2022 TS EBookL ELeadership&Supervision

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP & SUPERVISION
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SUCCESS

IN LEADERSHIP AND SUPERVISION
EFFECTIVE
LEADERSHIP &
SUPERVISION
TAIDIN SUHAIMIN
1
First Published, 2022
 Taidin Suhaimin
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Effective Leadership &

Supervision
This guide is basic, yet comprehensive, in nature to
be useful to new managers and supervisors.
Note that many organizations struggle, not from a
lack of advanced information - rather, they never
really master the basics.
This guide will help you master the basics.
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTERS PAGE
INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP &

SUPERVISION 5
LEADERSHIP & SUPERVISION 25
COMMUNICATION & THE SUPERVISOR 50
MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES FOR PEAK

PERFORMANCE 74
PROBLEM-SOLVING & DECISION-

MAKING 111
EFFECTIVE TASKS DELEGATION 133
EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE
MANAGEMENT 148
REFERENCE SOURCES 177
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INTRODUCTION TO
LEADERSHIP & SUPERVISION
“Every person under your supervision is different.
They’re all different. They’re identical in most
ways, but not in all ways. You have to study and
analyze every individual under your supervision
and try to work with them in a way that will be
most productive.” - John Wooden
5
OVERVIEW
The task of supervising is
becoming more complex with the
role of being the bridge between
management and employees
increasingly requiring supervisors
to have a balance of skills -
administrative, technical and interpersonal.
It is therefore crucial for every supervisor to acquire
the necessary knowledge and skills in managing
their jobs.
This will help build up your confidence to take on the
challenges of the more demanding supervisory roles.
WHAT IS SUPERVISION?
There are several interpretations of the term
supervision.
But typically, it is the activity carried out by
supervisors to oversee the productivity and progress
of employees who report directly to the supervisors.
For example, first-level supervisors supervise entry-
level employees. Depending on the number of
employees in the organization, middle managers
supervise first-level supervisors, whereas chief
executives supervise middle managers, and so forth.
6
WHO ARE SUPERVISORS?

The term supervisor is a widely
misunderstood term.
Many believe that it applies only to
people who oversee the productivity
and development of entry-level
workers. It is not correct.
The term supervisor typically refers
to one’s immediate superior in the workplace, the
person to whom an employee report directly in the
organization. For example, a middle manager’s
supervisor typically would be a top manager.
A first-line manager’s supervisor would be a middle
manager. A worker’s supervisor typically would be a
first-line manager.
Supervisors typically are responsible for their direct
reports' progress and productivity in the
organization.
Supervision often includes conducting basic
management skills (decision-making, problem-
solving, planning, delegation, and meeting
management), organizing teams, noticing the need
for and designing new job roles in the group, hiring
new employees, training new employees, employee
performance management, setting goals, observing
and giving feedback, addressing performance issues,
7
firing employees, etc.) and ensuring conformance to

personnel policies and other internal regulations.
Occasionally, writers will interchange "leadership"
and "supervision".
Both activities are closely related.
Supervision requires leadership.
Leadership does not necessarily have to involve
supervision.
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SUPERVISION & THE

MANAGEMENT PROCESS
WHAT IS MANAGEMENT?
Traditional Interpretation
There is a combination of views
about this term.
Traditionally, "management" refers
to the set of activities, and often the
group of people, involved in four
general functions, including
planning, organizing, leading, and
coordinating activities. (Note that the four functions
recur and integrate throughout the organization.)
Another Interpretation
Some writers, teachers, and practitioners assert that
the above view is somehow outmoded and that the
management needs to focus more on leadership
skills, e.g., establishing vision and goals,
communicating, and guiding others to accomplish
them.
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They also assert that the leadership must be more

facilitative, anticipative, and empowering in carrying
out and achieving their visions and goals.
Some assert that this isn't a change in the
management functions; rather, it's re-emphasizing
certain management aspects.
Another Common View
Another view is that "management" is getting things
done through others.
Yet another, quite apart from the traditional view,
asserts that management job is to support
employee's efforts to be fully productive members of
the organizations and citizens of the community.
To most employees, the word "management"
probably means the group of people (executives and
other managers) who are primarily responsible for
making decisions in the organization.
In a non-profit, the term "management" might refer
to all or any of the board activities, executive director
and/or program directors.
WHAT DO MANAGERS DO?

Both of the above interpretations acknowledge the
functions of planning, organizing, leading, and
coordinating activities - they put different emphases
10
and suggest different natures of activities in the

following four main functions.
They still agree that what managers do are the
following:
1) Planning
Planning includes identifying goals, objectives,
methods, resources needed to carry out the methods,
responsibilities, and dates for completion of tasks.
Examples of planning are strategic planning,
business planning, project planning, staffing
planning, advertising, promotions planning, etc.
2) Organizing Resources
To achieve the goals in an optimum manner.
Examples are organizing new departments, human
resources, office, and file systems, re-organizing
businesses, etc.
3) Leading
Leading includes setting direction for the
organization, groups, and individuals and influencing
people to follow that direction. Examples are
establishing strategic direction (vision, values,
mission, or goals) and championing methods of
organizational performance management to pursue
that direction.
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4) Controlling, or Coordinating
The organization's systems, processes, and
structures to reach effectively and efficiently reach
goals and objectives.
This includes an ongoing collection of feedback, and
monitoring and adjustment of systems, processes,
and structures accordingly.
Examples include the use of financial controls,
policies, and procedures, performance management
processes, measures to avoid risks, etc.
THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS
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THE ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES

OF MANAGERS VS SUPERVISORS
MANAGER SUPERVISOR
Responsible for
contributing to the Responsible for getting the work
objectives of the done
organization
Attend to the future Attends to the present
Controls/supervise work and
discharges orders from
Plans
management - interprets policies at
shop-floor
Decides - makes strategic Make decisions to solve the
(forward) decisions problems
Prevent problems Solve problems
Undertakes creative task - Undertakes adaptive task - is
is proactive reactive
Focuses on looking for the Focuses on looking for the right
right questions answers
Innovates for tomorrow Modifies what is existing today
Focuses on interactions
Focuses on downward interactions
upwards and sideways
Output
Management (which should be Objectives of
Resources (what the more than the the
+ manager does) sum of the organization
resources)
Planning Problem Solving

as you move up the ladder
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TYPICAL ROLES OF A SUPERVISOR

Coach
A good supervisor places a high priority on coaching
employees.
Coaching involves working with employees to
establish goals, action plans, and timelines. The
supervisor delegates and provides ongoing guidance
and support to the employees as they complete their
action plans. Considering other aspects of an
employee's life is necessary when establishing job
goals.
A supervisor sometimes is confronted with walking a
fine line between being a supervisor and the
employee's confidant.
Mentor
Usually, the supervisor understands the organization
and the employee's profession better than the
employee.
Consequently, the supervisor is in a unique position
to give ongoing advice to the employee about his job
and career. The employee can look to the supervisor
as a model for direction and development.
An effective mentor-mentee relationship requires
the supervisor to accept the responsibility of
mentorship.
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A good supervisor can be a priceless addition to an

employee's career.
Advocate for Organization
Often, the supervisor is the first person to tell the
employees about new policies and programs from
management.
It's not uncommon that employees are confused or
frustrated by the new policies and need further
clarification and support from supervisors.
In the rapidly changing world of today's
organizations, it can be a big challenge to present
new programs to employees without them being
frustrated or even cynical.
The supervisor must be authentic yet tactful.
Advocate for Employee
The supervisor is often responsible to represent the
employee's requests to management along with
representing the employee's case for deserving a
reward.
For example, if an employee deserves a promotion,
the supervisor often must justify the case for
promotion to the supervisor's supervisor.
If the employee has a rather unique personal
situation that warrants special consideration by the
rest of management, the supervisor must explain the
situation, and how it can be handled.
15
It's not unusual for employees to sometimes see the

supervisor as part of "management" while at other
times seeing the supervisor as a personal friend.
WHAT DO SUPERVISORS DO?

Supervision of a group of employees often
includes:
1. Conducting basic management skills
(decision-making, problem-solving, planning,
delegation, and meeting management)
2. Organizing their department and teams
3. Noticing the need for and designing new job
roles in the group
4. Hiring new employees
5. Training new employees
6. Employee performance management (setting
goals, observing and giving feedback,
addressing performance issues, firing
employees, etc.)
7. Conforming to personnel policies and other
internal regulations
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TYPICAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF A
SUPERVISOR
Supervisors are usually responsible for the progress
and productivity of their employees, whether the
supervisor is an executive supervising a middle
manager or a first-time supervisor supervising a
new employee.
Personnel Policies & Procedures
The supervisor is usually responsible for ensuring
that employees follow the organization's policies and
procedures, e.g., for sick time, personal leave,
overtime, contact with the media or press,
confidentiality about organization information, etc.
Concurrently, the supervisor must follow policies
and procedures for carrying out supervisory
responsibilities, e.g., policies and procedures for
hiring, firing, promotions, etc.
Staffing
Supervisors regularly review their employees' needs.
Consequently, they're often the first to notice the
need for a new position in the organization. In this
case, the supervisor opens a new role by getting
authorization from upper management.
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It often requires communication and justification for

funds to fill the new position.
The supervisor reviews advertisements for job
candidates, reviews their resume and conducts
interviews.
The supervisor recommends who should be hired
from among job candidates and ensures a job offer to
the most suitable candidate.
There's usually a great deal of paperwork, e.g., a job
application, starting a personnel file, providing an
employee manual, salary and tax forms, etc.
Finally, the supervisor must ensure that the new
employee has adequate facilities, e.g., desk, computer,
office supplies, etc.
Employee Training & Development
Supervisors ensure new employees are familiar with
the organization, its policies, facilities, etc.
They develop training plans with employees to
ensure they have the necessary expertise to carry
out their jobs.
They provide ongoing guidance to employees, often
in the form of coaching and counseling.
Supervisors often provide career counseling to help
employees develop and advance in their careers.
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Employee Performance Management

Supervisors ensure that job descriptions accurately
record the primary responsibilities, qualifications,
and terms for each job role in their group.
They set performance standards for tasks, jobs, and
employees' roles.
They ensure employees have appropriate and
realistic job goals.
They provide ongoing feedback about the employee's
performance.
They conduct performance appraisals regularly,
including assessing how the employee has
performed and what they can do to improve in their
jobs.
They develop performance improvement plans if an
employee's performance is not adequate.
In addition, supervisors provide rewards for
employee accomplishments.
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TYPICAL EXPERIENCE OF A FIRST-

TIME SUPERVISOR
Rarely Have Sufficient Training
Often, the promotion of an employee to the
supervisory level because of their strong technical
expertise in building a product or providing a service.
Suddenly, the new supervisor is now in charge of a
new range of responsibilities, many of which have
little to do with technical expertise.
Supervisors often deal with a great deal of
paperwork and people. Although paperwork is
usually the most tedious, it's often the most
predictable. But, people aren't predictable. They
have moods, illnesses, career expectations, crises in
their family lives, etc.
Hence, the supervisor's technical expertise alone is
often useless when supervising people.
Sometimes Upset by Wide Range of
Policies & Procedures
The new supervisor suddenly faced a wide range of
rules and regulations - each of which the supervisor
must enforce.
The supervisor is responsible for signing time cards,
authorizing overtime, granting compensation time,
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dealing with performance problems, developing job

descriptions, following hiring procedures, dealing
with grievances, conforming to a complicated pay
system, etc.
It can be difficult to conform to today's wide range of
employment laws, rules and regulations.
New Supervisors Rarely Have
Enough Time
No matter how many courses or degrees a new
supervisor has completed, they're often surprised
that management activities are so hectic and
demanding.
No matter how thorough the planning is, managers
rarely get to spend much time on any activities. The
roles of most managers, be they new supervisors or
executives, are often interspersed with frequent
interruptions. Any surprise in the works or lives of
employees is a sudden demand on supervisors.
New supervisors often expect to have complete
knowledge of everything that goes on in their group.
They don't want to encounter any surprises.
So, they spend more time reading, thinking, planning,
and communicating with employees - new
supervisors often spend 60 hours a week on the job.
Still, they don't feel they have enough time to do the
job right.
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New Supervisors Often Feel Very

Alone
Each manager has a unique role in the organization.
Each organization is unique. Usually, there are no
clear procedures for dealing with the numerous
challenges the management suddenly faces.
Ultimately, it's up to each manager to get through the
day.
Faced with a great deal of pressure, little time, and
continuing demands from other people, the new
supervisor can feel alone. The supervisor is
responsible as an advocate for the organization and
an advocate for the employee.
For example, if the organization implements an
unpopular new policy, the supervisor communicates
and justifies that new policy to the employee.
In other words, the management expects the
supervisor to present and support the new policy,
and the employee vents the frustration to the
supervisor.
However, if the supervisor is to promote an
employee or present some reward, he is now
representing the employee's case to the rest of
management.
Hence, the supervisor is often alone, stuck in the
middle.
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New Supervisors Often Feel

