tsar Uroš then left the hermit
and marched to Adrianople to save the city.
When the Serbian King was four miles (one Hungarian mile was about 8.5 km) from
Adrianople,1 the two brothers who whom he entrusted the Bulgarian lands defected
from their lord and went to the side of the Türkish Sultân. Though Uroš had a large
army, his wisdom was lacking, and he did not look at his foe and only his own
numbers. When the Türkish Sultân looked at the army of the tsar he saw great
disorder, and therefore, with his great army, moved out of the city and confronted the
Serbs. After he eliminated the wings (guards of the Serbian army), with his army he
advanced in the middle and stumbled upon Uroš in his tent. There, the Serbian king
and many others were killed, and his entire army was defeated (routed).
To this day, the location is named after the destruction of the Serbs - Sırpsındığı. After
the battle, the two Bulgarian brothers who defected from their ruler were justly
rewarded by the Sultân - they were beheaded. After the Sultân of the Türks took
Adrianople, he invaded and took the lands of the Bulgars without any obstacles.2
1 This battle is confusing because there is no date or location given. It might be the “Battle of
Sırpsındığı”, which happened in 1364. There is no record of this battle in Serbian, Hungarian,
Papal, or other European sources but in Ottoman records it is called sırp sındığı meaning the
destruction of the Serbs. Today the village is called Sarayakpinar. Neither the Serbian Tsar nor
Türkish Sultân was at that battle. A second battle happened on the Maritsa River, on September
26, 1371. The Christians sought to push the enemy out of Adrianople but the Ottomans won that
also - with thousands of Europeans dead in battle and thousands more that tried to escape
drowning in the Maritsa River.
2 The Ottomans gained a foothold in Europe in 1354 when they took the fortress at Gallipoli. During
the night of March 1-2, 1354, a powerful earthquake struck the city and weakened the defences of
the fortress. Less than a month later, the Ottomans besieged and then took the city. Adrianople
was taken possibly in 1362 or 1369. In 1385, Sofia fell. On June 15, 1389, the Battle of Kosovo
was fought and the Christians lost.

Topic 16: About what happened in the Serbian or Rascian kingdom
About the Battle of Kosovo Polje (Field of Blackbirds) in 1389

After the death of King Uroš V,1 the Serbian kingdom turned into a principality. In
1373, for their lord, the nobles chose Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović, who married Milica,
the daughter of Vratko Nemanjić. Some people supported him, and others did not, as
is the case everywhere today, not only among the laity but also the clergy — for where
there is no harmony (unity and solidarity) there can be done no good.
When Sultân Murad heard that Prince Lazar was the new ruler of the Serbian kingdom,
he gathered his army and without hesitation marched towards the fields of Kosovo2 in
the Serbian Kingdom. Without hesitation, Prince Lazar also mobilized an army and
marched to Smagovo, on the other side of the Lab River. On Wednesday, which
coincided with Saint Vitus’ Day (mid-June), a very fierce battle began that lasted three
days until Friday. The nobles who were allied with Prince Lazar fought at his side
valiantly and resolutely as true men but others merely watched the battle through their
fingers. The result of the infidelity and discord, among incompetent people corrupted
by envy, was that on Friday, in the afternoon, the battle was lost.3
And there, on that Friday at noon, Miloš Kobila4 (a knight of Prince Lazar) killed
Sultân Murat. Also killed during the battle was Murat’s son Mustafa. In that place,
near a church of the Virgin Mary (Mother of God), named Samodreža, Prince Lazar was
captured. Captured beside him was Krajmir, the Duke of Toplica, and many other
noble gentlemen were killed at that place. The disloyal unbelievers, for only watching
the battle, were classified as traitors and this did not bode well for them for soon after,
the Sultân, selecting one by one, had them all beheaded, saying, “When you were so
disloyal to your master, in his great danger, the same you would do to me.”
Within hours, if not a day, following his father’s death, Bayezid, named Yıldırım
(Thunderbolt), succeeded in ascending the throne of the Sultânate.5 Prince Lazar and
Duke Krajmir were brought there before Bayezid. Both Sultân Murat, his father, as
1 Stefan Uroš V died childless on December 4, 1371, about two months after much of the Serbian
nobility had been killed at the Battle of Maritsa on September 26, 1371. Lazar Hrebeljanović ruled
Moravian Serbia from 1373 until his death in 1389. He sought to resurrect the Serbian Empire and
by claiming to be a descendant of the Nemanjić dynasty, to be a legal heir to the throne of Serbia.
2 Kosovo borders on southern Serbia and northern Albania and Macedonia.
Some see it as the heartland (center) of the Balkan Peninsula.
3 It is said that the results of the Battle of Kosovo were felt immediately but Kosovo might not have
been the greatest defeat of the Serbs — that might have occurred at the Battle of the Maritsa River
(1371), 18 years earlier, at which the brothers Vukašin and Uglješa Mrnjavčević, and Alexander
Komnenos Asen, were defeated and thus leaving the door into SE Europe open to the Türks.
4 The surname of Miloš was first recorded as Kobila, but the word kobila, which means female horse,
developed negative connotations, and thus the surname was changed to Kobilić and then Obilić.
5 Bayezid had his brother Şehzade Yakub Çelebi murdered to prevent conflict in the High Porte.

well as his brother Mustafa, were lying on biers (in coffins). And then Bayezid said to
Prince Lazar: “Behold, you see my father and my brother lying there. How could you
dare to stand to oppose them? Prince Lazarus remained silent. Duke Krajimir said,
“Dear Prince, answer the Sultân, because a man’s head is not, like a willow stump, to
grow for a second time.”
Then Prince Lazar said to the Sultân: “The greater miracle is how your father dared to
attack the Serbian kingdom. And I say to you, Sultân Bayezid: if I had known what I
now see with my eyes, you would have been the third to lie on a bier (in a coffin). But,
Lord God willed this himself because of our sins. May the Lord’s Will be done.” With
that, Sultân Bayezid ordered that Lazar be beheaded. Duke Krajimir, begging the
Sultân, knelt before his prince, held the skirt (kilt) of his tunic, and caught the head of
Prince Lazar so that it would not fall to the ground. When the head fell in his skirt, he
brought it close to his face and said, “I vowed (swore) to Lord God, that where the head
of Prince Lazar is, that is where mine shall be.” Then, Krajimir was also beheaded and
both heads fell to the ground together. At that time, a Janissary brought the head of
Miloš Kobilić and threw it in front of the Sultân, next to the other two heads, saying:
“Sultân, these are the heads of your worst enemies.” Later, the Serbs or Rascians that
were with Sultân Bayezid asked for the body of Prince Lazar so that it may be taken to a
monastery called Ravanica and honourably buried.1
Having won the battle, Sultân Bayezid remained on Kosovo Field and built a
monument on the location where his father was killed. The monument was made of
four pillars with a dome (vault), covered with lead, which still stands today. Bayezid
placed his father and brother in coffins and sent them to Bursa, where their funerals
were held.2
Thus, a catastrophic war came to a bloody end because of the evil of disloyal people.
1 It is said that the body of Prince Lazar was first buried in Prishtina, and later moved to the monastery
of Ravanica, which Prince Lazar founded in 1381. Ravanica is located in Senje, near Ćuprĳa, near
the lower part of the Great Morava River. Exactly when Prince Lazar was taken to Ravanica and
canonized is not documented. Lazar was possibly canonized in 1391, when Patriarch Danilo III
took the remains of Prince Lazar from the Church of Sveti Spas (Holy Saviour) in Priština to
Ravanica in 1391. Prince Lazar may have been canonized for his martyrdom in 1397.
2 Sultân Bayezid recognized Stefan Lazarević, the son of Lazar, as the new Serbian leader
- later despot - with considerable autonomy. Bayezid also took Lazar’s 17 year old daughter,
Mileva Olivera Lazarević, named in Türkish Despina Hatun, as a concubine.

Topic 33: On the Vlach Voivod, lord of Lower Wallachia
Vlad II Dracul,1 or Vlad the Dragon2, the Voivod of the Vlach lands,3 had two sons,4 the
older one was called Vlad III, and the younger one, Radu III [Radu the Handsome].5
Vlad II gave both of his sons to the court of Sultân Mehmet II, the Conqueror, [as
diplomatic hostages] and later died. When the Sultân heard about his death, he
immediately endowed the older son of Dracul with money, horses, kaftans, and
beautiful tents, as befits a lord (ruler). He then sent him with great honour to the
Vlach country to rule in the place of his father, on the condition that he come to him
every year to report to him and pay the tribute as it was given before. The younger
brother, Radu, the Sultân kept at his court.
Vlad, the son of Dracul, Voivod6 of Wallachia, came twice, one after the other, to the
Sultân’s court, and after that, he did not want to come for a few years, until the Sultân
sent to him a gentleman named Hamza Bey. When Hamza Bey arrived to him in a city
called Brăila, Vlad III did not want to speak with him, but he ordered his servants to
detain the Sultân’s envoy [and entourage] until he returns. He then left and gathered
an army — that was during the winter, the Danube was frozen and thus the entire army
crossed the ice of the Danube onto the Sultân’s lands south of Nicopolis. There, he let
his people rob and kill both Türks and Christians in villages, unfortified towns, and
thus he did great damage to the Sultân. [To boast about how many Türks he killed], He
ordered all his soldiers to, from all people, dead and alive, cut off noses so that they can
be sent to Hungary. He then arrived in Brăila (Ibraila) where he met the Sultân’s
envoy. When Vlad III arrived, the envoy knew nothing of what happened. Vlad then
1 Vlad II was an illegitimate son of Mircea I of Wallachia. He spent his youth at the court of Sigismund
of Luxembourg, who, in 1431, made him a member of the Order of the Dragon.Sigismund also
recognized him as the lawful voivod of Wallachia, allowing him to settle in nearby Transylvania. From
the Order of the Dragon comes the sobriquet “of the Dragon.”
2 Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund formed the Order of the Dragon in 1408, following the Christian
defeat at Kosovo Field in 1389, and the loss at Nicopolis in 1396, a battle at which he was only
nominally in command and the French leader, John of Nevers, caused a rout of the rout of an allied
crusader army. The purpose of the order was to fight the Ottoman Empire, defend the Hungarian
monarchy from foreign and domestic enemies, and the Catholic Church from heretics and
Christendom from the pagan Osmanlı (Ottoman) attacks.
3 Wallachia was a historical part of Romania.
4 He had four sons. Vlad II, of the House of Drăculești, had four sons: Mircea II of Wallachia (1428–
1447) , Radu III the Handsome (December 1473 – March 1474), Vlad IV the Monk (1425 —
September 1495) but he is best known as the the father of Vlad III (1428/31 – 1476/77), who
comes to be known as Vlad the Impaler, or Dracula.
5 While in Constantinople, Radu became a Muslim but Vlad did not. Vlad studied military tactics,
among other things, and learned to speak spoke Arabic, Persian, and Türkish. The Sultân needed
Vlad to remain a Christian so that he could rule Christian Wallachia.
6 Voivod, also spelled Vojvod, Vojvoda, Voievod, Voivoda, or Wojewoda was a title used primarily in
Slav lands to designate a military-leader or warlord in Southern and Eastern Europe.

ordered the Sultân’s entourage of about 30 [maybe 40] people captured and all his
entourage put into a very strong fortress, called Tǎrgovište (or Tîrgoviște), that was
surrounded by water (possibly Kurista River). There, Vlad had the Sultân’s envoy,
Hamza Bey, impaled, and then the entourage impaled around him.
Soon after, reports of Vlad III Dracul’s deeds arrived to the Türkish Sultân and he sent
for Vlad’s brother (the younger Dracul). When Radu arrived at the court, the two
highest lords (vezirs) of the Sultân’s council, one had the name of Mehmet Paşa, and
the other İshak Paşa went to meet him and took him, between themselves, to the
Sultân where he sat on his throne. When Radu arrived, the Sultân rose, took Vlad by
the hand, and seated him beside him, to the right, on a slightly lower throne. Next, the
Sultân ordered woven clothes of blue fabric, with gold lamé, to be brought to him
(Radu) and for him to be dressed. After that, the Sultân ordered red flags to be brought
and given to him, and with that also gave money, horses, and tents, as befits a noble.
The Sultân then, immediately, sent with him 4,000 horsemen to Nicopolis (Niğbolu) to
wait for him there. The Sultân, without delay, gathered an army and followed without
stopping.
When we were in Nicopolis, on the bank of the Danube, on the other side the Voivod
Dracul was also encamped with his army, and he blocked the [Ottoman] crossing of the
Danube River. The Sultân spoke to his Janissaries: “My dear lambs, what is mine, and
especially my treasure, is also yours. Now, advise me, for it benefits you also. How can
I cross to the other side, to fight against my enemy?”
They answered him: “Fortunate Lord, order the boats to be prepared so that during the
night we will risk our heads to cross over so that in the morning you can cross.” The
Sultân then ordered that they be given 80 large well-equipped boats and other
necessities including muskets, cannons, mortars, and ammunition. As the night
darkened, we entered the boats and then crossed, going downriver with the flow so
silently that neither oars nor men’s voices were heard. We crossed the river about 100
paces downriver from the enemy camp, and there we set up our cannons and with large
shields surrounded ourselves. We also densely encircled ourselves with spears so that
their horsemen would not be able to do anything to us. The boats continued to cross
and brought the Janissaries to us. We then arranged ourselves in battle order, then
marched slowly, with our spears, large shields, and cannons, towards the enemy.
When we arrived near them, we stopped, set up our cannons, but during that time they
killed 250 of our Janissaries with their cannon-fire.
Seeing such a battle on the other side of the river, the Sultân was very sad that, with his
army, he could not be of help and he was overwhelmed with a great fear that all his
Janissaries would be shot dead (because the Sultân himself had not yet crossed).
When we saw that so many of ours had died, we quickly prepared and as we had 120
cannons, we immediately and frequently started firing from them so that we pushed
their entire army off the battlefield and then we established and better fortified
ourselves. The Sultân then let other footmen, called azapi, comparable to our foot-
soldiers, move to us as quickly as possible, and Dracul, realizing that he could not stop

the crossing, moved away from us. Later, the Sultân crossed with all his might and
gave us at once 30,000 gold coins to divide among themselves. By the Sultân’s decree,
all the Janissaries who were not free were given freedom so that, after their death, they
could pass on their property to whomever they wanted.
From there, following Dracul, we moved forward into Vlach lands and his brother
[Radu] was in front of us. Though Voivod Vlad had a small army, we were still afraid of
him and remained very careful to protect ourselves by surrounding ourselves with
spears each night but we could not defend ourselves. They attacked us at night, they
fought, and they killed men, horses, and camels. They also stole our tents and killed a
few thousand Türks and thus did much harm to the Sultân. During battles, other Türks
ran to the Janissaries for protection but the Janissaries fought them, pushed them
away, and even killed, and to prevent being overrun [trampled by the mob]. Later, the
Türks brought a few hundred Vlachs, whom the Sultân ordered cut in half. When the
Vlachs saw the evil being done to them, they defected from Vlad and joined his brother
Radu. Vlad then went to the Magyar King Mátyás (Matthias),1 and there Mátyás threw
him into a dungeon because of the cruel deeds that he had committed.2
Then, having given the land to the brother, the Sultân departed. Later, the Türks began
to tell the Sultân how difficult the battles were in the Vlach lands (Wallachia, Moldova),
and that many Türks died and for that reason, he needs to be more careful (think about
it). Sultân Mehmet replied: “While the Vlachs hold Kilia and Akkerman, and the
Magyars hold Rascian Bеograd, we cannot defeat them.” Thus, ended the discussion.
Having arrived at Adrianople, the Sultân immediately went to Gallipoli, taking the
Janissaries with him, and there boarded war-boats, which they call mavna (barge),
kalyon (galleon), çektiri (tow, pull), brik (brig), and various other boats. With him, he
took siege-cannons for wall demolition and howitzers (mortars) that throw rocks high
into the air and onto cities, and then set out for the island of Mytilene, where Saint Paul
was bitten by a snake.3 He quickly arrived to overtake the lord of Mytilene by surprise
before he could mobilize his soldiers. Upon his arrival, the Sultân immediately
surrounded the city and fiercely bombarded it with cannons and mortars, at great
expense, until he conquered it but there were no surrender negotiations carried out
1 János Hunyadi (c. 1406 — August 11m 1456) was one of the wealthiest landowners in Hungary.
He had two sons, László (Ladislaus) Hunyadi (c. 1431 – March 16, 1457) and Mátyás Hunyadi
(Corvinus) (February 23, 1443 – April 6, 1490). Mátyás fought valiantly for Hungary and for his
defence of Christendom against the Ottomans, Pope Pius II called him Athleta Christi (Champion of
Christ), a class of Early Christian soldier martyrs. Mátyás had an illegitimate son, János Corvin (April
2, 1473 – October 12, 1504), who married Beatrice Frankopan and was appointed Ban of Croatia
and Slavonia from 1495 to 1504. From 1499 to 1502 he successfully defended the unconquered
parts of Bosna against the Türks. He died on October 12, 1504, in Krapina, Croatia.
2 See next ection for more details
3 Mytilene or Malta? Mytilene (Lesbos) is mentioned but then it is said that
it is the island where Saint Paul was bitten by a snake - that was Malta (Melita).

because he ordered all the garrison [officers, civil servants] to be cut down, including
the lord of the island himself.
Having taken power over all the places and most of the cities, the Sultân returned to
Adrianople. When he arrived, he sent a delegation to King Mátyás in Hungary because
Mátyás had not yet been crowned, to make a truce with him, because he was most
afraid of that faction. When he made a truce, the Sultân immediately turned us
[Janissaries] to the princes of Arbanasi [Albanian people] and conquered [subjugated]
them one by one, very easily because each merely watched while the other was
defeated.
Only one prince resisted him, whom they called Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu,1 , better
known in English as Skanderbeg. As this one, as a youth, was taken into the
Janissaries for Sultân Murat and for all his imperial duties he closed his eyes so that
one day he could return to his homeland when he receives the Sultân’s mercy. It
happened once that the Sultân said, “İskender ask of me the voivodship that you desire
and I will give it to you.” He asked for the lands of Ivan but I’d not mention that he is
Ivan’s son. The Sultân gave to him, and he commanded the lands outside the Ottoman
cities (fortresses) controlled by Janissaries but the Janissaries also he somehow fooled
and distanced [from the Sultân] and ruled himself.
Sultân Murat tried to defeat İskender but could not. Mehmed, the son of Murat, also
could no nothing until İskender’s death — because a person that knows the Ottoman
battle order and tactics can easily defend himself from Ottoman attack. Mehmet, after
taking all Albanian lands, except those belonging to İskender, returned to Adrianople
(Edirne), and there waiting for him were envoys from the Bosnian King Tomaš, who
sought a truce.
It is standard procedure for the Sultân to manipulate one Christian to fight another
Christian until they both destroy each another.. The Türks had a saying: “Let a snake
bite another snake, for then there is one snake less.”
1 Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu (1405 – 17 January 1468), known as Skanderbey. In Ottoman Türkish,
he was known as İskender (Alexander) Bey İvanoviç. As a child of the noble Kastrioti family, in
1423, he was sent as a hostage to the Ottoman court where he was educated and served the
Sultân for 20 years. In 1443, during the Battle of Niš, he deserted the Ottomans and became the
ruler of Krujë, Sfetigrad, and Modrič, defending his lands for 20 years.

Extra: How did Vlad III Drăculea earn the name Țepeș?
The word Drăculea is also not a surname as we know them today but a sobriquet
meaning ‘Son of the Dracul’ (Son of the Dragon), from Vlad II’s membership in the
Order of the Dragon. Originally, Vlad III signed documents as “Vlad” but after 1475 he
signed as Ladislaus Dragwlya (or Dragkwlya, Drakulya) and from this developed the
nickname Dracul, which is the same Romanian word for devil, or Drăculea. The word
Ţepeș is also not a family name but is the Romanian word for Impaler, which he earned
for the infamy of his cruelty in torturing and killing his captured enemies.
How did he earn the second sobriquet Ţepeș?

In 1447, Wallachian boyars (nobles) killed Vlad II. Soon after, János Hunyadi of
Hungary appointed Vladislav II of Wallachia the new voivod. In September 1448,
Voivod Vladislav II, accompanied by János Hunyadi, launched a campaign to the south
against the Osmanlıs. In October 1448, seeking vengeance for the loss of Varna four
years earlier, launched a campaign against the Osmanlıs. Hunyadi thought the Sultân
was still in Edirne and was surprised on October 17, when the Osmanlı army came
before him at Kosovo Polje. During the next two days, the Second Battle of Kosovo was
fought and the Osmanlıs were victorious. The Christian defeat was massive and ended
any hopes of taking back Constantinople and the Kingdom of Hungary no longer had
the soldiers or gold to mount further campaigns against the Osmanlıs.
While Hunyadi and Vladislav II were on campaign, Vlad III, at the head of an army of
Osmanlı soldiers and mercenaries, returned to his homeland and took the voivodship
of Wallachia. To ensure Vlad III’s obedience, the Sultân kept his brother Radu lII as a
hostage. Vlad was successful and became the voivod but two months later, Vladislav II
returned to Wallachia and pushed Vlad III out. Over the next 8 years, Vlad III
continued to fight to take the voivodship of Wallachia and this is the period during
which Vlad III gained infamy for the way he tortured and punished his enemies,
foreign and internal —by impalement. Laonikos Chalkokondyles1, a Byzantine Greek
historian from Athens, recorded the following about how Vlad III imposed his rule on
Wallachia:
When Vlad took over, he first created a corps of bodyguards for himself, who lived
with him, and then he summoned separately each of the distinguished men of the
realm who, it was believed, had committed treason during the transfer of power
there. He killed them all by impalement, them and their sons, wives, and
servants, so that this one man caused more murder than any other about whom
1 Found in “Proofs of History”, Book 9. He wrote the ten books in classical Greek during 1463 —
1464 in classical Greek. The series is for the period from 1298 to 1463 and mainly depicts the rise
of the Ottomans from the establishment in Asia Minor to the fall of Byzantium.