Overwhelmed, Stressed Out
The new supervisor is responsible, often for the first
time, for the activities of another employee.
The supervisor must ensure the employee knows his
job, has the resources to do the job and does the job
as effectively as possible.
Until new supervisor develops a "feeling for the
territory," they often deal with the stresses of
supervision by working harder rather than smarter.
They miss the comfort and predictability of their
previous job.
The stress and loneliness in the role of a new
supervisor can bring out the worst in a person.
If they deal with stress by retreating, they'll do that
to their offices and close the door. If they deal with
frustration, they'll become angry and unreasonable
with their employees.
If they are used to getting strong praise and high
grades, they'll work harder and harder until their
jobs become their lives.
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SUPPORT AND DEVELOPMENT ARE

CRITICAL FOR NEW SUPERVISORS
Courses in supervision, delegation, time
management, stress management, etc., are not
enough.
New supervisors need ongoing coaching and support.
They need someone with whom they can confide.
Ideally, they have a mentor in the organization who
remembers what it's like to be a first-time supervisor,
someone who makes themselves available.
If the experience of first-time supervision is
successful, it's challenging but fulfilling, the
supervisor goes on to become a progressive,
supportive manager.
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“A leader is one who knows the way, goes the
way, and shows the way.” - John C. Maxwell
Leadership is only one of
many functions a supervisor
must perform. But leadership
is the requirement of all
supervisors.
Supervision requires
leadership, but leadership
does not necessarily have to
involve supervising.
WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?
Leadership is the mastership to get others to follow
you and willingly do what you want them to do.
It is not the same as management or supervision.
Leadership is only one of many functions a
supervisor must perform.
25
Other duties of supervisors include planning,

organizing, communicating, coordinating, evaluating,
and exercising control.
But, leadership is a requirement of all supervisors.
Whether you're an executive or an entry-level
worker in your organization, you must have strong
skills in leadership.
Leaders are not always favored though some
supervisors can lead effectively and at the same time
be on friendly terms with the people they supervise.
Most leaders must command respect because, at
times, their decisions may not be popular but are
still needed.
THE PURPOSE OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership is a way of focusing and motivating a
group to achieve its aims.
It also involves being accountable and responsible
for the group as a whole.
A leader should:
 provide continuity and momentum
 be flexible in allowing changes in direction
Ideally, a leader should be a few steps forward of
their team but not too far for the team to be able to
understand and follow them.
26
Different Ideas of Leadership

Traditionally, a permanent team leader would be
selected by more senior levels of management or
elected by the group.
This technique relies on the assumption that one
single person has all the capacities required.
However, it has been argued, on the best teams,
different individuals shall provide occasional
leadership, taking charge in areas where they have
particular strengths.
No one is the permanent leader because that
someone would then cease to be a peer, and the team
interaction would begin to fail.
This approach would eliminate the problem where a
leader is isolated from his group, but the continuity
and focus of the group must remain.
Thus, in our opinion, the best compromise may be to
have a permanent leader who is flexible enough to
delegate responsibility for the individual task and let
others take the team leadership as required.
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LEADERSHIP STYLES
The organizational culture determines the role of its
management leadership.
The managers' beliefs, values, and assumptions are
of critical importance to the overall style of
leadership they adopt.
There are several leadership styles. Each technique
has a good and not-so-good characteristics, and each
uses leadership differently.
 The Autocrat
 The Laissez-Faire (Free-Rein)
 The Democrat
FREE-REIN DEMOCRATIC AUTOCRATIC
Individual has increasing freedom
Individual Leader has

has complete
complete control
controls
Leader exerts increasing control
LEADERSHIP STYLES
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The Autocrat
The autocratic leader overpowers
team members, using unilateralism
to achieve a singular objective.
This leadership method generally
results in passive resistance from
team members and requires
continual pressure and direction
from the leader to get things done.
Generally, an authoritarian approach is not a very good
way to get the finest performance from a team.
There are, however, some instances where an
autocratic leadership style may not be unsuitable.
Some situations may call for urgent action. In these
cases, an autocratic style may be best.
In addition, most people are familiar with autocratic
leadership and thus have less trouble adopting that
style.
Furthermore, in some circumstances, subordinates
may prefer an autocratic style.
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The Free-Rein or Laissez-Faire

Manager
The Laissez-Faire manager
exercises little control over his
group, leaving them to sort out
their roles and tackle their work
without himself participating in
this process.
This approach leaves the team
floundering with little direction
or motivation.
Again, there are situations where the Laissez-Faire
approach can be more effective.
The Laissez-Faire technique is usually only
appropriate when leading a team of highly motivated
and skilled people who have produced excellent
work in the past.
Once a leader has established that his team is
confident, capable, and motivated, it is often best to
step back and let them get on with the task since
interfering can generate resentment and detract
from their effectiveness.
By doing so, the leader can empower his group to
achieve its goals.
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The Democrat
The democratic leader makes
decisions by consulting his team
while maintaining control of the
group.
The democratic leader allows his
team decides how to tackle the
task and who will perform which
task.
The democratic leader can be seen in two
lights:
A great democratic leader encourages participation
and delegates wisely but never loses sight of the fact
that he bears the crucial responsibility of leadership.
He values group discussion and input from his team
and draws from a pool of his team members' strong
points to obtain the best performance from his team.
He motivates his team by empowering them to direct
themselves and guides them with a loose reign.
However, the democrat can also be unsure of himself
and his relationship with his subordinates that
everything is a matter of group discussion and
decision.
This type of "leader" is not leading at all.
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DOUGLAS MCGREGOR’S
X-Y THEORY
Douglas McGregor, an
American social
psychologist, proposed
his famous X-Y theory
in his popular 1960
book The Human Side
of Enterprise.
The theory x and y are still prevalent in the
management and motivation arenas. More recent
studies have questioned the model's rigidity, but his
X-Y Theory remains a valid basic principle for
developing positive management styles and
techniques.
McGregor's X-Y Theory remains central to
organizational development and the improvement of
its culture.
McGregor's X-Y Theory is a healthful and simple
reminder of the natural rules for managing people.
McGregor maintained that there are two
fundamental approaches to managing people.
Many managers tend towards theory x and generally
get poor results.
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Enlightened managers use theory y, which produces

better performance and results, and allows people to
grow and develop.
Theory X ('Authoritarian Management' Style)
 The average person dislikes work and will avoid it
if he can.
 Therefore, most people must be coerced by using
the threat of punishment to work toward
achieving organizational objectives.
 The average person prefers to be directed, to avoid
responsibility, is relatively unambitious and wants
security above all else.
Theory Y ('Participative Management' Style)
1. People will apply self-control and self-direction in
achieving organizational objectives without
external control or the threat of punishment.
2. Effort in work is as natural as work and play.
3. Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards
associated with their achievement.
4. People usually accept and often seek responsibility.
5. In industry, the intellectual potential of the
average person is only partly used.
6. The capacity to use a high degree of imagination,
ingenuity, and creativity in solving organizational
problems is widely distributed in the population.
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Characteristics of The X Theory

Manager
Typically, some, most or, all of these:
1. Issues deadlines and
ultimatums
2. Results-driven and
deadline-driven, to the
exclusion of everything
else
3. Intolerant
4. Distant and detached
5. Unfriendly and arrogant
6. Elitist
7. Short-tempered
8. Shouts
9. Does not participate
10. Does not team-build
11. Issues instructions, directions, edicts
12. Issues threats to make people follow instructions
13. Demands, never ask
14. Unconcerned about staff welfare or morale
15. Proud, sometimes to the point of self-destruction
16. One-way communicator
17. Poor listener
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18. Anti-social
19. Fundamentally insecure and possibly neurotic
20. Vengeful and recriminatory
21. Does not thank or praise
22. Withholds rewards, suppresses pay and
remunerations levels
23. Scrutinizes expenditure to the point of false
economy
24. Seeks culprits for failures or shortfalls
25. Seeks to apportion blame instead of focusing on
learning from the experience and preventing
recurrence
26. Poor at delegating but believe that they do well
27. Thinks giving orders is delegating
28. Does not invite or welcome suggestions
29. Takes criticism badly and is likely to retaliate if
from below or peer group
30. Relatively unconcerned with investing in anything
to gain future improvements
31. Holds on to responsibility but shifts accountability
to subordinates
35
How You Can Manage Upwards Your

X Theory Boss:
Working for an X theory
boss isn't easy - some
extreme X theory
managers make
extremely unpleasant, but
there are ways of
managing these people
upwards.
Avoiding confrontation (unless you are genuinely
being bullied, which is a different matter) and
delivering results are the key tactics.
Theory X managers (or indeed theory Y managers
displaying theory X behavior) are primarily results
oriented - so orientate your own dealings with them
around results - i.e. what you can deliver and when.
Theory X managers are facts and figures oriented -
so cut out the incidentals, be able to measure and
substantiate anything you say and do for them,
especially reporting on results and activities.
Theory X managers generally don't understand or
have an interest in human issues, so don't try to
appeal to their sense of humanity or morality.
Set your objectives to meet their organizational aims
and agree on these with the managers; be seen to be
36
self-starting, self-motivating, self-disciplined, and

well-organized. The more the X theory manager sees
you are managing yourself and producing results, the
less they'll feel the need to do it for you.
Always deliver your commitments and promises. If
you are given an unrealistic task and/or deadline
state the reasons why it's not realistic, but be very
sure of your ground, don't be negative; be
constructive as to how the overall aim can be
achieved in a way that you know you can deliver.
Stand up for yourself, but constructively - avoid
confrontation. Never threaten or go over their heads
if you are dissatisfied or you'll be in big trouble
afterward and life will be a lot more difficult. If an X
theory boss tells you how to do things in ways that
are not comfortable or right for you, then don't
question the process.
Simply confirm the result that is required, and check
that it's okay to 'streamline the process' or 'get
things done more efficiently' if the chance arises -
they'll normally agree to this, which effectively gives
you control over the 'how', provided you deliver the
'what' and 'when'.
This is the essence of managing upwards X theory
managers - focus and gets agreement on the results
and deadlines - if you consistently deliver, you'll
increasingly be given more leeway on how you go
about the tasks, which amounts to more freedom.
37
Be aware also that many X theory managers are

forced to be X theory by the short-term demands of
the organization and their superiors - an X theory
manager is usually someone with their problems, so
try not to give them any more.
38
THEORY Z - WILLIAM OUCHI

First things first - Theory Z is not a
McGregor idea and as such is not
McGregor’s extension of his X-Y
theory.
Theory Z was developed not by
McGregor, but by William Ouchi, in
his book 1981 'Theory Z: How
American management can meet the Japanese
Challenge'.
William Ouchi is a professor of management at UCLA,
Los Angeles, and a board member of several large US
organizations.
Theory Z is often referred to as the 'Japanese'
management style, which is essentially what it is.
Interestingly, Ouchi chose to name his model 'Theory
Z', which apart from anything else tends to give the
impression that it's a McGregor idea.
One wonders if the idea was not considered strong
enough to stand alone with a completely new name.
Nevertheless, Theory Z essentially advocates a
combination of all that's best about theory Y and
modern Japanese management, which places a large
amount of freedom and trust with workers, and
assumes that workers have a strong loyalty and
interest in team-working and the organization.
39
Theory Z also places more reliance on the attitude

and responsibilities of the workers, whereas
McGregor’s X-Y theory is mainly focused on
management and motivation from the manager's and
organization’s perspective.
There is no doubt that Ouchi's Theory Z model offers
excellent ideas, albeit it lacks the simple elegance of
Mcgregor's model, which let's face it, thousands of
organizations and managers around the world have
still yet to embrace.
For this reason, Theory Z may for some be like trying
to manage the kitchen at the Ritz before mastering
the ability to cook a decent fried breakfast.
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ACTION CENTERED LEADERSHIP - A

MODEL FOR TEAM LEADERSHIP AND
MANAGEMENT
John Adair's simple Action-Centered Leadership
model provides a significant blueprint for leadership
and the management of any team, group, or
organization. great
Action Centered Leadership is a simple leadership
and management model that makes it easy to
remember, apply, and adapt to your situation.
Good managers and leaders should have full
command of the three main areas of the Action
Centered Leadership model and should be able to
use each element according to the situation.
Being able to do all these things, keep the right
balance, get results, build morale, improve quality,
develop teams, and increase productivity, is the mark
of a successful manager and leader.
41
THE THREE PARTS ARE:

1. Achieving the Task
2. Managing the Team or Group
3. Managing Individuals
Adair's Action-Centered leadership task-team-

individual model adapts extremely well (as above) to
the demands of modern business management.
When using it in your environment, think about the
aspects of performance necessary for success in your
situation, and incorporate the locally relevant factors
into the model to create your interpretation.
It will give you a useful management framework.
42
Your responsibilities as a manager

for achieving the Task:
1. Identify aims and vision for the group, purpose,
and direction - define the activity (the task)
2. Identify resources, people, processes, systems, and
tools (inc. Financials, communications, it)
3. Create the plan to achieve the task - deliverables,
measures, timescales, strategy, and tactics
4. Establish responsibilities, objectives,
accountabilities, and measures, by agreement and
delegation
5. Set standards, quality, time, and reporting
parameters
6. Control, and maintain activities against
parameters
7. Monitor and maintain overall performance against
the plan
8. Report on progress toward the group's aim
9. Review, re-assess, and adjust plan, methods, and
targets as necessary
43

for the Group:
1. Establish, agree, and communicate standards of
performance and behavior
2. Establish the style, culture, and approach of the
group - soft skill elements
3. Monitor and maintain discipline, ethics, integrity
and focus on objectives
4. Anticipate and resolve group conflicts, struggles,
or disagreements
5. Assess and change as necessary the balance and
composition of the group
6. Develop team-working, cooperation, morale and
team-spirit
7. Develop the collective maturity and capability of
the group - progressively increase group freedom
and authority
8. Encourage the team towards objectives and aims -
motivate the group and provide a collective sense
of purpose
9. Identify, develop and agree with team- and
project-leadership roles within the group
10. Enable, facilitate and ensure effective internal and
external group communications
11. Identify and meet group training needs
12. Give feedback to the group on overall progress;
consult with, and seek feedback and input from the
group
44

for each Individual:
1. Understand the team members as individuals -
personality, skills, strengths, needs, aims, and fears
2. Assist and support individuals - plans, problems,
challenges, highs, and lows
3. Identify and agree to appropriate individual
responsibilities and objectives
4. Give recognition and praise to individuals -
acknowledge effort and good work
5. Where appropriate reward individuals with extra
responsibility, advancement, and status
6. Identify, develop and utilize each individual's
capabilities and strengths
7. Train and develop individual team members
8. Develop individual freedom and authority
45
ACTION CENTERED LEADERSHIP &

JOHN ADAIR
John Adair, born in 1934, a British,
developed his Action Centered
Leadership model while lecturing
at Sandhurst Royal Military
Academy and as assistant director
and head of the leadership
department at The Industrial
Society.
This would have been during the 1960s and 70s, so
in terms of management theories, Adair's works are
relatively recent.
His work certainly encompasses and endorses much
of the previous thinking on human needs and
motivation by Maslow, Herzberg, and Fayol, and his
theory adds an elegant and simple additional
organizational dimension to these earlier works.
Very importantly, Adair was probably the first to
demonstrate that leadership is a trainable,
transferable skill, rather than it being an exclusively
inborn ability.
Leadership is different from management.
All leaders are not necessarily great managers, but
the best leaders will possess good management skills.
46
One skill set does not automatically imply the other

will be present.
Adair explains: Leadership is an ancient ability about

deciding direction, from an Anglo-Saxon word
meaning the road or path ahead; knowing the next
step and then taking others with you to it.
Managing is a later concept, from the Latin 'manus',
meaning hand, and more associated with handling a
system or machine of some kind.
The original concept of managing began in the 19th
century when engineers and accountants started to
become entrepreneurs.
47
There are valuable elements of management not

necessarily found in leadership, e.g. administration
and managing resources.
Leadership on the other hand contains elements not
necessarily found in management, e.g. inspiring
others through the leader's own enthusiasm and
commitment.
The Action Centered Leadership model is Adair's

best-known work, in which the three elements -
Achieving the Task, Developing the Team, and
Developing Individuals - are mutually dependent, as
well as being separately essential to the overall
leadership role.
48
Importantly, Adair set out these core functions of

leadership and says they are vital to the Action
Centered Leadership model:
Adair also promotes a '50:50 rule' which he applies
to various situations involving two possible
influencers, e.g. the view that 50% of motivation lies
with the individual and 50% comes from external
factors, among them leadership from another.
This contradicts most of the motivation gurus who

assert that most motivation is from within the
individual. He also suggests that 50% of team-
building success comes from the team and 50% from
the leader.
Adair is an example of how management thinking
changes and becomes more sophisticated over time,
and in response to the development of previous
management thinking.
49
COMMUNICATION &
THE SUPERVISOR
A great man shows his greatness by the way he
treats little men - Thomas Carlyle
The supervisor is in a unique
position, serving as the link
between management and the
workforce.
Senior management
articulates the vision, middle
management devises the
strategy, and the supervisor has to ensure that the
workforce performs the work.
To accomplish this, the supervisor needs to be able
to communicate with the workforce effectively.
To function effectively within the organization, the
supervisor also needs to be able to effectively
communicate horizontally and vertically.
50
THE IMPORTANCE OF
COMMUNICATION SKILLS TO
SUPERVISORS
You have an important, highly valued skill if you can
communicate effectively.
Many organizations are now promoting staff because
of "people skills" rather than on technical ability
alone.
The Harvard Business Review has affirmed that the
prime requisite of a promotable executive is the
"ability to communicate”.
Too often, those who cannot communicate effectively
remain buried in lower, dead-end jobs.
51
THE LADDER OF SUCCESS
The Harvard Business Review affirmed that the

prime requisite of a promotable executive is the
ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE.
52
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
The word communication comes from the Latin
communico, meaning share. - Anonymous
Communication is the transfer of information and
understanding from one person to another.
It is a way of reaching others with ideas, facts,
thoughts, and values.
It is a bridge of meaning among people so that they
can share what they feel and know.
By using this bridge, a person can cross safely the
river of misunderstanding that sometimes separate
people.
SIMPLE MODEL OF
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The communication process, however, is not as
simple as it seems because there are always barriers
that hinder the communication process:
SENDER Message RECEIVER
53
THE BASICS
Language is a means, and a vital element in our
communication.
It is used to convey and exchange meanings and
ideas, talk to people, and to express thoughts.
It is the vehicle that helps the people with whom we
are trying to communicate understand the message
we convey.
The choice of words or language used in the message
will influence the quality of the communication.
So, the words used may have to be chosen for the
different recipients in mind.
Are the words used understood easily by the
recipient?
Is the phrasing easy to grasp? Is the descriptive
language used? Is the ultimate message clear?
By thinking about the end result, i.e., what happens
once you finish speaking, you can choose the words
you'll need, and decide how to use them to ensure
that the desired outcome is achieved.
Research has shown that listeners have to put
together what is being said with how it is being said
in order to fully understand what is being conveyed.
Effective basic communication has six elements: the
sender, the receiver, the channel, contextual factors,
the message itself, and feedback.
54
For communication to be effective, the supervisor

must understand and manage the potential variables
that may affect these elements.
THE TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION MODEL
Sender: (source) the person trying to communicate

information, provide direction, establish
performance, give feedback, etc. How the supervisor
communicates affects the relationship with the
workforce.
Receiver: (destination) the person receiving the
message and trying to understand it.
The relationship the worker has with the supervisor
affects how that worker views the information and
reacts to it.
Channel: The communication channels can be
formal, informal, or unofficial; personal or
impersonal; and active or static. The communication
55
method (or channel) selected should depend on the

type of message or its content.
Before choosing which method to use, consider
whether the message is interactive or static and
whether it is best suited for personal or impersonal
transmission.
Each of these impacts the quality of the exchange.
1. Interactive is a two-way communication. It allows
for a discussion (back and forth).
2. Static is a one-way communication. The receiver
cannot provide immediate feedback.
3. The question is whether the communication
should be one-way or two-way. What does your
message require? You also need an understanding
of the potential challenges with which the
recipient may have to deal, what the recipient may
need to be able to effectively carry out the
instructions, etc.
4. Personal communication means a conversation,
which needs to be face to face or by phone.
5. Impersonal communication is in some form of
writing.
6. Does your communication require you to hear or
see the other person? Are you trying to build a
relationship or improve rapport? Will the tone of
voice be important for this particular message or
case? Is the information or idea potentially
confusing to the recipient?
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The communication channel becomes richest when

the human element is a part of the exchange.
Face-to-face or personal communication is one of the
richest channels of communication that can be used
within an organization.
The physical presence, the tone of the speaker's
voice, gestures, posture, and facial expressions help
the recipient(s) of a message to interpret that
message as the speaker intends it.
This is the best channel to use for complex or
emotionally charged messages, because it allows for
interaction between speaker and recipient(s) so as to
clarify ambiguity.
A speaker can evaluate whether an audience has
received the message as intended, ask or answer
follow-up questions, and provide clarification as
required.
The more complicated the message is, the richer the
channel should be.
When the message is routine and easy to understand,
a lean channel is more appropriate.
57
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Message:
The message is the information being transmitted.
The message can be verbal and/or nonverbal.
To reduce potential problems, the senders should
use appropriate words and a clear, straightforward
structure; provide all the necessary and relevant
information so that it is easily understood; etc.
This requires the sender to have some idea of the
capabilities of the recipient to understand it and to
have the motivation to respond to it affirmatively.
Feedback:
The only way the sender can determine that the
message was received and understood is to get some
form of confirmation from the receiver.
58
This can be in the form of acknowledgement,

parroting, or paraphrasing.
If there is some misunderstanding or there are
barriers to the receiver's ability to respond
affirmatively to the information in the message, the
sender needs feedback to identify the possible
barriers involved.
This may require a few exchanges in order to resolve
the issue.
Context:
The circumstances surrounding our communication
play a part in determining its success or failure.
Although many types of situations affect the
messages we send, one particular type that can
easily distort our messages is communication under
stress.
Stress, by its very nature, makes it difficult for us to
"think clearly."
In a stressful situation, the meaning of the message
can be distorted; subtle shades of meaning can be
confused; pieces of information can be missed or
forgotten; minor points may seem more important
than major ones.
In addition, the wording or structure of the
communication may suffer.
59
Uncertainty, nervousness, and confusion can creep

into the speaker's voice, resulting in a less assertive
statement.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Successful communication
involves getting the point across
to another person.
Many communication barriers
exist in any organization, which
detract from its effectiveness.
This can be more pervasive in
the construction industry due to some unique
elements.
These barriers can be environmental, situational, or
personal.
Physical Barriers
Physical barriers can prevent or hinder individuals
from engaging in effective communication.
A host of these barriers can be present in the general
area and adversely affect the exchange.
They include closed doors, walled-in offices, physical
distance, and/or physical discomfort.
The area can be noisy or crowded.
If the conversation occurs outdoors, the weather
conditions may have some form of impact as well.
60
Culture
Culture can have a substantial impact on
communication.
Organizational culture is created by the leadership of
the organization and can become ingrained into the
very fabric of the way things are communicated and
business is done on a day-to-day basis.
Some organizational cultures are open and
supportive of input from employees and a two-way
flow of information.
Other cultures are more top-down—where leaders
convey messages but don't seek input from staff or
other stakeholders.
Some cultures create workplace climates that
impede people from expressing what they feel, which
causes them to say only what they think is expected
of them.
Organizational leadership needs to be cognizant of
what information needs to be shared, when it should
be shared, and what process should be used to share
information.
When employees don't have all the information, the
"grapevine" is activated, usually to the detriment of
the organization.
61
Bias:
Whether we recognize it or not, all people suffer
from various biases.
These biases can interfere with communication
when we are sending or receiving messages.
Biases can be based on our preconceived beliefs or
on impressions we form about people as we interact
with them.
When communicating with others, it's important to
be aware of and to work at overcoming these biases.
Misinterpretation
Misinterpretation occurs more often than not. When
interacting with others, we sometimes jump to
conclusions or misinterpret what is being said.
As a result, our response to the message may further
impede the effectiveness of the exchange.
So, it is important to ensure that the message is clear
and that the recipient understands it as we intended.
Role Conflicts
Role conflicts can create barriers to communication
in organizations.
Regardless of how open managers and senior leaders
believe they are to employee input, employees are
often hesitant to share their honest insights,
62
especially when those insights may be perceived as