we have been able to learn. In order to solidify his hold on power, they say that in
a short time he killed twenty thousand men, women and children. He established
good soldiers and bodyguards for his own use, and he granted them the money,
property, and other goods of his victims, so that he quickly affected a great change
and utterly revolutionized the affairs of Wallachia. He also carried out widespread
murder among the Hungarians, those who seemed to be involved in public affairs,
sparing none of them.1
Sultân Mehmet II believed that Vlad would be a loyal servant of his but in 1461 he
learned that Vlad was planning to rebel against him. The Sultân sent Janus Bey (a
Greek formerly known as Thomas Katabolinos) and Hamza Bey, the governor of
Nicopolis, to ensure that Vlad remains loyal and pays tribute or, if that fails, to capture
him and bring him to İstanbul. Janus and Hamza went to Vlad, but their plan failed.
Chalkokondyles tells us what happened.
But Vlad and his men were armed and, when he joined in escorting the lord of the
Porte of that region and the secretary, he fell into the ambush. As soon as Vlad
realized what was happening, he ordered his men to arrest them and their
servants. And when Hamza came against him, Vlad fought bravely, routed and
captured him, and killed a few of those who had fled. After capturing them, he led
them all away to be impaled, but first he cut off the men’s limbs. He had Hamza
impaled on a higher stake, and he treated their retinues in the same way as their
own lords. Immediately after he prepared as large an army as he could and
marched directly to the Danube, and crossed through the regions there by the
Danube and the land that belonged to the Sultân, killing everyone, women and
children included. He burned the houses, setting fire wherever he moved. Having
worked this great slaughter, he returned back to Wallachia.
By 1462, Vlad III had turned fully against the Osmanlıs. Early in the year, he attacked
Osmanlı lands and in mid-February informed Mátyás Hunyadi that during his recent
campaign he had killed more than 23,884 Türks and Bulgarians. Sultân Mehmet II
launched a campaign against Wallachia to replace Vlad with his younger brother,
Radu. The Osmanlı fleet landed at Brăila and by June, the Sultân was at Nicopolis and
crossing the Danube and soon after marched towards Târgoviște, Vlad’s capital.
Vlad saw the Osmanlı army coming. When he saw the Sultân’s camp established, Vlad,
dressed in Osmanlı clothes and speaking fluent Türkish walked into the camp,
reconnoitred, and then left. During the night of June 16–17, hoping to capture or kill
the Sultân, and thus demoralize the Osmanlı army, Vlad III, with a small cohort broke
into the Sultân’s camp but erroneously attacked the tents of vezirs and not the Sultân.
Before dawn, Vlad had left the Sultân’s camp and began a retreat — scorching the earth
and killing many people, leaving behind a symbolic message showing what will happen
to anyone that pursues him. The Sultân sent a select group of his soldiers after Vlad III
1 “The Histories, Vol 2, Books 6-10”, page 369, by Chalkokondyles, trans. by Anthony Kaldellis,
2014.

who fought with Vlad’s army, killed many, and captured about a thousand Wallachian
soldiers the Sultân had executed. The pursuit continued and by the end of June he was
near Târgoviște, which was deserted, and there he saw an unbelievable sight — a forest
of impaled corpses rotting in the summer heat. Chalkokondyles described what the
Sultân saw near Târgoviște:
The Sultân's army arrived at the impalements, an area about 3 km long and 1.2
km wide. There on large stakes, as it was said, were about 20,000 men, women,
and children impaled on the spits — quite the sight for the army and the Sultân
himself. The Sultân was seized with astonishment. He spoke that it is not
possible to deprive this country of a man who had done such great deeds, who has
such a diabolical understanding of how to rule his realm and people. He added
that a man who had done such great things was worth much. The rest of the
Türks were dumbfounded when they saw a multitude of men on the spits. There
were also infants affixed to their impaled mothers, and birds had made their nests
in the entrails.1
The Sultân continued to chase after Vlad, but Vlad’s scorched earth tactics deprived the
Osmanlı army of food for both men and beasts. Foragers that rode too far to find
supplies were caught and killed by Vlad’s men. Soon, as winter neared, the Sultân and
his army turned around and marched home.
Slowly, more and more Wallachians moved to the Sultân’s side and supported Radu
III. Vlad III went to Erdély (Transylvania), to seek a treaty and assistance of Mátyás
Hunyadi, the King of Hungary and Croatia, but Hunyadi had him imprisoned in early
1463. To justify the imprisonment to Pope Pius II, and the Venetians who had sent
money to finance a campaign against the Osmanlıs, three forged documents to show
that Vlad III was in negotiations with Sultân Mehmet II. Vlad III was imprisoned in
Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia) and then Visegrád (north of Buda). It was during the time
of his imprisonment that stories of his deeds of incredible cruelty and atrocities spread
across Europe — and his infamy began to grow. In June 1475, after the death of Radu,
at the request of Ștefan cel Mare (Stephan the Great of Moldavia), Vlad was released
and moved to Erdély, later to Buda, and also bought a house in Pécs. Vlad continued to
fight against the Osmanlıs and died, possibly in January of 1477, killed in battle with
his retinue, and his body cut into small pieces by the Sultân’s men.
It is believed that Bram Stoker based his famous vampire character named Dracula on
Vlad III Drăculea — even though the original Drăculea did not drink blood. Countess
Erzsébet [Elizabeth] Báthory de Ecsed (1560-1614), a Hungarian noblewoman, possibly
the greatest female serial killer the world has yet seen, might have been even more
1 “The Histories, Vol 2, Books 6-10”, page 393, by Chalkokondyles, translated by Kaldellis, 2014.

infamous for killing hundreds, possibly up to 650, of her servant girls and then bathing
in their blood — hoping to stay young.1
A coloured woodcut that depicts Vlad III "the Impaler" (identified as Dracole
wyade = Draculea voivode) dining among the impaled corpses of his victims.
Woodcut from the title page of a 1499 pamphlet published by Markus Ayrer.
1 There is speculation that Erzsébet had epilepsy and it was believed that putting some blood of a
non-epileptic on the lips would stop the seizures. Elizabeth might have taken her treatments too far.

About impalement
The stories of Vlad’s impalement sound unbelievable. How could one human commit
such a shocking atrocity against another. Impalement is one of the most horrific ways
to die with a skilled impaler being able to miss the vital organs of his victim causing the
person to spend at least a day or two in excruciating pain impaled on a post. While
Vlad’s impalements were on a massive scale, he did not develop the torture technique
— in fact, impaling was widely used in ancient Egypt and the Middle East, since about
the 2nd millennium BC. Later, it became widespread in Assyria to punish the citizens of
rebellious cities and woman that had abortions. In Byzantium, soldier revolts were
suppressed by impaling the ringleaders. Europeans kings also executed enemies by
impalement. Vlad III learned about impalement from the Osmanlıs who were experts
in impalement.
Türkish execution by impalement, by Philippus Baldaeus, 1672.

Impaling is also a Impaling. very ordinary Punishment with them, which is done in this
manner. They lay the Malefactor upon his Belly, with his Hands tied behind his Back,
then they sit up his Fundament with a Razor, and throw into it a handful of Paste that
they have in readiness, which immediately stops the Blood; after that they thrust up
into his Body a very long Stake as big as a Mans Arm, sharp at. the point and tapered,
which they grease a little before; when they have driven it in with a Mallet, till it come
out at his Breast, or at his Head or Shoulders, they lift him up, and plant this Stake very
streight in the Ground, upon which they leave him so exposed for a day. One day I saw
a Man upon the Pale, who was Sentenced to continue so for three Hours alive, and that
he might not die too soon, the Stake was not thrust up far enough to come out at any
part of his Body, and they also put a stay or rest upon the Pale, to hinder the weight of
his body from making him sink down upon it, or the point of it from piercing him
through, which would have presently killed him: In this manner he was left for some
Hours, (during which time he spoke) and turning from one side to another, prayed
those that passed by to kill him, making a thousand wry Mouths and Faces, because of
the pain he suffered when he stirred himself, but after Dinner the Basha sent one to
dispatch him; which was easily done, by making the point of the Stake come out at his
Breast, and then he was left till next morning, when he was taken down, because he
stunk horridly. Some have lived upon the Pale until the third day, and have in the mean
while smoked Tobacco, when it was given them. This poor wretch carried the Scales
and Weights, of those who go about to visit the Weights, to see if they be just, and he
had so combined with such as had falle Weights, that he brought false ones also with
him; so that the Searchers not perceiving the change of their own Weights, thought the
other to be just. When Arabs, or such other Robbers are carried to be Empaled, they
put them on a Camel, their Hands tied behind their Backs, and with a Knife make great
gashes in their naked Arms, thrusting into them Candles of Pitch and Rosin, which
they light, to make the stuff run into their Flesh; and yet some of these Rogues go
cheerfully to Death, glorying ( as it were) that they could deserve it, and saying, That if
they had not been brave Men, they would not have been so put to death. This is a very
common and ordinary Punishment in Ægypt, but in Türkie it is but very rarely put into
practice. The Natives of the Country are punished in this manner, but the Türks are
strangled in Prison.

Topic 34: About the truce with the Bosnian king
At that time, King Tomaš (Stjepan/Stefan Tomašević) of Bosnia requested from Sultân
Mehmet, a truce for 15 years but the Sultân mobilized his army and commanded them
to prepare, equip and arrive in Adrianople (Edirne) but no one knew where he wanted
to march with his army. While this was happening, the emissaries of the Bosnian king,
also not knowing what is happening, had to wait for a long time for an answer.
At that time, by chance, I came to a domed place (vault) where the palace treasure
(Sultân’s money) was kept, where my younger brother was entrusted with the
protection of the treasury. By his orders, he was not allowed to leave that place and
because it was difficult for him, being lonely, he sent word to me to come to him, and I,
though my heart was full of fear, immediately went to him.
Shortly after my arrival, the Sultân's highest advisers (vezirs), Mehmet Paşa and İshak
Paşa entered the vault alone. Upon seeing them, my brother stood and told me that at
the moment there was nothing to do, not being able to leave unseen but to hide among
the chests. When they entered, my brother laid rugs in front of them. They sat side by
side and began to discuss what to do with the Bosnian king.
Mehmet Paşa said, “What should we do? What answer should we send to the king of
Bosnia?”. İshak Paşa replied: “Very simple, we will grant him a 15-year truce. But we
ourselves will, without wasting time, go on a campaign against him. Because Bosnia is
a mountainous country, we cannot conquer it any other way (except deception). Also,
the king of Hungary, the Croats, and other lords will send him support to secure him in
such a way that afterwards we will not be able to do anything to him. For that reason,
we will give him a truce, so that they can depart on Saturday but on Wednesday we will
follow them, as far as Sitnica, near Bosnia. No one will know which direction the
Sultân will take from there”. Also decided during the secret discussion was that as the
Sultân left Adrianople, the Emperor of Trebizond would be decapitated. Thus, with
their plan developed, Mehmet and İshak departed to advise the Sultân, and soon
afterward I also departed.
The next day, on Thursday morning, early in the morning, the truce, fully and
faithfully, as the Bosnian envoys requested, was promised (confirmed). On the next
day, a Friday, I went to them in their rooms at the inn and said to them, “My dear
gentlemen, do you or do you not have a truce with the Sultân?” They replied to me,
“Praise be to Lord God because we received everything we wished for!” I then told
them, “As the Lord is my witness (by my faith), I tell you that you do not have a truce.”
The older envoy wanted to know more but the younger one thought I was telling jokes
(jest, making fun of them).
I then asked them, “On which day will you depart from here?” They replied, “If the
Lord allows, early on Saturday morning.” I then said to them, “And we, Allâh willing,
will follow you on Wednesday, all the way to Bosna. I truly am telling you the truth,

put these words into your heart and remember that I am a Christian like you, so that
you might well remember.” They both laughed, and I departed from them. Thus, on
Wednesday we (Ottomans) marched from Adrianople and the Emperor of Trebizond1
lost his head on Friday.
And so we marched to Bosnia we came to the lands of a Bosnian prince named
Kovačеvić. After a surprise attack, he surrendered to the Sultân but the Sultân ordered
him beheaded and then continued on his march to the lands of King Tomaš. Before
arriving in Bosna, he took the city of Bobovac, and because he did not have any
cannons with him, he had them cast in front of the city, and with them, he took the city.
The envoys I spoke with earlier about the truce, met me at this place and they spoke to
me about the truce we discussed earlier, but it was too late for the unfortunate
wretches.
After the Sultân garrisoned the fortress, we turned towards Jajce and for the sake of
speed, he sent forward Mehmet Paşa with 20,000 horsemen to find King Tomaš
regardless of where he might be hiding. The Sultân received reports that King Tomaš
had no entourage with him. King Tomaš, knowing of the coming Ottomans, ran day
and night to quickly mobilize some people (soldiers). He arrived at a fortress named
Ključ, where he wanted to rest for the afternoon. Without warning, the Türks arrived
at this city and rode around the city not knowing that King Tomaš was inside. The king
was safe until a scoundrel (blackguard) ran from the fortress and for a bribe (bounty)
told the Türks that the King was inside the fortress. When Mehmet Paşa hears the
reports, he besieged the fortress and the next day tried to entice the king to surrender.
Mehmet Paşa swore on false holy books (books of soap) that nothing would happen to
the king’s head — and King Tomaš walked out of the fortress.
Then, the Sultân arrived in Jajce, and King Tomaš, with his colleagues, was brought
before the Sultân with his companions. When the soldiers in the fortress of Jajce saw
that their master had been captured, they also surrendered. After taking Jajce, the
Sultân ordered the beheading of King Tomaš and his colleagues, then took all the lands
of the dead king, garrisoned the fortress. While the Sultân marched back to his own
capital, he left me at a fortress called Zvеčaј not far from Jajce, and he gave me 50
Janissaries for the garrisoning of the fortress, and he gave me money for ulûfe
(soldiers’ wages) for each for half a year. For additional help, I was also given another
30 Türks.
1 David Megas Komnenos, better known as David of Trebizond surrendered to the Ottomans on or
about August 15, 1461, and that day marks the end of the Empire of Trebizond. Fearing that David
would be a powerful rallying point for anti-Ottoman resistance, the Sultân ordered David, his three
sons Basil, Manuel, and Georgios, and his nephew Alexios, imprisoned. On Saturday, March 26,
1463, they were imprisoned in the Beyoğlu jail of İstanbul. Other sources say that David and his
three sons were executed by the sword on November 1, 1463, during the fourth hour of the night.

After the Sultân left the lands, King Matthias (Mátyás) Corvinus1 of Hungary, without
any delay, mobilized and arrived in Bosna in the autumn of the year and then besieged
Jajce and the nearby Zvеčaј, in which I was stationed. The Bosnians, who had
surrendered to the Türks, and continued to be in the city and fortress, took control of
one of the towers. Having taken possession of that tower they threw the Türkish flag
down and fought (shot at) the Türks. The Hungarians, seeing this, swiftly and bravely
move to that tower, climbed into the fortress, fought, and took control of it. The Türks
fled into the city and there shut themselves in.
For eight weeks, King Matthias besieged and attacked. The walls of Zvеčaј were quite
weak, and they were so damaged by the battering guns that we had to ceaselessly work
all night to repair them. We held out for a long time before Jajce fell ( negotiated
surrender) and then King Matthias marched to Zvеčaј and we had to surrender. Of all
the Türks that were in Jajce and Zvеčaј, few of them returned to Türkey because King
Matthias wanted them with him. I thanked God for allowing me to honourably escape
from the dungeon back to the Christians. Thus, King Matthias took Jajce and Zvеčaј.
The remainder of Bosna was under the rule of Muhamеd Mumјatović (Mahmud paşa
Minetović) and his deputy, named Јusuf Haramibaša (Harambaşı İlyas Bey), remained
in Jajce. Jusuf, along with many other Türks, and myself, remained with King
Matthias.
1 Hungarian: Hunyadi Mátyás, Croatian: Matĳa Korvin.

Topic 35: How Emperor Mehmet marched back to Bosnia
Siege of Jajce: July 10 – August 24, 1464.
Sultân Mehmet, hearing of the developments in Bosna, one year later he returned,
taking cities, and having no cannons with him, he ordered them to be sent there.
Firing from them he destroyed all the walls (of Jajce), and after that, he began to
assault. An Ottoman imperial flag was already on the wall when a footman from the
fortress began to fight with a Janissary for the flag. And they fought in such a way that
they both fell down from the fortress wall and died.
The Sultân, seeing their dignity and bravery, seeing that the fortress and city defend
themselves manfully against him, ordered the cannons immediately brought to the
waters of the Vrbas River, near the fortress, and there where the water falls from the
cliff the cannons be thrown in so that no one can pull them out. From there the Sultân
turned, marched away, and attempted no more.
During his return march home, he defeated (subjugated) a Bosnian prince and took his
lands. Hearing of the sieges in Bosna, King Matthias mobilized and marched against
the Türk (to defend Jajce), but when he heard the Sultân had already left, he returned
home. Thus, Jajce remained unconquered.
Following that, Sultân Mehmet conquered Negropont (Euboi) and then asked for an
iron cudgel (steel mace). When it was brought to him, he ordered, to fulfil an oath, that
everyone’s legs (feet) broken. Other times he would not keep his oath — because he
was a traitor and a person who did not care much about oaths or religion.

Topic 38: On the organization of the Osmanlı lands
The first fact to know about the organization (government) of Osmanlı lands, is that
the Sultân owns all of the cities (fortresses) on his lands and holds them firmly in his
hands, garrisoning them with his Janissaries or novice soldiers to stand guard. He
does not give his cities to any lords, and if any city with walls is built on his lands it is
his soldiers that garrison it. The Janissaries that are in the cities, he pays them and, if
they were besieged, supplies whatever they need so that they will not be in distress.
Wine, beer, or any alcoholic drink are not allowed in the city. At other times (no siege),
each man lives by his ulûfe (wage). Wages are sent by the High Porte every three
months, without any errors, and also sends a mew set of clothes annually.
The cities are organized as follows: there is one man who rules over all, called a dizdar
(burgrave, fortress commander), second after him is the kâhya (steward, bailiff), as if
to say, marshal. After that are the bölükbaşı, akin to a captain. The larger the area, the
more men it has. They have no income other than their ulûfe. The dizdar receives one-
half sultanı per day, the kâhya receives one sultanı for four days, the corporals are paid
one sultanı per eight days, and the lowest receive one sultanı every ten days. From
their pay, they are to live without touching the Sultân’s stores, except when they are
besieged. They must also watchfully stand guard at night and ensure there are two
gatekeepers who ensure the gate is closed and only one small gate is open. They do not
allow anyone who enters or exits the castle without a pass. If there is an urgent need
that requires summoning the voivod (warlord) to the fortress, to inspect for
shortcomings, he is not allowed to enter with many men, except maybe four or five
men.
This is how the Sultâns’ cities are supplied, likewise, the entire Osmanlı Empire, from
the largest to the smallest, be they rich or poor, each looks to the Sultân’s hand, and the
Sultân continues to provide for everyone’s needs in accordance with their position and
merit. According to their custom, no man passes anything to heirs, although some
great lords have heirs (hereditary estates), there are few. If the Sultân takes away their
estate, they can keep their servants (slaves), and then they live from the Sultân’s purse,
because the Sultân, when he desires, takes from one and gives to another (whom he
wants). The one from whom an estate is taken goes to the Sultân’s court and spends a
year or two there, and then the Sultân takes from someone else and gives it to him.
About 200 such people are there and they are called ma‘zûl (dismissed). The Sultân
always helps them with money so that they have a custom that they do not need to
worry about anything. Among themselves, they have a saying: “If Allâh gives health to
the Sultân, he [Sultân] will give me a better dirliği (dirlik, estate).”
Some of the reasons why the Sultân would take a dirliği from one and give to another
are as follows: First, if someone does an injustice to a poor person, it will not be
tolerated (forgiven) by anyone, and therefore, as soon as the Sultân hears of this, he
takes his dirlik back from this person and assigns it to someone else. Second, if

someone neglects (avoids) his imperial service (military), the Sultân will take the pay
and estate from him because all are given orders about who has what duties and what
they must do. There is also another custom in that any lord with an adult son must
take him on a military campaign (to war) and present him to the Sultân’s court. Then,
the Sultân gives to each son as much, or even more, than what his father has/had.
From no one, without reason, is anything taken away.
As part of his personal control of the empire, every year the Sultân sends out from his
court four lords that travel to all four corners of the empire to inspect (observe,
investigate) the poor of the land, to ensure that no poor person is abused (wronged) by
his master. These lords have the right to punish ranging from death to confiscation of
property, as each deserves. These inspectors, called örf sorucu (customary inquirer),
which in our language can be said as investigators of violence. When they arrive at
their designated regions, then they send out messengers to all places to shout
(announce) that anyone who has suffered an injustice to come to them. After they
manage all things, return to the Sultân’s court and are rewarded.
There is also a custom that if an imperial courtier travels somewhere by his duties, and
it happens that he dies for some reason, then the one who killed him, when he is
caught, loses his head without mercy, and the entire region where it happened must,
without any hesitation, deposit 2,000 akçe (some say sultanı) in the imperial treasury,
and that is punishment because they did not prevent the death. Even the greatest
gentlemen have such a great fear of the Sultân that if even the lowest imperial courtier
would order someone to do something, the order is carried out immediately, due to the
fear of the wrath of the court (Sultân).
The imperial courtiers, wherever they arrive (few or many), they are shown honour in
the villages and cities, but all with great caution.