critical of management.
This particular issue is more problematic for larger
organizations than smaller ones since these tend to
be less formal and bureaucratic.
Other barriers deal with people's perceptions,
emotions, and attitudes; a lack of communication
skills; a lack of knowledge or interest; inability to use
language effectively; or the timing of the message.
Other factors may involve the selection of the
communication channel or the effectiveness of the
technology.
Most barriers occur at the interfaces within the
communication process. This may be caused by how
the sender structures the message or how the
receiver interprets it.
We do not always effectively communicate what we
are thinking or intend to say. Communication failures
arise when there is a gap between what the sender
meant and what the receiver thought the sender
meant.
63
COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Some examples of the causes of communication

failure:
1. Being so preoccupied that you don't listen to what
others are saying
2. Being so sure of the importance of what you have
to say that you fail to listen, instead breaking in to
voice your thoughts
3. Assuming that you know what the other is going to
say and breaking in to voice your response
4. Listening with a closed mind and therefore
discounting the content of the message
5. Being so focused on the words that the emotional
aspect of the message is missed
6. Discounting what is being said due to mistrust of
the speaker
All of these barriers can be overcome by conscious
effort.
64
ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMUNICATIONS BREAKDOWN
No matter how good we think we are at
communicating, there can always be communication
barriers.
Even when the receiver receives the message and
makes a genuine effort to encode it, some
interferences may limit the receiver’s understanding.
These interferences are known as barriers to
communication, and may entirely prevent a
communication, filter part of it out, or give it
incorrect meaning.
Studies in ongoing organizations indicate that often
only about 50 percent of the communicational
interactions between people result in real
communication.
It is also, rather surprising that communication
breakdown is seldom caused by cultural or language
differences.
Some of us do find difficulty communicating with our
superiors and subordinates who speak the same
language and share the same culture as we do.
65
People in organizations spend over three-quarters of

their time in some form of interpersonal situation.
Poor communication skills carry a great deal of
liability. Employees, especially supervisors who do
not communicate effectively, are at a disadvantage
and do not thrive in organizations.
Though we have been communicating with others
from a very early age, the process of transmitting
information from one person to another is complex.
Research has found that there is an erosion of
meaning in the neighborhood of 40–60 percent in
the transmission of information from one person to
another.
66
Given the above, it is not surprising that a substantial

number of interpersonal issues, performance
problems, and misunderstandings have their roots in
poor communication.
So, it is critical to appreciate, understand, and be
aware of the potential barriers to effective
communication.
67
IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING
One of the most important parts in communication is
listening.
Communication experts estimate that we spend
about 80% of our day communicating. About half the
time is spent "listening" what others "say".
Amount of time we spent daily communicating:
1) Listening 45%
2) Speaking 30%
3) Reading 16%
4) Writing 09%
Effective Listening Guides
“Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice.” -
Polonius (Hamlet)
Stop talking!
You cannot listen if you are talking.
Put the talker at ease
Help a person feel free to talk.
This is often called a permissive environment.
Show a talker that you want to listen to
Look and act interested. Do not read your mail while
someone talks.
Listen to understand rather than to oppose.
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Remove distractions
Don’t doodle, tap, or shuffle papers. Will it be quieter
if you shut the door?
Empathize with talkers
Try to help yourself see the other person’s point of
view.
Be patient
Do not interrupt a talker. Don’t start for the door or
walk away.
Hold your temper
An angry person takes the wrong meaning from
words.
Go easy on argument and criticism
These put people on the defensive, and they may
“clam up” or become angry. Do not argue: Even if you
win, you lose.
Ask questions
It encourages a talker and shows that you are
listening. It helps to develop points further.
Stop talking!
It is first and last because all other guides depend on
it. You cannot do an effective listening job while you
are talking.
69
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
The following guidelines are very basic in nature, but
comprise the basics for ensuring strong ongoing,
internal communications.
1. Have all employees provide weekly
written status reports to their supervisors
Include what tasks were done last week, what tasks
are planned next week, any pending issues and date
the report.
These reports may seem a tedious task, but they're
precious in ensuring that the employee and their
supervisor have mutual understanding of what is
going on, and the reports come in very handy for
planning purposes.
They also make otherwise harried employees stand
back and reflect on what they're doing.
2. Hold monthly meetings with all
employees together
Review the overall condition of the organization and
review recent successes.
Consider conducting "in-service" training where
employees take turns describing their roles to the
rest of the staff.
For clarity, focus and morale, be sure to use agendas
and ensure follow-up minutes.
70
Consider bringing in a customer to tell their story of

how the organization helped them.
These meetings go a long way toward building a
feeling of teamwork among staff.
3. Hold weekly or biweekly meetings with
all employees together if the organization
is small (e.g., under 10 people); otherwise,
with all managers together
Have these meetings even if there is not a specific
problem to solve -- just make them shorter.
Hold meetings only when there are problems to
solve. Cultivates a crisis-oriented environment where
managers believe their only job is to solve problems.
Use these meetings for each person to briefly give an
overview of what they are doing that week.
Facilitate the meetings to support the exchange of
ideas and questions.
Again, for clarity, focus, and morale, be sure to use
agendas, take minutes and ensure follow-up minutes.
Have each person bring their calendar to ensure the
scheduling of future meetings accommodates each
person's calendar.
4. Have supervisors meet with their direct
reports in one-on-one meetings every
month
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This ultimately produces more efficient time

management and supervision.
Review the overall status of work activities, hear
how it's going with both the supervisor and the
employee, exchange feedback and questions about
current products and services, and discuss career
planning, etc.
Consider these meetings as interim meetings
between the more formal, yearly performance
review meetings.
CONCLUSION
Most people want to communicate effectively but
may not have an acute appreciation of the barriers
involved.
Because of a multitude of potential barriers, there is
ample opportunity for something to go wrong in any
communication.
Douglas McGregor, an expert in the field said, "It is a
fairly safe generalization that difficulties in
communication within an organization are more often
than not, mere symptoms of underlying difficulties in
relationships between parties involved. When
communication is ineffective, one needs to look first at
the nature of these relationships rather than at ways
of improving communication."
72
A supervisor is a critical link between management

and the workforce and, as such, must be a highly
effective communicator.
To be successful, the supervisor must develop an
awareness of the potential barriers to
communication and learn how to cope with and
effectively overcome them.
The supervisor must also appreciate the fact that the
quality of the relationship between the sender and
receiver to a great extent determines the ability of
the person transmitting the message to overcome
many of the communication barriers.
So the supervisor has to be not only an effective
communicator but also a relationship builder.
73
MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES
FOR PEAK PERFORMANCE
“If you are working on something that you really
care about, you don’t have to be pushed. The
vision pulls you.” - Steve Jobs
1. FREDERICK HERZBERG'S
MOTIVATION AND HYGIENE
FACTORS
Frederick Herzberg's book 'The
Motivation to Work', written
with research colleagues B
Mausner and B Snyderman in
1959, first established his
theories about motivation in the
workplace.
Herzberg's work, originally on 200 Pittsburgh
engineers and accountants, has become one of the
most replicated studies in the field of workplace
psychology.
74
Herzberg was the first to show that satisfaction and

dissatisfaction at work nearly always arose from
different factors and were not simply opposing
reactions to the same factors, as had always
previously been (and still now by the unenlightened)
believed.
He showed that certain factors truly motivate

('motivators'), whereas others tended to lead to
dissatisfaction ('hygiene factors').
According to Herzberg, Man has two sets of needs;
one as an animal to avoid pain, and two as a human
being to grow psychologically.
75
He illustrated this also through Biblical examples:

Adam after his expulsion from Eden needed food,
warmth, shelter, safety, etc., - the 'hygiene' needs; and
Abraham, capable and achieving great things
through self-development - the 'motivational' needs.
Certain parallels can be seen with Maslow.
Herzberg's research proved that people will strive to
achieve hygiene needs because they are unhappy
without them, but once satisfied the effect soon
wears off - satisfaction is temporary.
Examples of hygiene needs in the workplace are
policy, relationship with supervisor, work conditions,
salary, company car, status, security, relationship
with subordinates, and personal life.
True motivators were found to be other completely
different factors: achievement, recognition, work
itself, responsibility, advancement, and personal
growth.
76
2. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS
Workers, like all human beings,
seek satisfaction for their basic
needs.
These were identified by the
famous psychologist, Abraham
Maslow.
He said that these needs are
arranged in a hierarchy with the most compelling
ones coming first and the most sophisticated ones
last.
77
According to Maslow, there are five categories of

needs:
1. Physiological Needs
We want to be alive to stay alive
We need to breathe, eat, sleep, reproduce, see, hear
and feel.
This is the first level of need but in Malaysia, these
needs are generally satisfied.
Only once in a while, e.g. when we fall into the water
and we cannot swim, we are reminded that we have
these basic needs.
2. Safety Needs
We want to feel safe
WWW like to feel that we are safe from accidents or
pain, from an uncertain future, from danger, etc. Of
course, we cannot feel one hundred percent safe but
most of us are reasonably safe.
After all, we have laws, police, insurance, etc. that
help to make things safer.
78
3. Social Needs
We want to be social
From long ago, human beings have lived in groups.
We have families, clubs, villages, friends, etc. Social
needs vary widely from person to person, but all of
us do have this need.
4. Esteem Needs
We need to feel worthy and respected
When we talk about our self-respect or our dignity,
this is the need we are expressing.
When we wear a new shirt to a party or when we
buy a new car even though there is nothing wrong
with the old one, when we “show off”, we are
expressing our esteem needs.
5. Self-Actualization
We need to do the work we like
This is why many people who do not like their jobs,
turn to hobbies, and why many people who like their
work can get so wrapped up that they forget the time.
When all our other needs are satisfied, then we
would like to do things we enjoy doing and do our
best.
79
3. HAWTHORNE EFFECT
The Hawthorne Effect was first
described by Henry A. Landsberger in
1950 who noticed a tendency for
some people to work harder and
perform better when they were being
observed by researchers.
The Hawthorne Effect is named after
a series of social experiments on the influence of
physical conditions on productivity at Western
Electric’s factory at Hawthorne, Chicago in the 1920s
and 30s.
The researchers changed some physical conditions
throughout the experiments including lighting,
working hours, and breaks.
In all cases, employee productivity increased when a
change was made.
The researchers concluded that employees became
motivated to work harder as a response to the
attention being paid to them, rather than the actual
physical changes themselves.
The Hawthorne Effect studies suggest that
employees will work harder if they know they’re
being observed.
While it is not recommended to hover over your
employees watching them all day, you could try
80
providing regular feedback, letting your team know

that you know what they’re up to and how they’re
doing.
Showing your employees that you care about them
and their working conditions may also motivate
them to work harder.
Encourage your team to give you feedback and
suggestions about their workspace and development.
4. EXPECTANCY THEORY
Expectancy Theory proposes that people will choose
how to behave depending on the outcomes they
expect as a result of their behavior.
In other words, we decide what to do based on what
we expect the outcome to be.
At work, it might be that we work longer hours
because we expect a pay rise.
Therefore, according to Expectancy Theory, people
are most motivated if they believe that they will
receive a desired reward if they hit an achievable
target.
They are least motivated if they don’t want the
reward or they don’t believe that their efforts will
result in the reward.
81
SUPPORTING EMPLOYEE
MOTIVATION
Clearing Up Common Myths About
Employee Motivation
The topic of motivating employees is extremely
important to managers and supervisors.
Despite the importance of the topic, several myths
persist -- especially among new managers and
supervisors.
Before looking at what management can do to
support the motivation of employees, it's important
first to clear up these common myths.
Myth #1 -- "I can motivate people"
Not really -- they have to motivate themselves. You
can't motivate people any more than you can
empower them.
Employees have to motivate and empower
themselves. However, you can set up an environment
where they best motivate and empower themselves.
The key is knowing how to set up the environment
for each of your employees.
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Myth #2 -- "Money is a good

motivator"
Not really. Certain things like money, a nice office and
job security can help people from becoming less
motivated, but they usually don't help people to
become more motivated.
A key goal is to understand the motivations of each
of your employees.
Myth #3 -- "Fear is a damn good
motivator"
Fear is a great motivator -- for a very short time.
That's why a lot of yelling from the boss won't seem
to "light a spark under employees" for a very long
time.
Myth #4 -- "I know what motivates
me, so I know what motivates my
employees"
Not really. Different people are motivated by
different things. I may be greatly motivated by
earning time away from my job to spend more time
my family.
You might be motivated much more by recognition of
a job well done. People are motivated by the same
things.
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Again, a key goal is to understand what motivates

each of your employees.
Myth #5 -- "Increased job
satisfaction means increased job
performance"
Research shows this isn't necessarily true at all.
Increased job satisfaction does not necessarily mean
increased job performance.
If the goals of the organization are not aligned with
the goals of employees, then employees aren't
effectively working toward the mission of the
organization.
Myth #6 -- "I can't comprehend
employee motivation -- it's a
science"
Not true. There are some very basic steps you can
take that will go a long way toward supporting your
employees to motivate themselves toward increased
performance in their jobs.
More about these steps is provided later on in this
book.
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BASIC PRINCIPLES TO REMEMBER