Topic 39: On the Arrangement of the Sultân’s Court
The Ottoman imperial court [also called the Sublime or High Porte] is organized in the
following way — and the Sultân’s advisers are the highest and are above all other
authorities. What they decide, shall all be done. The Türks call them vezirs or paşas,
and there are only two such advisers. The Sultân does this because he wants to save
himself from dealing with the Divan, which is composed of many members. He does
not want to worry himself with advice coming from all directions, not knowing who to
listen to first and who to rely upon. While I was in Türkey, in the court of Sultân
Mehmet, the vezirs were Mahmud Paşa1 and İshak Paşa2. There is also the custom at
the court that no paşa or any official institutes any new processes, so that the
administration of the court does not suffer any shock, but operate as it has been
arranged from ancient times, and they (today and always) stick to it and remain with
the old ways. The imperial council never meets near the Sultân, but in his absence.
The two counsellors meet alone in a private building but if they must consult outdoors,
then a tent, which they call danışık çadırı (council tent). is set up for them. When the
Sultân is outdoors, he stays in a large ent called sayvan (canopy).
They invite prominent men to the meetings, they ask everyone what is happening
where, and what was said in front of them, they record. After this, the two discuss what
is happening and what should happen and the most important issues are brought to
the Sultân. Only when the Sultân considers it himself, and when they deliberate
together on what to do, is the consultation ended they leave the presence of the Sultân.
After that, they give the necessary orders for the execution and the Sultân personally
follows the implementation.
Whenever the Türks invade a foreign land and subjugate the people, the Sultân’s
scribes immediately follows them and whatever boys there are, all are taken for the
Janissaries, and for each, he gives five gold coins and sends them across the sea (to
Anatolia, where they are brought up). There are about 2,000 such boys. If from the
defeated enemy they can’t take enough boys then from all Christians, from each village
they take their sons, knowing how many boys can be taken from where and that quota
is always met.
The children taken from their own lands they call çıkmalar, and after their death, they
can give all their property to whom they choose. Those taken from the enemies [after
battle] are called pençik they cannot leave anything to anyone but all possession return
to the Sultân - as everything belongs to the Sultân. However, those who have acted
with honour and have been given their freedom, they too can give their property to
1 Mahmud Paşa was Veli Mahmud Paşa, most likely a descendant of the Byzantine Angelos family
that had left Thessaly in 1394. In 1454 he was appointed Beylerbey of Rumelia and after
distinguishing himself at the siege of Belgrade (1456), he was raised to the position of Grand Vezir
as a reward. Mahmud Paşa was the first Janissary to be promoted to Grand Vezir.
2 2 İshak Paşa was most likely of Albanian and possibly Slavic origins and died on January 30, 1487.

whom they choose after their death. The Sultân does not pay anything for the care of
the boys sent across the sea. The people to whom the Sultân entrusts the boys are
responsible for raising them and sending them where the Sultân orders to do so. They
then place them on boats, those who are suited to it, and thus they study and practice
fighting battles both in war and duels. From that day onward the Sultân takes
responsibility for his boys and gives them their ulûfe (pay). From these boys, he selects
the superior boys to be trained for his court and increases their salary. The younger
boys must serve the older boys and those that grow into manhood are sent to the cities,
as guards, as has been written.
In the Sultân’s court, it is customary to have 4,000 Janissaries, organized in the
following way: they have above them they have a senior leader called an ağa (agha,
chief, master) and he has much authority (a lord, high rank) and has a salary of 10
sultanı (gold coins, ducats) per day while his steward [deputy] earns one sultanı per
day. To the captains (officers), one sultanı1 is given every two days, corporals receive
one sultanı every eight days and lower ranks receive one sultanı every ten days. Also,
all their sons receive a wage after they reach manhood. Not a single courtier allows or
hides something for himself for this is punished severely, not merely by deprivation of
wages or rank but by losing his life. No courtier is dared to be punished publicly, only
in secret, for the sake of the other courtiers not to rebel.
No Janissary nor corporal is allowed to ride a horse, except the Janissary Ağa and his
deputy. The Janissaries are also organized: some are archers that fire arrows with
bows, others are gunmen, firing from guns such as firearms (arquebuses) and cannons
and they must present themselves and their weapons before their ağa. Every year they
are given one sultanı for a new bow and are given a shirt made of eight cubits of linen
(fabric), and large trousers, made of three cubits of linen, as is their dressing style.
[And I myself distributed them to them in the palace for two years].
The Sultân also has in his court 600 Tatar horsemen who have two ağas above them,
called garipler subaşı and each one has 300 horsemen. The subordinates are called
garip yiğitler2. Their wage is two sultanı per day, while lower-ranked soldiers receive
one and a half, one, one half, or even one-quarter of a sultanı per day. Only from these
“orphans” are brought into the imperial court and no others.
From the captive boys, selected to be trained, 60 excellent boys are sent to one
company and called solaks and their chief, the solakbaşı, receives one sultanı per day.
Their task is to walk ahead of the Sultân with their bows. Second, are 600 kapıcı (gate
or door guards, keepers), who ride horses and receive one gold sultanı every six days.
Their chiefs are called kapıcıbaşı , are paid two gold sultanı each day, and each one has
100 subordinates. The third order of the court, called the ulûfeci, is also selected from
1 The price of gold in June 2021 is about us$60 per gram. One sultanı is thus worth us$210.
2 Garip might indicate a Muslim not of the Ottoman Empire. Garip yigitler might mean brave warriors
but Konstantin might have understood it as "orphan boys" or boys with no father other than the
Sultân.

these protégés, trained to be horsemen. There are 600 of them, and they have two
chiefs above them and are called ulûfecibaşı and each has 300 soldiers under his
command. The chiefs are given up to 2.5 sultanı per day, while the rest receive one
sultanı for every fur days. A fourth unit that is filled by these boys has high prestige
and unity, they are called the silahdâr (weapon-bearers) and their commander is the
silahdârbaşı, who receives three sultanı per day while others receive down to half a
sultanı per day. Their duty is to ride horses in advance of the Sultân, when necessary,
and some are called for this duty only once or twice per year. The fifth unit is the
highest-ranked, called the sipahî oğlanları, these are the sons of gentlemen and they
ride like gentlemen. There are 300 of them, and their commander is called sipahiler
subaşı or sipahiler ağası. The commander is given five sultanı per day, while others
receive two or three sultanı — as each deserves, he earns. Their duty is to go where the
Sultân orders, with their swords, bows, and arrow. Some are called only once per year,
some twice. All are horsemen, are poor, and all suffer together, in the snow and rain,
having to sleep at night surrounding the Sultân and maintaining a night guard, silently
standing where ordered, in the rain, snow, and cold. Each night there are 50, while
sometimes 100, as required. No one needs to worry about weapons because the Sultân
supplies them all, befitting their rank, as they need, be they a footman or horseman —
including armour for horses, and weapons required.
Those who serve food are called çeşnigîr and there are 80 of them. Their chief is called
çeşnigîrbaşı and he is paid two sultanı per day, while others receive one or half. There
are 50 pages (inside boys), called içoğlanı, and their chief is the kapıcıbaşı. The chief
is paid two sultanı per day and they have plenty of food, for themselves and their
horses. The Sultân has 1,000 spare horses in his stables, from year to year, and when
necessary he distributes them, with saddles and equipment, especially for big battles.
And there are 200 grooms, called mirahor, who look after the horses, and they also
have their own horses, special ones given by the Sultân; each is paid one sultanı for
eight days. The name of their chief is mirahorbaşı and he receives two sultanı per day.
There are 60 camels of the highest quality that carry the royal treasure; each camel
carries 60,000 sultanı in locked chests. There are also 40 camels carrying the kitchen
and provisions. There are many other camels that carry the Sultân’s tents and
umbrellas, and they also carry the trumpet tent, and all their necessities, and four large
drums, on camel carries two while the other carries two — these are called kös drums
and are used only when a large battle is to be fought. There are many drums, both
large and small. There are also 300 camels that carry weapons since the soldiers do
not carry weapons during the march.
There are 60 gunsmiths (armourers), called cebeci, who make and maintain weapons,
and they are all horsemen. Their chief is called cebecibaşı and receives one sultanı per
day while the others receive one sultanı per eight days, from year to year. There are 60
men that set up the Sultân’s tents, they are called mihtar, and their chief is called
mihterbaşı. The chief is paid half a sultanı per day while the others are paid one
sultanı every eight days.

There are also 12 chosen camels that carry the Sultân’s bed and bedding, as well as the
money he needs at hand and his personal goods (treasure), of these there are 400
(maybe 4,000). Some camels are not loaded and are used as spares to replace ones
that are hurt
Taking into consideration the weapon-makers, tent-pitchers, camel-tenders, cooks,
trumpeters, and drummers, there are 320 horsemen. In total there are 2,450. The
court has 3,500 and something more Janissary footmen. In total the number of
footmen and horsemen in the Kapıkule1 [Sultân’s court] is about 6,000.
Picture of Sipahi by Jean Antoine Guer, 1748.
1 The Kapıkulu (Slaves of the Sublime Porte) is the collective name for the Household Division of the
Ottoman Sultâns. It included the Janissary infantry corps as well as the six divisions of cavalry. The
Kapıkulu was comprised of professional, standing troops, mostly drawn through the devşirme
system. The High Porte, or Sublime Porte, was the central government of the empire.

Topic 40: On war and the Türkish preparations
The battle order of the Türks, especially for a major battle, is as follows. There are four
imperial banners, which belong to the Sultân’s court. The first one is white with letters
of gold written, and it is above all others, because it signifies that the entire imperial
power is there, and they call it alem sançak, that is, the flag of the empire. The second
flag is red - for the kapıkulu (royal court, central government) cavalry. The third is
green and red, the fourth is yellow and red, and these are the Janissary court footmen.
And whenever those four banners are unfurled, the Sultân is among his entourage.
The battle order of the army of the royal court is arranged in the following way: court
horsemen stand next to the Sultân, with Janissaries in front and camels behind.
Around the camp, on all four sides, a trench (moat) is dug, and fortifications or
embankments are built along the trench. Near the trenches, ramparts are erected
everywhere, and on these ramparts, sharpened stakes are densely placed everywhere,
and embrasures for cannons, so that one can shoot from muskets. Behind large shields
and other defensive things that are needed, they stand densely, and their shooting from
bows is very dense. They are well-equipped with sharp swords and other well-crafted
weapons of war and that is why our weapons must be perfect also.
The Sultân now has two other armies in addition to his kapikulu army: one is from
Anatolian (Asia Minor), the other is from Rumelia (Southeastern Europe). Next to the
Sultân’s encampment (earthworks), on the right side are encamped other footmen
called Azapi (Azaps), who also surround themselves with defensive stake-walls, as did
the first ones, except that they do not always have the best equipment/supplies. There
are 20,000 and yeni yaya (new footmen). The azaps are recruited from Anatolia, on
the other side of the sea. There is also the Anatolian lord, whom they call Anatolian
Beylerbey (governor of a province), as if to say the Anatolian lord over the lords, and
with him all the horsemen are Anatolian. Below him (in rank) are 20 sançakbeys
(governors of divisions of provinces), and each has his own flag given by the Sultân;
next to them there are 50 subaşı, and each stands next to his sançakbey. Of these
horsemen there are 60,000. (Every sançakbey has his own detachment).
On the left side, from this side of the sea, is one lord over all lords, who has his own flag
and his detachment. They call him the Rumelian Beylerbey, the lord of lords, the
highest-ranked after the Sultân, and with him are 18 sançakbeys, each with his own
detachment and his own flag, and so they stand in line as it was said before. There are
about 50 subaşı with them, and each stands next to his sançakbey, as many as belong
to which sançak. And their cavalry is 70,000, (who are from this side of the sea) and
cerahors (labourers), which will be discussed later. Beside the Sultân, on the left side,
there is another azap infantry, there are about 20,000 of them, and they are recruited
from this side of the sea, that is, from Rumelia, and they also encamped and
surrounded themselves with trenches, fortifications, and a stake-wall, as do those on
the right.

When the Sultân ordered some horsemen to join the battle, without hesitation, they left
and fought with great shouts and drumming. The Sultân’s drummers also drum, so
that among them there are such great shouts and noise, as if the earth were shaking (or
that some thunder was roaring). Then, the Sultân sends out courtiers (gatekeepers) on
armoured horses to observe who commits what kind of heroism and who continues to
fight manfully (how they stand in battle). And each of them holds a mace or a staff in
his hand, with which they motivate and encourage the soldiers into battle. They are
called çavuş, and wherever they are, it is as if the Sultân were there himself. Everyone
is afraid of them, because when they praise, everyone will be well, and whom they
rebuke before the Sultân, trouble will befall (find) him. Their hetman (leader) is called
çavuşbaşı. Such is the Türkish arrangement is in decisive battles. The Sultân does not
go anywhere, but is always among the Janissaries until the battle is over.
When the Christian army moves against this sort of pagan might, do as King Vladislav
did at Varna. Against them, he set up a wagon fort (wagons around his camp), and
between the wagons were footmen and outside, on the left and right wings were the
horsemen. Thus the Christian horsemen defeated Türkish horsemen, until they ruined
themselves later, rushing recklessly into the Sultân’s camp. That is how voyvod Janko
clashed (and ruined) on Kosovo Field: after defeating the horsemen, he hurried to the
imperial camp (to fight the Sultân’s bodyguards) and was quickly defeated.
So know for sure: whoever wants to fight a decisive battle against the Türkish Sultân,
he would have a different order than others had, and so with God's help he could beat
him. They have one weakness, which they themselves do not know they have but I
know it well, because I saw it well; because their infantry on the battlefield can't last
long, because they don't prepare for it at all, but they think that they must always be
lucky (that Allâh or Fortune are on their side). As long as they have live soldiers in a
battle square formation, they should not be attacked. They have to be very brave and
never retreat, otherwise painful punishments await them.
There is another shortcoming among them: if the Christians could fully defeat the
Janissaries, so they are all left on the battlefield, the Türkish Sultân would not be able
to return to oppress the Christian people, because if he lost this army then all the
Christian lands that he subjugated would rebel against him, and then force him to flee
to across the sea. They have one more weakness among them, when the Christians
defeat their horsemen, they should not rush to the front, to fight the Janissaries, but
come from behind, shoot the camels with burning arrows, which, being terribly
frightened by the fire, will run through the whole army and crush all the Janissaries.
On the other side, the Sultân’s camp should be kept under heavy cannon-fire.
There is great fear, they are terrified, when they hear that many Christians want to
move against them in a strong campaign because they know that if they lose a battle
and are defeated, as was said earlier, they would not be able to recover from those
losses, as the Sultân himself had already said.

Topic 41: How a campaign and what kind of battle order

should be organized against the Türks
As skill and good organization create strength, be wise when you will mobilize against
the Türks. You must be careful not to hamper (crush) yourself under the weight of
heavy armour, that you do not have large cavalry lances, large guns, and heavy maces
or equipment do not even bring. The most important thing needed for war and success
in battle is to make yourself light to move easily.
Because the Türks have a great advantage with such organization. If you attack him, he
will retreat from you, and if he attacks you, then you will not escape him. The Türks
and their horses are always fast because of their lightness, while we are always, due to
large horses and heavy armour, slow (lazy) because when you have much on your head
your spirit is heavy (clumsy), and in addition, you cannot hear or see well and thus due
to the heaviness of your armour you cannot succeed.
Some thus prepare themselves, in utterly heavy armour, as if someone would try to
defeat him by sitting on him with a dagger; however, a good man with a pure and
heroic heart should fight. It is better for him to participate in the battle so that he can
honestly, when necessary, step back and be healthy and start again what he thinks than
to die in one place, standing like made of lead.
We also know very well that the Tatars prepare for battle in the same way as the Türks,
and they do not allow the Türks to bypass them, nor to approach from the side, but
they have to fight face-to-face, hand-to-hand, in order for everyone to participate in the
battle. The Tatars are just as fast on their horses as are the Türks, and besides they are
brave and enduring, and have the great advantage of being so prepared as the Türks.
Because such a battle arrangement does not suit the Türks; and for that reason, the
Tatars often claimed victory over the Türks, and the Christians never did, and
especially not in a decisive battle, because they allow themselves to be surrounded and
approached from the sides.
When they saw the armoured people and their preparation, the Türks are ordered by
the Sultân to watch more closely the horses and not the people. Approaching from
both sides, with spears and swords and other various weapons, to attack and wound
the horses, (and after that it is an easy battle with people), and that is why everyone
must be aware of the weight of armour, which you should easily understand because
when dismounted for whatever reason, without help you cannot remount to ride again
— in such a battle there is not always a servant (not even a gentleman) to be able to
help you.
Therefore, whoever the Sultân wants to start a fight with the Türks, he will have to
abandon all of today's customs and adhere to what we have already mentioned, and the
people should also have and learn about it. It is also important and necessary that all
footmen be armed with spears (pole-arms) because they are more useful than a sword.

This all requires well-prepared footmen. And in this way, with God's help, we could
take the victory over the Türkish emperor.
Tartar Horseman, attributed to Abraham de Bruyn, 1577.
However, everything depends on the king, because he must be a vigorous wise warrior,
and first himself, and then the entire army must be properly prepared, especially
against the pagans. It is good for the king to be among the infantry then, having with
him several dozen chosen heroes on horseback, and from there go nowhere, except
when there is a great need. Because the king must behave reasonably and be kept safe
in great security (not to endanger himself), because a wound or some disease could
cause great confusion in the army, just as when the head is sick, the whole body is
weak. That is why all gentlemen and ordinary knights must take care of that, not to

elect merely a strong king, but a more wise and skillful king, and when they have one,
to protect him as a pupil in the eye, not allowing him to fight with his hands
unnecessarily.
It is also necessary for the king to have with him several dozen chosen men on
armoured horses, who would leave him to go among the ranks, to show themselves to
the knights and motivate them in the king's name to fight heroically, as if he (the king)
were there. And so some would leave and others would come so that the king would
always know what was going on where, as the Türkish emperor has his çavuş
(messengers) with him. And that these, too, be so well equipped that the enemies,
when they would see it, would think, like others, that the king himself was there and
commanding, (so that their courage and bravery would diminish). And if an accident
happened to any of them, another would fill the position immediately.
You will see also that the Türkish Sultân cannot mobilize a large army required for a
decisive battle, as they speak of his power being so great as if there were no number of
his men, which cannot be; because every master wants to know (the number of those)
he has so that he can (and be able to) manage them well. And how large the entire
Türkish army is, that has already been said.

Topic 42: On the Türkish light (fast) horsemen, called aḳıncı
The Türks call their fast horsemen (raiders) aḳıncı, which means “those who flow”, and
they fall as torrential rains from the clouds. From these storms come great floods and
fast rivers spill over their banks, and whatever the waters grab it either carries away or ,
destroys, so that in some places repairs cannot be made quickly. Like the torrential
storms, the Türkish aḳıncı raids do not last for long, but they take everything, loot, kill,
and destroy to such an extent that for many years no grass will grow there (or no
rooster will crow there).
The Türkish raiders are voluntary and go on a campaign out of good will, for their own
benefit (livelihood). Other Türks call them çoban, that is, herdsmen (shepherds),
because they feed sheep and other livestock, breed horses, and wait to be called on a
campaign. When they are called, they are immediately ready and do not need further
orders, nor given any ulûfe (salary), nor compensation for damages suffered.
If someone does not want to go on a raid, he lends his horses to someone else, in
exchange for half of the loot (plunder). If the raiders take booty of value and bring it
back they accept that as good, but if they do not bring anything of value, they say, “We
did not gain profit but we have done works of piety (great spiritual wellness) because
we support those that toil and fight against the giaour (Christian infidels).” Whatever
they take or capture, as with men they do with women, except for boys, they sell for
money, and the Sultân pays for the boys. These fast horsemen have leaders they call
döviceler.
There exist in all the provinces sançakbeys (governors) appointed by the Sultân in all
regions. First, against the Christians is the Sançakbey of Smederevo and his deputy,
while the Sançakbey of Kruševac is against the Magyars. Against the Wallachians, is
the Sançakbey of Nikopol and his deputy, the Sançakbey of Vidin. Against the Croats
and the Carantanians (Slovenians) if the bey of Upper Bosna and his deputy, the
Sançakbey of Sitnica — an so on, across the lands everything is occupied. On the seas,
the Sançakbey of Gallipoli, with his deputy from Morea, fights against the Catalans and
Italians
These sançakbeys have a duty to observe all the provinces and know what is happening
in each area. When one of them desires (sees an opportunity) to go on raids to capture
people, they send an envoy to the Sultân, asking for permission for a campaign to the
giaour lands. After hearing the delegation, the Sultân gives permission, and the
envoys, having permission, immediately go to the cities and announce (shout) the
names of the banner-bearer (leader) and the place of the raid, thanking the Sultân for
the campaign, saying, “You will be taken to rich provinces and you will accumulate a lot
of male and female servants (souls), and all sorts of other goods and possessions.” The
aḳıncı, hearing the campaign announcement and invitation celebrate by shouting and
rejoicing, and then quickly prepare and go to the designated area. The sançakbey that

waits for them, supplies them with ships and other necessary supplies. Campaign
plans are developed and each person is told what their duties will be (what they will be
used for). After that, he goes into the Christian lands, leading the raiders, across rivers
and seas, to his designated target.
When they arrive, he orders them to switch to their faster horses, because each of them
has [at least] two horses, one he rides, the other follows [a spare]. And those horses on
which they first rode remain in that place, for there are other Türks that take care of
these horses until the raiders return; and for eight horses they give a gold coin. The
sançakbey leads them further and orders them not to remain too long in one place and
sets a day until which he will wait for them. He hits a drum called talambas, releases
them, and chaos arises among them as they push each other, because each raider wants
to be in the front and some fall from their horse and stay there. Everyone scatters
wherever each knows [wishes] — burning, killing, robbing, and doing every sort of evil.
The sançakbey orders a small tent to be set up at that place and with him remain
several hundred selected men, all on good horses, and there they wait. Raiders arrive
from all directions bringing booty and captives. The sançakbey waits, as per his orders,
the stolen property is sent ahead, and whoever arrives late (misses the agreed day),
remains alone. The sançakbey stays back to organize the troops and moves slowly,
being prepared for an attack by the enemy from behind. If the enemy pursues them
violently and comes to overtake them, raiders will turn around, attack, and fight. If the
Türks cannot win the battle, then they order all the captives, young and old, to be killed
and after that, they quickly scatter, like the wind.
And thus, no one can do anything to them. But, if someone were to meet them on
difficult ground (impenetrable mountains), high waters (great rivers), or on some
marshy (wet) land, there the Türks could be defeated if people quickly mobilized and
went to the place of burning and looting. With few people, much damage could be
done to them because that is when they are most afraid because they are scattered
during the raid. With few people, someone could fight all the way to the sançakbey’s
camp and not even the sançakbey would be able to control himself, believing that a
large force arrives,
That is how their raiders, ‘those who flow like water’ prepare against us.