1. Motivating employees starts with
motivating yourself
It's amazing how, if you hate your job, it seems like
everyone else does, too.
If you are very stressed out, it seems like everyone
else is, too.
Enthusiasm is contagious. If you're enthusiastic
about your job, it's much easier for others to be, too.
Also, if you're doing a good job of taking care of
yourself and your own job, you'll have much clearer
perspective on how others are doing in theirs.
A great place to start learning about motivation is to
start understanding your own motivations.
The key to helping to motivate your employees is to
understand what motivates them.
So, what motivates you?
Consider, for example, time with family, recognition,
a job well done, service, learning, etc.
How is your job configured to support your own
motivations?
What can you do to better motivate yourself?
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2. Always work to align goals of the

organization with goals of
employees
As mentioned above, employees can be all fired up
about their work and be working very hard.
However, if the results of their work don't contribute
to the goals of the organization, then the
organization is not any better off than if the
employees were sitting on their hands -- maybe
worse off!
Therefore, it's critical that managers and supervisors
know what they want from their employees.
These preferences should be worded in terms of
goals for the organization.
Identifying the goals for the organization is usually
done during strategic planning.
Whatever steps you take to support the motivation of
your employees (various steps are suggested below),
ensure that employees have strong input to
identifying their goals and that these goals are
aligned with goals of the organization.
Goals should be worded to be "SMARTER". More
about this later on below.
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3. Key to supporting the motivation

of your employees is understanding
what motivates each of them
Each person is motivated by different things.
Whatever steps you take to support the motivation of
your employees, they should first include finding out
what it is that really motivates each of your
employees. You can find this out by asking them,
listening to them and observing them.
4. Recognize that supporting
employee motivation is a process,
not a task
Organizations change all the time, as do people.
Indeed, it is an ongoing process to sustain an
environment where each employee can strongly
motivate themselves.
If you look at sustaining employee motivation as an
ongoing process, then you'll be much more fulfilled
and motivated.
5. Support employee motivation by
using organizational systems (for
example, policies and procedures) --
don't just count on good intentions
Don't just count on cultivating strong interpersonal
relationships with employees to help motivate them.
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The nature of these relationships can change greatly,

for example, during times of stress. Instead, use
reliable and comprehensive systems in the
workplace to help motivate employees.
For example, establish compensation systems,
employee performance systems, organizational
policies, procedures, etc., to support employee
motivation.
Also, establishing various systems and structures
helps ensure a clear understanding and equitable
treatment of employees.
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STEPS YOU CAN TAKE TO

SUPPORT YOUR EMPLOYEES
The following specific steps can help you go a long
way toward supporting your employees to motivate
themselves in your organization.
1. Do more than read this article --
apply what you're reading here
This maxim is true when reading any management
publication.
2. Briefly write down the
motivational factors that sustain you
and what you can do to sustain them
This little bit of "motivation planning" can give you a
strong perspective on how to think about supporting
the motivations of your employees.
3. Make of list of three to five things
that motivate each of your
employees
Notice the list of motivating factors in the section
"Assessing Your Approach."
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Fill out the list yourself for each of your employees

and then have each of your employees fill out the list
for themselves. Compare your answers to theirs.
Recognize the differences between your impression
of what you think is important to them and what
they think is important to them.
Then meet with each of your employees to discuss
what they think are the most important motivational
factors to them.
Lastly, take some time alone to write down how you
will modify your approaches with each employee to
ensure their motivational factors are being met.
(NOTE: This may seem like a "soft, touchy-feely
exercise" to you. If it does, then talk to a peer or your
boss about it.
Much of what's important in management is based
very much on "soft, touchy-feely exercises".
Learn to become more comfortable with them.
The place to start is to recognize their importance.)
4. Work with each employee to
ensure their motivational factors are
taken into consideration in your
reward systems
For example, their jobs might be redesigned to be
more fulfilling.
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You might find more means to provide recognition if

that is important to them. You might develop a
personnel policy that rewards employees with more
family time, etc.
5. Have one-on-one meetings with
each employee
Employees are motivated more by your care and
concern for them than by your attention to them.
Get to know your employees, their families, their
favorite foods, the names of their children, etc.
This can sound manipulative, and it will be if not
done sincerely.
However, even if you sincerely want to get to know
each of your employees, it may not happen unless
you intentionally set aside time to be with each of
them.
6. Cultivate strong skills in
delegation
Delegation includes conveying responsibility and
authority to your employees so they can carry out
certain tasks.
However, you leave it up to your employees to decide
how they will carry out the tasks.
Skills in delegation can free up a great deal of time
for managers and supervisors.
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It also allows employees to take a stronger role in

their jobs, which usually means more fulfillment and
motivation in their jobs, as well.
7. Reward it when you see it
A critical lesson for new managers and supervisors is
to learn to focus on employee behaviors, not on
employee personalities.
Performance in the workplace should be based on
behaviors toward goals, not on the popularity of
employees.
You can get in a great deal of trouble (legally, morally,
and inter-personally) for focusing only on how you
feel about your employees rather than on what
you're seeing with your eyeballs.
8. Reward it soon after you see it
This helps to reinforce the notion that you highly
prefer the behaviors that you're currently seeing
from your employees.
Often, the shorter the time between an employee's
action and your reward for the action, the clearer it
is to the employee that you highly prefer that action.
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9. Implement at least the basic

principles of performance
management
Good performance management includes identifying
goals, measures to indicate if the goals are being met
or not, ongoing attention and feedback about
measures toward the goals, and corrective actions to
redirect activities back toward achieving the goals
when necessary.
Performance management can focus on
organizations, groups, processes in the organization,
and employees.
10. Establish goals that are
SMARTER
SMARTER goals are: specific, measurable, acceptable,
realistic, timely, extending capabilities, and
rewarding to those involved.
11. Clearly convey how employee
results contribute to organizational
results
Employees often feel strong fulfillment from
realizing that they're making a difference.
This realization often requires clear communication
about organizational goals, employee progress
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toward those goals, and celebration when the goals

are met.
12. Celebrate achievements
This critical step is often forgotten.
New managers and supervisors are often focused on
getting "a lot done". This usually means identifying
and solving problems.
managers come to understand that acknowledging
and celebrating a solution to a problem can be every
bit as important as the solution itself.
Without ongoing acknowledgment of success,
employees become frustrated, skeptical, and even
cynical about efforts in the organization.
13. Let employees hear from their
customers (internal or external)
Let employees hear customers proclaim the benefits
of the efforts of the employee.
For example, if the employee is working to keep
internal computer systems running for other
employees (internal customers) in the organization,
then have other employees express their gratitude to
the employee.
If an employee is providing a product or service to
external customers, then bring in a customer to
express their appreciation to the employee.
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14. Admit to yourself (and to an

appropriate someone else) if you
don't like an employee
Managers and supervisors are people.
It's not unusual to just not like someone who works
for you.
That someone could, for example, look like an uncle
you don't like. In this case, admit to yourself that you
don't like the employee.
Then talk to someone else who is appropriate to hear
about your distaste for the employee, for example, a
peer, your boss, your spouse, etc.
Indicate to the appropriate person that you want to
explore what it is that you don't like about the
employee and would like to come to a clearer
perception of how you can accomplish a positive
working relationship with the employee.
It often helps a great deal just to talk out loud about
how you feel and get someone else's opinion about
the situation.
As noted above, if you continue to focus on what you
see about employee performance, you'll go a long
way toward ensuring that your treatment of
employees remains fair and equitable.
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SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR REFLECTION

AND DISCUSSION
Learners are strongly encouraged to discuss the
following questions with peers, board members,
management, and staff, as appropriate.
1. Name at least four of the six myths about
motivating employees.
2. What is the first step in motivating employees?
(HINT: think about yourself.)
3. What must be done regarding the goals of the
organization and the goals of employees?
4. Is each employee motivated by the same thing(s)
as other employees?
5. Name at least eight of the 14 steps that you can
take to motivate employees.
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FULFILLING PERSONAL &

EMOTIONAL NEEDS
There are four primary ways to motivate people.
Fear
Threatening an employee with the loss of a job, a
bonus, or a raise. You may get results – once. But
you’ll get resentment forever.
Incentive
Providing a bonus or trip to Hawaii or another one-
time reward. But after the reward has been given,
what is the incentive to continue producing?
Attitude
You must present a reason for a change in attitude.
Fulfilling Personal Needs
The one approach that has consistently proven to be
the most effective is fulfilling personal needs.
To get the best results, you must try to match the
individual to the type of motivation that best suits
him or her.
Ideally, this match also fits the requirements of the
job so that the outcome is a true “win-win” situation:
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The employee has his or her emotional needs met,

and the organization or business has its productivity
needs to be met.
Basic Personal Needs

Here are several basic needs that many of us feel.
Belonging
Being part of a group provides us with a sense of
comfort, security and partnership. When we belong,
we share experiences with others, which provides
emotional enrichment.
Achievement
Everyone needs to feel a sense of accomplishment.
It gives our lives purpose, and it reinforces our self-
esteem because it demonstrates our competence.
Advancement
Advancement is a measure of our success.
To feel successful, we need to feel as if our lives are
expanding and our careers are moving forward.
Power
This is tied to advancement because an advance in a
career usually means more power or increased
authority.
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Responsibility
With responsibility comes respect, both for the
person given responsibility and for the person who
delegated it and self-respect is a very powerful
motivator.
Challenge
We need challenge to grow mentally and emotionally,
personally and professionally.
The alternative is to stagnate, which breeds
negativism, low self-esteem and dissatisfaction.
Recognition
Knowing we did a good job is important, but having
others know it as well is essential.
Otherwise, we feel as if we are living and working in
a vacuum.
A letter or memo, an award, a gift or a bonus is all
forms of recognition.
Reserve this for the above average performance.
Excellence
Along with the need for self-esteem comes the need
to be proud of our work and accomplishments.
Doing an excellent job is often a reward in itself,
which explains why millions of workers can find joy
in their work even it’s routine.
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Excitement
Most of us need a certain amount of stimulation or
sense of newness in our jobs or in our daily lives.
Boredom can easily set in when we experience little
or no change.
Family and Friends
Personal relationships with family members and
friends are very important to most people.
These relationships provide the support network we
need both at work and in our daily lives.
By being attentive to these personal needs you can
provide job enrichment for an employee.
When a person’s emotional needs are met, it is called
self-fulfillment and it means that person is
approaching his or her potential.
But it’s essential to match the employee to the type
of motivation.
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TAKING CARE OF EMOTIONAL

NEEDS
Money is important to people. The paycheck enables
an individual to purchase the necessities vital to
survival, as well as the comforts of life.
In addition to a paycheck, employees are also paid in
the form of fringe benefits such as insurance and
retirement plans.
Some supervisors and small business owners believe
that employees should be motivated if a company
pays them good wages and offers ample fringe
benefits. It rarely works that way.
If higher pay and generous fringe benefits were
enough to boost performance levels, then General
Motors would be out-performing Toyota two to one.
It isn’t so because the rewards that motivate people
aren’t solely monetary.
There are other, less tangible motivators.
They include:
1. A memo of appreciation
2. A birthday card
3. Being an accepted part of a group
4. Prompt attention to safety needs
5. Listening to suggestions
6. Sensitivity to personal problems or crises.
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Pay hikes and bonuses don’t hurt, since we all like

what money will buy.
But real reward people want is the sense of
emotional fulfillment that makes a job worth doing.
If you meet a person’s emotional needs, that’s a far
more powerful motivator than financial rewards will
ever be.
Two of the most fundamental needs almost every
employee has:
1. Respect for his or her ideas, concerns and
feelings
2. Contribution to his or her sense of self-worth
A key element in effective motivation is the ability to
communicate well.
Communication skills are particularly crucial when
you are trying to meet the emotional needs of others.
You can have the greatest systems of controls,
practice the latest management theory or spend a
years-developing business strategy, but if you can’t
communicate with the people who work for you or
those you supervise, your efforts will be wasted.
All of us want to be respected.
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COMMUNICATING RESPECT
One of the best ways you can communicate respect is
by developing good listening skills. Effective listening
takes practice.
It’s estimated that we listen at about a 25 percent
efficiency level. We let external noises distract us and
don’t make an effort to understand the true message
someone is trying to communicate.
Effective listening takes commitment and energy. If
you don’t commit to being a good listener, you can’t
be a good motivator.
To turn people on, you have to understand their
unique needs, which is impossible if you’re not
listening.
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ENHANCING ANOTHER’S SELF-