Topic 43: On Cerehors, similar to our mercenaries
Cerehors are similar to the mercenaries of our lands but they are from the ranks of the
volunteer raiders (light fast horsemen). When the Sultân learns that a large Christian
force marches towards him , or any sort of large army, then he orders the following
announcement be made in the cities: “Whoever desires ulûfe (pay), come and it will be
given to him.” Then the fast horsemen go to the Sultân, are paid one sultanı every four
days per horse, and from that time they are not called just fast horsemen, because they
are no longer volunteers, but called cerehors. They are paid each month, but their
paid service does not last for long.1
Their weapons are: swords, shields, spears and some of them have body armour. The
Sultân keeps them close to him while he needs them, then gives them the ulûfe, and
dismisses them. There are about 20,000 of them. In a large campaign, they stand near
the Sultân, on the left side of the Janissaries, as already described.
Topic 44: Of the Martolos
Martolos2 are Christians, found mostly on the border frontier-lands and they receive
one sultanı for eight days of service. Each of them receive their wages monthly, like the
cerehors (cerahor, serahor), and their service is for as long a duration as they desire.
Their weapons are the same as those of the cerehors. If one wants to, by their will they
can remain in service for as long as they wish. Likewise, there are also free Christians
that give nothing [pay no taxes] to no one and receive no pay — they are called vojnuks.
They serve the Sultân and transport his horses wherever they are needed. Of the
Martolos and Vojnuks, there are several hundred. For their military service, they are
rewarded with the privileged askeri3 (elite) status.
1 It should be noted that some sources say that initially the cerehors were soldiers but later were
used as general labourers, serving the army in various ways, including loading tents and supplies
onto camels as well as construction labour.
2 Similar concepts were used by the Romans and Greeks, as well as the Seljuqs. In general, they
were used in the repair of damaged forts, building roads and bridges, digging in mines and other
brutal physical labor such as rowing boats. The cerehors, with Christian labourers and soldiers led
by Muslim oﬃcers, were active bin Rumelia (Southeast Europe) between the 15th to 17th centuries.
3 The Ottoman Empire was ruled and managed by an elite class of people in the administration,
clergy, and military. While askeri means ‘of the military’, it came to be used for all higher levels of
imperial administration. Muslims and non-Muslims in service of the empire could hold askeri status
over the low-class non-Muslim Rayah. Over time, some of the Christian askeri converted to
Muhammadanism for increased privileges.

Topic 45: About the Organization of a Türkish Assault
The Türkish Sultân besieges and takes cities and fortresses without regretting the great
expense so that he does not need to stay there for a long time with his army because the
infantry soldiers are not supplied with food and the cavalrymen's horses leave, as do
the camels and mules, and in that time, with God’s help, it is possible to defeat them
with a fresh united army.
Before he can besiege and take the place he prepares a great abundance of supplies of
all things. Rarely do they take cannons, especially the large ones required to destroy
great walls, with them because they are heavy and difficult to transport. They load the
camels with many sorts of things and when they arrive at a city they want to take
(conquer) there they forge great cannons and they have large quantities of gunpowder.
First, using cannons, they break and tear down the walls of the fortress or town until he
feels they are destroyed enough.
When he (Sultân) sees that the walls have fallen and it is time for the assault he calls
out through the whole army that the horses, camels, and all animals are brought from
feeding in the pastures to the army (so that while they are engaged in the assault, the
enemy cannot steal their horses) and when that is done he sends a second order
throughout the whole army giving the date of the assault (so that all can prepare)
preferring to choose Friday.
They then announce the rewards in the following way: whoever places a flag on the
walls is promised a vojvodstvo (beylik) and whoever follows receives a subaşi (deputy)
position and the third receives a position of çeribaşı (small timar), while money (of
unknown amount) is offered to others and garments are distributed. (There is great
prestige in being first in the assault.) Whatever is promised at that time is fulfilled
without error whether or not the fortress is taken. Then they announce for that
evening, across the entire army, that tallow candles be affixed to spears and poles and
lit so that it looks as if the stars, above the clouds, are shining thickly (a sure sign of an
assault). Later that night and the next day they prepare for the assault that will last
throughout the day until the evening.
During the night they, well-armed, silently advance on the city from all directions
towards the moat (fosse) carrying in front of them shields (barricades) of woven
branches and strong ladders so they can climb up the wall and then down the other
side. The Janissaries go to where the wall is destroyed and there, at the breach, wait
silently until the dawn begins to appear. Then they begin to fire from all their cannons
and after all the cannons have fired the Janissaries very quickly, by the ladders, climb
(scale) the walls because at this time the defenders retreat from the cannon-fire but
when they see the Janissaries on the walls they charge to them and both sides fight
bravely.

There, during the battle, the Janissaries urge and encourage one another to climb and
fight. While this is happening a great number of arrows are fired while the muskets are
reloaded and supplies replenished. During all of this, there is great noise from the
drums and the cries (shouts) from the soldiers. Thus the assault lasts for an hour or
two at most. If during this assault the Christians overwhelm the heathens then the
Türks slowly weaken and languish while the Christians grow stronger. Thus the assault
lasts until noon and it can't last any longer because the ammunition has been fired and
many soldiers are killed, some wounded, and all are exhausted.
When the Sultân sees that the assault can't succeed he orders them to retreat from the
fortress and orders that the cannons and accessories be loaded onto wagons. After the
wounded are collected he orders them sent ahead while he (Sultân) waits there until
nightfall and then from the fortress (town) departs with the entire army. To protect his
army from soldiers seeking vengeance coming from the fortress he always posts a rear-
guard to protect his army. Therefore the soldiers in the fortress must take great care
not to ride out haphazardly for any reason. If the city or fortress is successfully
defended, the Türks will not attack again for a long time.
For the Türks injured (crippled, mutilated), in arm or leg, during the assault and battle
the Sultân provides for them with good food (livelihood) until his death. The injured
are given everything required to heal and recover. To all those who fought heroically he
gives what they deserve (earned). And thus is the form and organization of a Türkish
assault.

Topic 46: Of the Christians that live under the Türk
The Tü rks call the Christians giaour and the Sultâ n knowns their number, how many there
are in each land. Each year they give him an annual tribute of 40 akçe (aspers), which
make one gold ducat. Each year, the Sultâ n receives almost 100,000. Whoever can earn
money he gives a gold ducat instead of silver each year; except for women and children,
and other incomes which arrive in his treasury from either land or sea or the silver from
the hills.
These Christians give to their masters, under whom they are, and whom they call timarlar,
one half their annual tribute, and in addition one-tenth of all their new animals or grain
harvest and provide manorial labor, neither to the Sultâ n nor any governor, nor go to him.
When the Sultâ n’s army marches across the lands, no one is allowed to march through
grain Jields (on the side of the route, nor damage anything or do harm. No one is allowed
to take anything from anyone (even as a gift), not even some as small to be worth one
penny.
The Tü rkish ofJicers (gentlemen) protect themselves against that and will not look
through each other's Jingers, because they do not want to harm the poor (neither pagans
nor Christians). If someone takes even one small chick out of gratitude (as a gift), he would
pay with his head because the Sultâ n wants the poor to be at peace. Christians must also
provide, for the Sultâ n, many thousands of beasts of burden or horses, carrying fodder for
the animals of the army, and to sell there for their own account, at a price that is
determined fairly for them, without harming them. And so they keep everything according
to that arrangement (as it has been from ancient times to the present day).
Thus it happened during the time of Sultâ n Murat, while going from Plovdiv to CQ rnomen,
that a woman complained against an Azap soldier for taking milk from her courtyard and
drank it on the road. The Sultâ n ordered the Azap caught and if he does not admit to the
crime that his stomach would be cut open. If milk was found, then he would lose his head
and if none was found, then the woman would lose her head. The woman lost her milk but
the soldier lost his life.
Topic 47: Of the Türkish expansion
The Türkish, or heathen, expansion is like the sea, which never stops advancing nor
decreases, and it is of such a nature that it never has peace but is always agitating in
various places moving here and there. Likewise, the heathens never have peace
because they are always mobilizing and invading — if they fall calm in one region in
another they pound (crash) against the shores.
In some regions where seawater (saltwater) is thick and salty, salt is made from it but
this can't be done if the saltwater is not “spiced" (adding a portion) with freshwater.

All the rivers, flowing around the world, from here to there, are fresh and good and for
all things necessary and useful but when they enter the sea and mix with the seawater
all the fresh goodness (sweetness) is lost and the water becomes thick and salty like all
the seawater.
The Türks are of a nature such as the sea: they never have peace (rest), but always
fighting battles from year to year from one land to the next. If they make a truce
somewhere, it is only for their own benefit, and in other regions they perpetrate many
evils: they take people into bondage, and whoever cannot walk they kill. And this
happens many times every year: they round up and bring ten to twenty thousand
Christians into the heathen lands; where they mix and are spoiled (corrupted), like the
above-mentioned fresh water. Having forgotten their good Christian faith they accept
and extol the heathen religion. And such heathenized Christians behave much worse
than the true-born heathens. This, then, adds to the expansion of the Türks. While
some have served their terms, others are serving, while a third group is newly brought
in and they ride [out], striving so that their number would never diminish, in
accordance with the word of Muhammad.
In addition to those that are taken, every year many Christians voluntarily convert
(become poturica), not a small number, and there are other horrors such as what
happened in city called Galata, while I was in Türkey, when an eminent monk of Saint
Bernard, due to his ignobility, caused a good man to lose his life when the Türks,
without any proof of guilt, ordered the accused man burned and his wife was left a
widow. Next, the monk abandoned Christ, accepted the religion of Muhammad, and
then asked the heathens for the widow. Against her wishes, they gave her to him but
they did not praise his conversion. Later, forty Catalan (Italian) sailors accepted the
heathen faith.
That is how the heathens expand (multiply), as was said of the above-mentioned
seawater. And this you can know yourselves, that the Türks capture people and not
livestock. Who then can prevent them when they take everyone captive and swiftly
return (ride back) to their lands before the Christians can mobilize and arrive where
they are supposed to be? The more soldiers we maintain, to protect people from slave-
taking, the greater the expense and damage. Even if their cavalry is destroyed, it is not
the end because they always return. You must understand — until you smash the head
of a snake you are not safe.

Topic 48: How the Sultân presents himself to his courtiers
The Türkish Sultân has the following habit: at his court he shows himself to his
courtiers two days per week, and all his courtiers must be standing there at a distance.
Also present are envoys from various lands, carrying gifts, and having shown
themselves once, they do not return to the court, except if there is an urgent need. And
thus they wait for a response. The Sultân must show himself, for if he did not present
himself the courtiers would grow suspicious fearing that some accident happened to
him, or that he was overthrown by someone before his son could ascend the throne.
Even if he is ill, the courtiers desire to know about the nature of the illness.
The Emperor of Türkey has a few names in the Türkish language: first is Büyük Bey,
Great Lord, the second Hünkâr, akin to Prince, the third is Emir, akin to Mighty
(Power), the fourth is Kayzer, akin to Emperor, and Khan, ruler of all the lands. By his
family lineage he calls himself Osmanoğlu, descendant of Osman, the founder of the
dynasty. Some call him Padişah, King of Kings, a name that is above all other names,
but that name does not belong to him but to God. They call Allâh “the Sultân who
created the heavens and the earth”.
Mihailović ends his memoir with the statement:

“For the heathens do not sleep, therefore it is the king's duty [Royal Majesty] to
care for [defend] all his subjects and to protect them. There is no other more
proper path than the fraternal harmony, unity and love of all Christians so they
may be freed from the heathen's hands.”
Lord God Almighty, help the faithful Christians fight
against the ignoble heathens, to wipe them out.
Amen.”

Extra: The Devşirme (blood tax) program
In addition to traditional taxes, Christian families in Southeast Europe and Anatolia

were required to pay a blood tax/tribute or ‘tax of sons’ known as the devşirme. The
tax was a collection that happened every 4 or 5 years and typically demanded that 1 in
40 houses surrender to the sultân a young son between the ages of 12 and 18. While
some accounts of the devşirme use the term “recruiting process” the connotation of
recruitment is not quite accurate and forced conscription is better, but military slavery
is best. While some families did volunteer a child, due to the opportunities available in
the Osmanlı system, the vast majority of boys were taken against their will.
Initially, boys were taken at random but by the early 1500s, only the best boys were
taken; selected based on their intelligence, physical stature, strength, and
attractiveness. Unattractive boys were found unfit (not desirable) for state service
because the Türks believed that only a good and beautiful body can hold a good soul
and high intelligence. Muslims were never taken because it was not permissible to
enslave a Muslim. Jews were exempt while Roma (Gypsies) and those from Asia Minor
were not taken because they were more trouble than they were worth as soldiers. Boys
from southeastern Europe, especially from the lands of ‘Old Illyria’ (Bosna, Dalmatia,
Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania) were preferred as “Slaves of the
Porte” (Kapıkulu) because they were intelligent and fierce warriors.
Upon arrival in Edirne or İstanbul, the boys underwent numerous tests and the most
handsome and intelligent were placed in the homes of the sultân and paşas while the
rest were sent to work on farms or public works. During these years they learned the
Türkish language, culture and religion. When they came of age they were placed into
the Sultân’s service as Kapıkulu Ocağı (Slaves of the Porte) to fill the Yeniçeri Corps
(Janissaries, infantry storm troopers of the Osmanlı Empire) and developed a loyalty to
the sultân alone. After further training and testing the brightest boys continued their
education and duties in the palace while the rest were stationed in outposts around the
empire - oftentimes returning to their homelands to fight against the peoples that they
came from. For service in the palace and the state bureaucracy, only the most
attractive and intelligent young men were selected. Due to their training, discipline,
and loyalty the Yeniçeri corps was the most effective standing army in Europe.
After serving their time in the Yeniçeri corps, the brightest boys from ‘Old Illyria’ were
sent into the state bureaucracy and by a system based on meritocratic promotions, the
empire developed an effective state bureaucracy led by very capable vezirs. Many of
the boys taken as a blood tax reach the highest levels of the imperial government. By
creating a new class of Muslims with no loyalties to old influential Türkish families, the
devşirme created a class of soldiers and staff loyal only to the Sultân and counteracted
the power of the old Türkish nobility. Without the boys from Southeast Europe, the
Sultâns of the Osmanlı dynasty would not have been able to build the empire they did.

When the boys were collected in the devşirme program, they were given red
clothes that make them more visible and easier to catch if they tried to escape.

Extra: The fall of Bosna in 1493
A story of the fall of Bosna, based on first hand experiences, as told by Konstantin
Mihailović, a Serbian man from Ostrovica, taken captive and forced to fight in the
Sultân’s army, with the Yeñiçeri Corps from 1455 to 1463.
At that time, the Bosnian king, Stjepan Tomašević,1 requested from Sultân Mehmet a
truce for 15 years but the Sultân immediately called for his soldiers so that they would
mobilize and march to Edirne but that no one knew where he would march with his
army. The envoys (ambassadors) of the Bosnian king had to wait for a response, not
knowing what is happening until the mobilization of the entire army was complete.
Likewise, I did not know until I found myself in a cellar of the Sultân’s palace, in which
was stored the Sultân’s money and treasures and that is only because my younger
brother was entrusted with the treasury, and he did not go anywhere from it. When it
became difficult for him to be alone he sent for me to come to him, which I did without
any delay. But, soon after me, arrived into the chamber (vault) the Sultân’s highest
advisers, Mahmut Paşa and Isak Paşa, they were alone. When my brother saw them,
he told me of them, but I, not being able to leave the chamber without them seeing me,
hid behind some chests (boxes). When they arrived, my brother placed down a rug and
they sat beside one another and began to discuss what will happen to the Bosnian king
Then Mehmet Paşa asked: “What must we do? What response do we give to the
Bosnian king?” Isak Paşa answered; “Nothing else but this: we shall offer him a truce
for 15 years and then immediately, without losing any time, we will march after him
because if we do anything else we will not be able to conquer the Bosnian lands because
those lands are mountainous and additionally the Magyar king, the Croats and other
nobles will help him. He will also make such preparations that we will later not be able
to do anything against them. Therefore, let us give them a truce, let the envoys depart
on Saturday and we will follow them on Wednesday, and arrive in Stince,2 near Bosna,
and from there no one will know where the Sultân intends to turn.” Thus, the plan was
made, they left the chamber and then went to the Sultân.
The next day, early in the morning, pledged to the envoys was that a truce that would
be fully and faithfully maintained for 15 years. I went the next day, on Friday, to their
quarters and said to them [the envoys], “My dear gentlemen! Do you have a truce with
the Sultân or not?” They replied to me thus; “Thanks be to Lord God, we have
negotiated all that we wished for.” I told them; “By God, I tell you that you do not have
any truce.” The older of the two envoys wanted to ask more of me but the younger one
1Also known as Stjepan II. He is the last sovereign from the Bosnian Kotromanić dynasty. By
marrying teh Serbian Mara Branković, for a brief time he became a Despot of Serbia until Serbian
was lost to the Osmanlıs.
2 Possibly Sitniče in Serbia or Sitnica in Montenegro.

would not allow it, saying that I merely speak in jest. I then asked them; “On which
day will you depart from here?” They answered; “On Saturday, if God allows.” I then
told them; “And then, God willing, on Wednesday we will follow after you all the way to
Bosna. I tell you the truth, remember this.” They began to laugh and I then departed
from them.
In that same discussion between those paşas the decision was made that as the Sultân
departs from Edirne that the Sultan of Trebizond be executed and that is how it was;
we departed on Wednesday and the Sultan of Trebizond, of glorious remembrance, was
cut down (beheaded) on Friday. From there we marched to Bosna and came to the
lands of a Bosnian prince named Kovačеvić, who did not know that the Sultân was on
his way, was surprised when we attacked and therefore he surrendered (humbled
himself) but the Sultân ordered him executed (his head cut off). After that, we entered
into the lands of the king and we besieged the city of Bobovac. Since the Sultân did not
have any cannons, he had them cast in front of the fortress and then, with those
cannons, he took the city. At this fort we found the same envoys who had come to
Edirne seeking a truce, and there they spoke with me again, remembering my earlier
words but it was too late for them.
After the Sultân left a garrison in the fortress, we marched to Jajce but for the sake of
speed he sent in advance Mehmet Paşa with 20,000 light horsemen, in the hope that
somewhere they could, by surprise, take King Tomašеvić in some city because he heard
that the king does not have an entourage with him. But he [the king], knowing of the
advancing Türks struggled day and night to quickly mobilize some soldiers and thus he
was in a fort named Ključ, hoping to find in the afternoon some time to rest.1 But then
suddenly, the Türks arrived in front of the fort, not knowing about the king inside, until
a wretch (scoundrel) ran from the fort and for a reward told the Türks that the king is
in the fort. When Mehmet Paşa heard this, he immediately besieged the fort, and the
following day he convinced the king to come out of the fort, swearing and promising
that nothing will happen to his head.
At that time, Sultân Mehmet arrived at Jajce, in front of which they brought King
Tomašеvić, with some other of his comrades. When the soldiers who were in the fort,
saw that their lord is held captive, they also surrendered to the Türks. Having taken
possession of the fort, the Sultân gave the order that the king, with his comrades, be
executed. Following that, he took all the king’s lands. After leaving behind garrisons
he returned to his own capital city. He left me behind in one fort that is called Zvečaj,
1 With King Tomašević are his step-mother Katarina Kosača, and 13-year-old step-brother Sigismund
Kotromanić (aka Šimun Kraljević) and step-sister Katarina Tomašević Kotromanić. They Katarina and
the children split up and try to escape but while Katarina escapes to the coast, the children are
caught and taken captive. Stjepan Hercegović of the Kosača family, half-brother of Katarina, moves
to İstanbul in about 1473, converts to Muhammadanism and takes the name Ahmet, later known as
Hersekli (Hersekzâde, of Hercegovina) Ahmet Paşa, and becomes Grand Vizier five times between
1497 and 1517 when he dies of natural causes.

not far from Jajce, and gave me 50 Yeñiçeris as a garrison for the fort, and gave me half
a year’s salary for every Yeñiçeri. In addition, I also had an extra 30 Türks for support.
Estimated borders at 1500. Serbia and most of Bosna have fallen.
When the Sultân departed from these lands, that is when King Mátyás, without delay,
in the autumn came to Bosna and besieged Jajce and Zvečaj, where I was. When they
[Magyars] were encamped under the city [Jajce], the Bosnians who had surrendered to
the Türks and were with the Türks in the city and fort, took by force one of the towers
on which the Türkish flag had been raised and after taking the tower they threw the
flag to the ground and began to fight with the Türks. The Magyars, after seeing this,
came swiftly and bravely fought to enter the fort at that tower until finally they entered
and took it. The Türks retreated into the citadel and shut themselves in. For eight
weeks the king stayed there and attacked. The king sent s second army with cannons to
Zvečaj to attack (take) it. The walls of this fort were already very weak and because
they were much damaged by the cannons that we always had to work at night, fixing

the damage again and again. That is how we defended until the city of Jajce was taken.
When King Mátyás took Jajce, as agreed, with his Magyars he immediately came to
Zvečaj and we were forced to surrender. Of the Türks found in Jajce and Zvečaj, few of
them returned to Türkey because King Mátyás wanted to have them with him. I
thanked our Lord God, that with honour I was able to, from that dungeon, return
amongst the Christians.

̌
Bibliography for Konstantin Mihailović
Primary Sources
“Memoirs of a Janissary”, by Benjamin A Stolz, 1975.

“Janičarove uspomene ili Turska hronika” (A Janissary's Memoires or a Türkish
Chronicle), translated by Đorđe Živanović, Belgrade, 1959.
“Pamiẹtniki janczara przed rokiem 1500”, by Konstantin Mihailović̌ iz Ostrovice, 1857.

Memoirs of A Janissary - Konstantin Mihailović

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Konstantin Mihailović 1

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Short biography of Konstantin Mihailović

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Siege of Constantinople, from “La Cronicque du temps de tres chrestien roy

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Table of contents of the entire original book

Translated topics included here are highlighted.

01. Of the various pagans and of Ali, Muhammad’s helper

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33. On the Vlach Voivod, lord of Lower Wallachia

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Topic 1: Of the various pagans and of Ali, Muhammad’s helper

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Topic 15: Of God’s punishment for our sins,

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Topic 16: About what happened in the Serbian or Rascian kingdom

About the Battle of Kosovo Polje (Field of Blackbirds) in 1389

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Topic 33: On the Vlach Voivod, lord of Lower Wallachia

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How did he earn the second sobriquet Ţepeș?

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Türkish execution by impalement, by Philippus Baldaeus, 1672.

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Topic 34: About the truce with the Bosnian king

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1 Hungarian: Hunyadi Mátyás, Croatian: Matĳa Korvin.

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Topic 35: How Emperor Mehmet marched back to Bosnia

Siege of Jajce: July 10 – August 24, 1464.

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Topic 38: On the organization of the Osmanlı lands

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Topic 39: On the Arrangement of the Sultân’s Court

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Picture of Sipahi by Jean Antoine Guer, 1748.

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Topic 40: On war and the Türkish preparations

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Topic 41: How a campaign and what kind of battle order

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Tartar Horseman, attributed to Abraham de Bruyn, 1577.

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Topic 42: On the Türkish light (fast) horsemen, called aḳıncı