WORTH
The second basic need an effective motivator focus
on is another’s self-worth. You can produce positive
behavior in others if the reward or consequence you
offer is a heightened sense of self-worth. You can do
this by using encouragement.
Encouragement inspires others through their words
and actions.
When praise or feedback is given to an employee or
co-worker, the encourager makes sure it is
descriptive. Rather than merely saying, “good job,”
the encourager says: “I was impressed at the amount
of detailed information included in your report. It
was well-written and informative. I know you spent
a lot of time working on it. Good job.”
Encouragers do five important things to enhance
self-worth in others:
1. Have measurable, realistic, meaningful goals
2. Allow people to participate in a task – to own it
3. Use training as an opportunity to stimulate
excitement, allows their own self-confidence to
motivate others
4. Make sure goals are understood by those
working to achieve them
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MOTIVATION THROUGH
PRAISE & CRITICISM
"I praise loudly. I blame softly." (Catherine the
Great, 1729-1796)
Praise and criticism are two of the single most
important functions of a supervisor.
People change their behavior when the
consequences change.
Increase the rewards, and improve the behavior.
Managers and business owners motivate others by
using praise and constructive criticism and
demotivated others by short-changing their
employees or giving rewards unfairly.
Praise
We all want the approval of our fellow human beings.
But praise must be given correctly to satisfy and
nurture a positive attitude.
An exercise that will prompt you to use praise more
often and more effectively than you have in the past
is to sit down and write a list of all the good things
about each of your employees or co-workers.
Your list for each one should contain at least 10
items. Make these items as specific as possible.
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If you do this, you’ll have no shortage of reasons to

praise people.
This exercise will make it easier to praise in an
approximate 10 to one ratio over criticism.
Techniques When Giving Praise
Be descriptive
The more detail you can build into your positive
comments, the greater the impact. Comments like
“good job” or “that looks good” can be perceived as a
token.
Take the time to tell an employee exactly why you
think he or she did a good job and why his or her
report looks good.
Put it in writing
When appropriate, put your praise in writing.
This can be anything from a short handwritten note
to a formal letter or memo that becomes part of the
employee’s file.
Putting praise in writing is long-lasting. An employee
can reread your note, show it to his or her family and
friends or display it proudly.
When you write a memo or letter praising an
employee, don’t forget to send copies to others who
may have been affected by the employee’s efforts.
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Make your praise timely

Don’t wait until an annual performance review to tell
an employee he or she is doing a good job.
Praise promptly when you see an employee-
exhibiting behavior you want to encourage.
A performance review should be a time to reinforce
the messages you have been giving an employee
(praise and constructive criticism) all year.
Praise regularly
One way to reinforce positive behavior in children is
to “catch them being good.”
A similar approach can be used for employees. Don’t
wait until an employee does something exceptionally
well to praise.
Make short, descriptive praise a regular part of your
interaction.
For example, if you notice an employee has arrived
early for work or is staying late to finish a project,
verbalize your appreciation.
If you see an employee making an extra effort to help
a customer or a fellow employee, acknowledge it.
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Criticism
Criticism can be a motivator if communicated
correctly.
It must be constructive criticism, which is difficult
for many people.
Not knowing how to criticize can result in
inappropriate behavior, resentment, or even
bitterness on the part of the employee.
Here are some guidelines.
Solving problems
Discuss how to avoid the same mistake again instead
of berating someone for what has already happened.
Avoid personal attacks
Concentrate on behavior, not personalities.
Describe in detail the behavior you expect from the
employee.
Ask for agreement
Seek genuine agreement for the changes you’ve
described.
Encourage a desire to perform better the next time.
Act promptly once, then put them
aside
Rehashing old problems will seem more like
persecution than constructive criticism.
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Discuss problems in private

Unlike praise, where a public display is often
appropriate, criticism should be delivered in private.
Whenever possible, avoid embarrassing an employee.
Be positive
Encourage the employee by expressing your
confidence that the next time the job will be done
properly.
Don’t mix praise and criticism
If only confuses the employee and dilutes the force of
both.
Praise when deserved, criticize when necessary.
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Case Study:
Margo likes her job with computers less and less
with time. One reason is the way her supervisor
treats her, always finding fault.
The other day he yelled at her in front of other
employees for taking so much time to learn the
basics of new software. She feels much better about
the way she’s treated at night school.
When she recently made a mess in the lab, the
instructor pulled her aside and very patiently
explained how to do her exercises while cleaning up
at every step.
She looked forward to her next lab session.
When she neatly and completed her assignment, her
instructor told her exactly why he was proud of her
work.
110
PROBLEM-SOLVING &
DECISION-MAKING
“A problem is a chance for you to do your best.” -
Duke Ellington
Much of what managers and supervisors do is solve

problems and make decisions.
New managers and supervisors, in particular, often
make decisions and solve problems by reacting to
them.
They are under the gun, stressed, and very short of
time.
111
Consequently, when they encounter a new problem

or decision they must make, they react with a
decision that seemed to work before.
It's easy with this approach to get stuck in a circle of
solving the same problem.
Therefore, as a new manager or supervisor, get used
to an organized approach to problem-solving and
decision-making.
Not all problems can be solved and decisions made
by the following rational approach.
However, the following basic guidelines will get you
started.
Don't be intimidated by the length of the list of
guidelines.
After you've practiced them a few times, they'll
become second nature to you - enough that you can
deepen and enrich them to suit your needs.
It might be more of your nature to view a "problem"
as an "opportunity."
Therefore, you might substitute "problem" for
"opportunity" in the following guidelines.
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SIMPLE PROCESS FOR PROBLEM-

SOLVING AND DECISION-MAKING
Problem-solving and decision-making are critical
skills for business and life. Problem-solving often
involves decision-making, and it is crucial for
management and leadership.
There are processes and techniques to improve
decision-making and the quality of decisions.
Decision-making is more natural to certain
personalities, so these people should focus more on
improving the quality of their decisions.
People who are less natural decision-makers often
make quality assessments but need to be more
decisive in acting upon the appraisals made.
Problem-solving and decision-making are closely
linked, and each requires creativity in identifying
and developing options, where the brainstorming
technique is helpful.
Good decision-making requires a mixture of skills:
creative development and identification of options,
clarity of judgment, firmness of decision, and
implementation.
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DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Here are some methods for effective decision-
making and problem-solving:
First, a simple step-by-step process for effective
decision-making and problem-solving.
1. Define and clarify the issue - does it warrant
action? If so, now? Is the matter urgent,
necessary, or both?
2. Gather all the facts and understand their
causes.
3. Think about or brainstorm possible options
and solutions.
4. Consider and compare the pros and cons of
each option - consult if necessary - it
probably will be.
5. Select the best option - avoid vagueness or a
'foot in both camps' compromise.
6. Explain your decision to those involved and
affected, and follow up to ensure proper and
effective implementation.
Two decision-making maxims will help to reinforce
the above decision-making process as to whether
related to problem-solving or not:
"We know what happens to people who stay in
the middle of the road. They get run down." -
Aneurin Bevan
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JFDI - Just Frigging Do it (polite version). The

decision-maker’s motto. There are usually several
correct answers when you face a complex decision.
When you've found the best solution, you can find
and get on with it, make it work, and it most
probably will.
PROS AND CONS DECISION-

MAKING METHOD
Another simple process for decision-making is the
pros and cons list.
Some decisions are a simple matter of whether to
make a change or not, such as moving, taking a new
job, buying something, selling something, replacing
something, etc.
Other decisions involve several options and are
concerned more with how to do something, involving
many choices.
Use the brainstorming process to identify and
develop options for decision-making and problem-
solving.
First, you will need a separate sheet for each
identified option.
On each sheet, write the option concerned, and then
beneath the headings ' pros' and 'cons.'
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Many decisions involve selecting whether to go

ahead or not, to change or not; in these cases, you
need only one sheet.
Then, write down as many effects and implications of
the particular option that you (and others if
appropriate) can think of, placing each in the
relevant column.
If helpful, 'weight' each factor by giving it a score of
three or five points (e.g., five being significant and
one being of minor significance).
When you have listed all the points, you can think of
the option concerned. Compare the number or total
score of the items/effects/factors between the two
columns.
It will provide a reflection and indication of the
overall attractiveness and benefit of the option
concerned.
If you have scored each item, you will be able to
arrive at a total score, the difference between the
pros and cons column totals. The more the difference
between the total pros and cons, the more attractive
the option.
If you have several options and have completed a
pros and cons sheet, compare the attractiveness -
points difference between the pros and cons for each
option.
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The most positive difference is the most attractive

option.
N.B. If you don't like the answer that the decision-
making sheet(s), it means you haven't included all
the cons - especially the emotional ones, or you
haven't scored the factors consistently, so re-visit
the sheet(s) concerned.
You will find that writing things down in this way
will help you to see things more clearly, become
more objective and detached, which will help you to
make clearer decisions.
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EXAMPLE OF PROS AND CONS

WEIGHTED DECISION-MAKING
Decision Option: Should I Buy A New Car?
pros cons
cost outlay will mean
better comfort (3)
making sacrifices (5)
lower fuel costs (3) higher insurance (3)
time and hassle to choose

lower servicing costs (4)
and buy it (2)
disposal or sale of the old

better for family use (3)
car (2)
big decisions like this scare

better reliability (5)
and upset me (4)
it'll be a load off my mind
(2)
total 6 pros, total score total 5 cons, total score

20 16
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Based on the pros and cons, and the weighting

applied, in the above example there's a clear overall
quantifiable benefit attached to the decision to go
ahead and buy a new car.
Notice that it's even possible to include 'intangible'
emotional issues in the pros and cons comparison,
for example 'it'll be a load off my mind', and
'decisions scare and upset me'.
Decision-making on a pros and cons list like this
helps remove the emotion which blocks clear
thinking and decision-making - you can now see the
wood for the trees again, and make a confident
decision.
BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUE FOR

PROBLEM-SOLVING, TEAM-
BUILDING, AND CREATIVE
PROCESS
Brainstorming with a group of people is a powerful
technique.
Brainstorming creates new ideas, solves problems,
motivates, and develops teams.
Brainstorming motivates because it involves
members of a team in bigger management issues,
and it gets a team working together.
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However, brainstorming is not simply a random

activity.
Brainstorming needs to be structured and follows
brainstorming rules.
The brainstorming process is described below, for
which you will need a flip-chart or alternative.
This is crucial as Brainstorming needs to involve the
team, which means that everyone must be able to see
what's happening.
Brainstorming places a significant burden on the
facilitator to manage the process, people's
involvement, and sensitivities, and then to manage
the follow-up actions.
Use Brainstorming well and you will see excellent
results in improving the organization, performance,
and developing the team.
BRAINSTORMING PROCESS
1. Define and agree on the objective.
2. Brainstorm ideas and suggestions having agreed
on a time limit.
3. Categorize/condense/combine/refine.
4. Assess/analyze effects or results.
5. Prioritize options/rank list as appropriate.
6. Agree on action and timescale.
7. Control and monitor follow-up.
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Plan and Agree on the

Brainstorming Aim
Ensure everyone participating in the brainstorming
session understands and agrees to the aim of the
session (e.g., to formulate a new job description for a
customer services clerk; to formulate a series of new
promotional activities for the next trading year; to
suggest ways of improving cooperation between the
sales and service departments; to identify costs
saving opportunities that will not reduce
performance or morale, etc.).
Keep the brainstorming objective simple. Allocate a
time limit.
It will enable you to keep the random brainstorming
activity under control and on track.
Manage the Actual Brainstorming
Activity
Brainstorming enables people to suggest ideas at
random.
Your job as facilitator is to encourage everyone to
participate, to dismiss nothing, and to prevent others
from pouring scorn on the wilder suggestions (some
of the best ideas are initially the daftest ones - added
to which people won't participate if their suggestions
are criticized).
121
During the random collection of ideas, the facilitator

must record every suggestion on the flip-chart.
Use Blue-Tack or sticky tape to hang the sheets
around the walls.
At the end of the time limit or when ideas have been
exhausted, use different colored pens to categorize,
group, connect and link the random ideas.
Condense and refine the ideas by making new
headings or lists. You can diplomatically combine or
include the weaker ideas within other themes to
avoid dismissing or rejecting contributions
(remember brainstorming is about team building
and motivation too - you don't want it to have the
reverse effect on some people).
With the group, assess, evaluate and analyze the
effects and validity of the ideas or the list. Develop
and prioritize the ideas into a more finished list or
set of actions or options.
Implement the Actions Agreed upon
from the Brainstorming
Agree on what the next actions will be. Agree on a
timescale, and who's responsible. After the session
circulates notes, monitor, and give feedback.
It's crucial to develop a clear and positive outcome
so that people feel their effort and contribution was
worthwhile.
122
When people see that their efforts have resulted in

action and change, they will be motivated and keen
to help again.
BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUES FOR GENERATING

GREAT IDEAS
123
PROBLEM-SOLVING GUIDELINES
1. DEFINE THE PROBLEM
This is often where people struggle. They react to
what they think the problem is.
Instead, seek to understand more about why you
think there's a problem.
Defining the problem
(with input from yourself and others)
Ask yourself and others, the following questions:
1. What can you see that causes you to think
there's a problem?
2. Where is it happening?
3. How is it happening?
4. When is it happening?
5. With whom is it happening? (HINT: Don't jump
to "Who is causing the problem?" When we're
stressed, blaming is often one of our first
reactions. To be an effective manager, you need
to address issues more than people.)
6. Why is it happening?
7. Write down a five-sentence description of the
problem in terms of "The following should be
happening, but isn't " or "The following is
happening and should be: " As much as possible,
124
be specific in your description, including what is

happening, where, how, with whom, and why.
(It may be helpful at this point to use a variety of
research methods. See Research Methods.)
Defining complex problems
If the problem still seems overwhelming, break it
down by repeating steps a-f until you have
descriptions of several related problems.
Verifying your understanding of the
problems
It helps a great deal to verify your problem analysis
for conferring with a peer or someone else.
Prioritize the problems
If you discover that you are looking at several related
problems, then prioritize which ones you should
address first.
Note the difference between "important" and
"urgent" problems.
Often, what we consider to be important problems to
consider are just urgent problems. Important
problems deserve more attention.
For example, if you're continually answering
"urgent" phone calls, then you've probably got a
more "important" problem and that's to design a
system that screens and prioritizes your phone calls.
Understand your role in the problem
125
Your role in the problem can greatly influence how

you perceive the role of others.
For example, if you're very stressed out, it'll probably
look like others are, too, or, you may resort too
quickly to blaming and reprimanding others.
Or, if you are feeling very guilty about your role in
the problem, you may ignore the accountability of
others.
2. LOOK AT POTENTIAL CAUSES FOR

THE PROBLEM
It's amazing how much you don't know about what
you don't know.
Therefore, in this phase, it's critical to get input from
other people who notice the problem and who are
affected by it.
It's often useful to collect input from other
individuals one at a time (at least at first).
Otherwise, people tend to be inhibited about offering
their impressions of the real causes of problems.
Write down your opinions and what you've heard
from others.
Regarding what you think might be performance
problems associated with an employee, it's often
useful to seek advice from a peer or your supervisor
to verify your impression of the problem.
126
Write down a description of the cause of the problem

in terms of what is happening, where, when, how,
with whom, and why.
3. IDENTIFY ALTERNATIVES FOR

APPROACHES TO RESOLVE THE
PROBLEM
At this point, it's useful to keep others involved
(unless you're facing a personal and/or employee
performance problem).
Brainstorm for solutions to the problem. Very simply
put, brainstorming is collecting as many ideas as
possible, then screening them to find the best idea.
It's critical when collecting the ideas to not pass any
judgment on the ideas -- just write them down as
you hear them.
(A wonderful set of skills used to identify the
underlying cause of issues is Systems Thinking.)
4. SELECT AN APPROACH TO RESOLVE

THE PROBLEM
When selecting the best approach, consider:
Which approach is the most likely to solve the
problem in the long term?
Which approach is the most realistic to accomplish
for now?
127
Do you have the resources?

Are they affordable?
Do you have enough time to implement the approach?
What is the extent of risk associated with each
alternative?
(The nature of this step, in particular, in the problem-
solving process, is why problem-solving and
decision-making are highly integrated.)
5. PLAN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF

THE BEST ALTERNATIVE (THIS IS YOUR
ACTION PLAN)
Carefully consider "What will the situation look like
when the problem is solved?"
What steps should be taken to implement the best
alternative to solving the problem?
What systems or processes should be changed in
your organization, for example, a new policy or
procedure?
Don't resort to solutions where someone is "just
going to try harder".
How will you know if the steps are being followed or
not? (these are your indicators of the success of your
plan)
What resources will you need in terms of people,
money, and facilities?
128
How much time will you need to implement the

solution?
Write a schedule that includes the start and stop
times, and when you expect to see certain indicators
of success.
Who will primarily be responsible for ensuring the
implementation of the plan?
Write down the answers to the above questions and
consider this as your action plan.
Communicate the plan to those who will involve in
implementing it and, at least, to your immediate
supervisor.
(An important aspect of this step in the problem-
solving process is continual observation and
feedback.)
6. MONITOR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE

PLAN
Monitor the indicators of success:
Are you seeing what you would expect from the
indicators?
Will the plan be done according to the schedule? If
the plan is not being followed as expected, then
consider:
Was the plan realistic?
129
Are there sufficient resources to accomplish the plan

on schedule?
Should more priority be placed on various aspects of
the plan?
Should the plan be changed?
7. VERIFY IF THE PROBLEM HAS BEEN

RESOLVED OR NOT
One of the best ways to verify if a problem has been
solved or not is to resume normal operations in the
organization.
Still, you should consider:
What changes should be made to avoid this type of
problem in the future? Consider changes to policies
and procedures, training, etc.
Lastly, consider "What did you learn from this
problem-solving?" Consider new knowledge,
understanding, and/or skills.
Consider writing a brief memo that highlights the
success of the problem-solving effort, and what you
learned as a result.
Share it with your supervisor, peers, and
subordinates.
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HANDLING PROBLEMS &

CONFLICTS
There was a time when employees could be told that
they should keep their problems at home when they
come to work.
Today, it is generally agreed that it is impossible to
separate a person’s personal life from the job.
An employee with personal problems may have his
job performance affected to the point where
productivity or quality of work drops.
A supervisor cannot avoid acting as counselor.
REACTING TO THE PROBLEM

EMPLOYEE
Below are ten ways to react to an employee who is
demanding, hostile and disruptive.
Place checks in the box opposite those you feel are
appropriate behavior for a supervisor.
Then, match your answers with those at the bottom
of the page.
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Remember, we are talking about your initial

reaction-not action that might be taken later.
 Stay cool. Let the employee express anger
without an immediate reaction on your part. -
True / False
 Let the employee know that you consider him
or her to be a problem. - True / False
 Challenge the employee with a firm
countenance. - True / False
 Consider the employee as objectively as
possible and refuse to take things personally. -
True / False
 Avoid the problem. Time will solve it. - True /
False
 Become distant and non-communicative. -
True / False
 Challenge the employee to stop giving you a
problem. - True / False
 Act uninterested and ignore the situation. -
True / False
 Get angry and give back the kind of behavior
you receive. - True / False
 In a calm manner say: "Let's talk in my office."
- True / False
Answer to the exercise:

1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T, 6. T, 7. T, 8. F, 9. T, 10. T.
132
EFFECTIVE TASKS
DELEGATION
“A manager is not a person who can do the work
better than his men; he is a person who can get
his men to do the work better than he can.” -
Fred Smith
The hallmark of good
supervision is effective
delegation.
A key aspect of leadership is
also delegation.
Task delegation will always be one of the most
important management skills - and one of the easiest
to get wrong.
WHAT IS DELEGATION?
“Delegation is primarily about entrusting others.
This means that they can act and initiate
independently; and that they assume responsibility
with you for certain tasks. ”(Blair 2005)
133
Derived from Latin, delegate means "to send from."

When delegating, you are sending the work "from
you” "to" someone else.
Hence, delegation is the process of assigning
responsibility for the performance of tasks to
someone else.
An effective manager is knowledgeable about the
strengths and weaknesses of his colleagues.
Employees are looked upon as members of a team;
each playing a significant role into getting a goal
accomplished.
Good delegation saves you time, develops your
people, grooms a successor, and motivates them.
A bad delegation will cause you frustration,
demotivates and confuses the other person, and fails
to achieve the task itself.
Here are the simple steps to follow if you want to get
delegation right, and the seven levels of delegation
freedom you can offer.
A simple delegation rule is the acronym SMART.
It's a quick checklist for proper delegation.
Delegated tasks must be Specific, Measurable,
Agreed upon, Realistic, and Time-bound.
If you can't check these points don't delegate it. If
you want to go one further, use SMARTER (same but
with Ethical and Recorded).
134
135
THE SEVEN LEVELS OF

DELEGATION
Delegation isn't just a matter of telling someone else
what to do.
There is a wide range of varying freedom that you
can confer on the other person.
The more experienced and reliable they are, the
more freedom you can give.
The more critical the task, the more cautious you
need to be about extending a lot of freedom,
especially if your job or reputation depends on
getting a good result.
Take care to choose the most appropriate style for
each situation.
1. "Wait to be told." or "Do exactly what I
say."
No delegation at all.
2. "Look into this and tell me what you
come up with. I'll decide."
This is asking for investigation and analysis but no
recommendation.
136
3. "Give me your recommendation, and

the other options with the pros and cons
of each. I'll let you know whether you can
go ahead."
Ask for analysis and recommendation, but you will
check the thinking before deciding.
4. "Decide and let me know your decision,
but wait for my go ahead."
The other person needs approval but is trusted to
judge the relative options.
5. "Decide and let me know your decision,
then go ahead unless I say not to."
Now the other person begins to control the action.
The subtle increase in responsibility saves time.
6. "Decide and take action, but let me
know what you did."
Saves more time. Allows a quicker reaction to wrong
decisions, not present in final level.
7. "Decide and take action. You need not
check back with me."
The most freedom that we can give to the other
person.
A high level of confidence is necessary, and needs
good controls to ensure mistakes are flagged.
137
Delegation is often very difficult for new supervisors,

particularly if they have had to scramble to start the
organization or start a major new product or service
themselves.
Many managers want to remain comfortable, making
the same decisions they have always made.
They believe they can do a better job themselves.
They don't want to risk losing any of their power and
stature (ironically, they do lose these if they don't
learn to delegate effectively).
Unless you delegate tasks to your subordinates, your
team will become inefficient and demoralized.
The hallmark of good supervision is effective
delegation.
A key aspect of leadership is also delegation. Derived
from Latin, delegate means "to send from."
When delegating you are sending the work "from"
you "to" someone else.
Hence, delegation is the process of assigning
responsibility for the performance of tasks to
someone else.
Supervision on the other hand, is the skill of
ensuring that they responsibly complete the task.
The skill of delegation is to do it in such a way that
there is good reason to believe that they will be
successfully completed.
138
Skilled delegation, therefore, is the starting point of

effective supervision.
Good Easier
Delegation  Supervision
Now Later
However, there are basic approaches to delegation

that, with practice, become the backbone of effective
supervision and development.
139
ADVANTAGES OF TASK DELEGATION

1. Positive aspects of delegation include:
2. Higher efficiency
3. Increased motivation
4. Develops the skills of your team
5. Better distribution of work through the group
HOW TO DELEGATE
1. Identify a suitable person for the task.
2. Prepare the person. Explain the task clearly.
Make sure that you are understood. Leave room
in the task description for ingenuity/initiative.
3. Make sure the person has the necessary
authority to do the job properly.
4. Keep in touch with the person for support and
monitoring progress. Do not get too close.
Accept alternative approaches.
5. Praise/acknowledge a job well done.
Responsibility
Even though you have delegated a task to someone
else, you are still responsible for making sure the
task is done on time and correctly.
If the task fails, you cannot point the finger. You
delegated. It is your fault. You may have picked the
wrong person for the job.
140
Authority
The amount of authority you delegate is up to you,
although it should be enough to complete the task.
It is no good giving Bob the task of opening the safe
every morning at 10 am if you do not give him the
authority required to do it.
Bob needs the key to open the safe.
Tasks you should not delegate
Some aspects of leadership are sensitive and should
not be delegated.
For example:
i. Hiring
ii. Firing
iii. Pay issues
iv. Policy
Your Task after Delegating
1. Plan - goals, meetings, tasks
2. Direct - your team, and keep them on track
3. Encourage - boost morale
141
THE 9 STEPS TO SUCCESSFUL

DELEGATION
1. Define the Task
Confirm in your mind that the task is
suitable to be delegated. Does it meet the
criteria for delegating?
2. Select the Individual
What are your reasons for delegating to this person?
What are they going to get out of it?
What are you going to get out of it?
3. Assess Ability & Training Needs
Is the other person capable of doing the task?
Do they understand what needs to be done?
If not, you can't delegate.
4. Explain the Reasons
You must explain why the job or responsibility is
being delegated. And, why that person?
What is it importance and relevance?
Where does it fit in the overall scheme of things?
5. State Required Results
What must be achieved?
142
Clarify understanding by getting feedback from the

other person.
How will the task be measured? Make sure they
know how you intend to decide that the job is being
successfully done.
6. Consider Resources Required
Discuss and agree on what is required to get the job
done.
Consider people, location, premises, equipment,
money, materials, and other related activities and
services.
7. Agree on Deadlines
When must the job be finished?
Or if an ongoing duty, when are the review dates?
When are the reports due?
And, if the task is complex and has parts or stages,
what are the priorities?
At this point you may need to confirm understanding
with the other person of the previous points, getting
ideas and interpretation.
As well as showing you that the job can be done, this
helps to reinforce commitment.
Methods of checking and controlling must be agreed
upon with the other person.
143
Failing to agree on this in advance will cause this

monitoring to seem like interference or lack of trust.
8. Support & Communicate
Think about who else needs to know what's going on,
and inform them.
Involve the other person in considering this so they
can see beyond the issue at hand.
Do not leave the person to inform your peers of their
new responsibility.
Warn the person about any awkward matters of
politics or protocol. Inform your boss if the task is
important and of sufficient profile.
9. Feedback on Results
It is essential to let the person know how they are
doing, and whether they have achieved their aims.
If not, you must review with them why things did not
go to plan, and deal with the problems.
You must absorb the consequences of failure, and
pass on the credit for success.
144
9 STEPS TO ACCOMPLISH
DELEGATION:
1. Delegate the whole task to one person
This gives the person the responsibility and
increases their motivation.
2. Select the right person
Assess the skills and capabilities of subordinates and
assign the task to the most appropriate one.
3. Specify your preferred results clearly
Give information on what, why, when, who and
where.
You might leave the "how" to them.
Write this information down.
4. Delegate responsibility and authority --
assign the task, not the method to
accomplish it
Let the subordinate complete the task in the manner
they choose, as long as the results are what the
supervisor specifies.
Let the employee have strong input as to the
completion date of the project.
145
Note that you may not even know how to complete

the task yourself -- this is often the case with higher
levels of management.
5. Ask the employee to summarize back to
you, their impressions of the project and
the results you prefer
6. Get ongoing non-intrusive feedback
about progress on the project
This is a good reason to continue to get weekly,
written status reports from all direct reports.
Reports should cover what they did last week, plan
to do next week and any potential issues.
Regular employee meetings provide this ongoing
feedback, as well.
7. Maintain open lines of communication
Don't hover over the subordinate, but sense what
they're doing and support their checking in with you
along the way.
8. If you're not satisfied with the progress,
don't take the project back
Continue to work with the employee and ensure they
perceive the project as their responsibility.
9. Evaluate and reward performance
Evaluate results more than methods. Address
insufficient performance and reward successes.
146
See the next major section, "Employee Performance

Management."
POOR DELEGATION
Signs that you are not borrowing enough brains or
that your delegation is failing include:
1. Team Motivation / Morale is down
2. You are always working late
3. Your team is confused / conflicting / tense
4. You get questions about delegated tasks too
often
Not delegating a task because you think that you
would do it better than anyone else is a poor excuse.
Doing this will just make life difficult for you.
147
EMPLOYEE
PERFORMANCE
MANAGEMENT
Everyone has peak performance potential - you
just need to know where they are coming from
and meet them there. - Anonymous
ADDRESSING PERFORMANCE ISSUES

Note that if your organization's policies about
performance management indicate a specific
procedure for handling performance issues, that
procedure should be followed very carefully.
Otherwise, a court may interpret your official
policies to be modified by how you handled a
performance issue and you may lose protection from
your related policies in court.
148
1. Performance issues should always be

based on behaviors that you see, not on
characteristics of the employee's
personality
2. Convey performance issues to
employees when you see first see the
issues!
Don't wait until the performance review! Worse yet,
don't ignore the behaviors in case they "go away."
3. When you first convey a performance
issue to an employee, say what you
noticed and would like to see instead
Be specific about what you saw that you consider to
be a performance problem.
Ask the employee for feedback.
Ask the employee if there's any special training or
more resources they need to do their job.
Explore if the job configuration would probably
result in most people failing, and if so, the job needs
reconfiguration.
Tell them that you want the behavior to improve.
If they react strongly and claim they will quit, give
them a day to think it over.
In any case, remind them that you support them in
their role.
149
4. Consider special circumstances

You can usually fire someone if they committed
certain gross acts, such as theft, blatant
insubordination, or a major impropriety, e.g., telling
information to competitors or spreading confidential
information about customers, etc.
However, if there is poor performance or chronic
absenteeism because of potential verified alcoholism
or depression, it's best to consult an expert to deal
with this situation.)
5. Make notes about the first meeting and
its results, and keep them in a file for
yourself
This note may come in handy later on if the
performance problem persists. (In the case of a
corporation, you might mention the situation to your
board.
The board will likely be a precious and objective
asset in dealing with this situation, especially if
things with the employee get worse.)
6. If the problem occurs again over the
next month or two, immediately issue
them a written warning
In the memo, specify what you saw, mention the
previous meeting and its date, say the behaviors
have not improved, and warn them that if this occurs
150
again over some period (e.g., the next month), they

will be promptly terminated.
Meet with them to provide them the memo. If you
are convinced that the employee is trying hard, but
can't improve, consider placing him or her elsewhere
in the organization.
Attempt to have this meeting on other than on a
Friday. Otherwise, employees are left to ruminate
about the situation without ready access to you for at
least three days. (In the case of corporations, update
the board.)
7. On the third occurrence, consider firing
the employee.
151
SETTING GOALS
New Managers and Supervisors
Often Lack Perspective on the
Performance of Employees
One of the common problems that new managers
and supervisors experience is no clear, strong sense
of whether their employees are being effective or not.
The first step toward solving this problem is to
establish clear performance goals.
Some people have a strong negative reaction toward
setting goals because they fear goals as "the law"
that must be maintained and never broken. Some
people fear they will not achieve their goals. Others
have disdain for goals because goals seem to take the
"heart" out of their work.
Advantages of Goals
 Despite the negative views that one can have
about goals, they hold certain strong
advantages in the workplace. They:
 Provide clear direction to both supervisor and
employee
 Form a common frame of reference around
which the supervisor and employee can
effectively communicate
152
 Indicate success, and can facilitate a strong

sense of fulfillment for the employee and
supervisor
 Help clarify the roles of the supervisor and
employee.
Goals for Performance Gaps, Growth
Gaps, Opportunity Gaps and
Training Gaps
Goals can be established for a variety of reasons, for
example, to overcome performance problems, qualify
for future jobs and roles, take advantage of sudden
opportunities that arise and/or give direction to
training plans.
Performance gaps are identified during the employee
performance management process.
Ideally, performance gaps are addressed by
performance improvement plans. In these plans, goals
are established to improve performance, and may
include, for example, increased effort on the part of the
employee, support from the supervisor, and certain
training and resources to assist the employee in their
development.
Dedicated employees can greatly appreciate having
specific performance goals for them to achieve in order
to keep their jobs, verify their competence to their
supervisor and accomplish overall professional
development.
153
Growth gaps are identified during career planning.

Employees perceive certain areas of knowledge and
skills that they would like to accomplish in order to
qualify for certain future roles and positions.
Employees often appreciate having clear-cut goals that
mark what they need to do to advance in their careers.
Opportunity gaps are identified when a sudden
opportunity arises for the employee. If the employee is
highly interested in taking advantage of the
opportunity, then he or she will appreciate knowing
exactly what they need to accomplish (what goals they
need to achieve) to grab the opportunity.
Training gaps are identified when hiring a new
employee, during employee performance management
or career planning.
Gaps are usually in terms of areas of knowledge, skills
or abilities.
Training plans can be designed with clear-cut training
goals to give direction to the employee and trainer.
Whatever the type of goal, it's critical that the
employee have strong ownership and commitment to
achieving the goal.
154
Goals Can Be Agreeable to

Supervisors and Employees
These views can be addressed, largely by:
a) ensuring that employees are strongly involved
in identifying them,
b) goals are conveyed as guidelines and they can
be missed as long as there is a clear explanation
for missing the goals before they are missed, and
c) the goals are "SMARTER" (more on this
below).
When setting goals with employees, strive to design
and describe them to be "SMARTER". This acronym
is described in this guide, in a subsection listed
above, and stands for:
1. Specific
2. Measurable
3. Acceptable
4. Realistic
5. Timely
6. Extending Capabilities
7. Rewarding
If goals seem insurmountable to the employee, then
break goals down into smaller goals, sub-goals or
objectives. Each of these should be SMARTER, as well.
155
Suggested Topics for Reflection and

Discussion
 What is one of the common problems that new
supervisors experience regarding employee
performance management?
 What is the first step toward overcoming this
problem?
 Why do some people dislike the use of goals?
 Name at least three of the four advantages of
using goals.
 What are the four types of gaps that goals can be
used to address?
 What is a performance gap? Growth gap?
Opportunity gap? Training gap?
 What can be done so that supervisors and
employees have more "buy-in" to goals?
 What does the acronym SMARTER mean -- that
is, what does each letter stand for?
156
CONDUCTING PERFORMANCE
APPRAISALS/REVIEWS
Yearly performance reviews are critical.
Organizations are hard-pressed to find good reasons
why they can't dedicate an hour-long meeting at
least once a year to ensure they achieve the mutual
needs of the employee and organization.
Performance reviews help supervisors feel more
honest in their relationships with their subordinates
and feel better about themselves in their supervisory
roles.
Subordinates are assured a clear understanding of
their organization's expectations of them, their
strengths, areas for development, and a solid sense
of relationship with their supervisor.
Avoiding performance issues ultimately decreases
morale, the credibility of the management, and the
organization's overall effectiveness and wastes more
of management's time.
157
CONDUCT THE FOLLOWING

ACTIVITIES
1. Design a legally valid performance
review process; consider these legal
requirements of the performance review
process:
Patricia King, in her book, Performance Planning and
Appraisal, states that the law requires that
performance appraisals be:
 job-related and valid;
 based on a thorough analysis of the job;
 standardized for all employees;
 not biased against any race, color, sex, religion,
or nationality;
 performed by people who have adequate
knowledge of the person or job.
Be sure to build in the process a route for recourse if
an employee feels he has been dealt with unfairly in
an appraisal process, e.g., the employee can go to his
supervisor's supervisor.
The process is to be described clearly in a personnel
policy.
158
2. Design a standard form for

performance appraisals
and include the name of the employee, date the
performance form was completed, dates specifying
the time interval over which the employee is being
evaluated, performance dimensions (include
responsibilities from the job description, any
assigned goals from the strategic plan, along with
needed skills, such as communications,
administration, etc.), a rating system (e.g., poor,
average, good, excellent), space for commentary for
each dimension, a final section for overall
commentary, a final section for action plans to
address improvements, and lines for signatures of
the supervisor and employee.
Signatures may either specify that the employee
accepts the appraisal or has seen it, depending on
wording on the form.
3. Schedule the first performance
review for six months after the
employee starts employment
Schedule another six months later, and then every
year on the employee's anniversary date.
159
4. Initiate the performance review

Tell the employee that you're initiating a scheduled
performance review. Remind them of what's
involved in the process. Schedule a meeting about
two weeks out.
5. Have the employee suggest any
updates to the job description and
provide written input to the
appraisal
(Note that by now, employees should have received
the job descriptions and goals well in advance of the
review, i.e., a year before.
The employee should also be familiar with the
performance appraisal procedure and form.)
Have them record their input to the appraisal
concurrent to your records. Have them record their
input on their own sheets (their feedback will be
combined on the official form later on in the process).
You and the employee can exchange each of your
written feedback in the upcoming review meeting.
160
6. Record your input to the appraisal

-- always reference the job
description and associated formal
goals for basis of review
Be sure you are familiar with the job requirements
and have sufficient contact with the employee to be
making valid judgments. Don't comment on the
employee's race, sex, religion, nationality, or a
handicap or veteran status.
Record major accomplishments, exhibited strengths
and weaknesses according to the dimensions on the
appraisal form, and suggest actions and training or
development to improve performance.
Use examples of behaviors wherever you can in the
appraisal to help avoid counting on hearsay. Always
address behaviors, not characteristics of
personalities.
The best way to follow this guideline is to consider
what you saw with your eyes. Be sure to address only
the behaviors of that employee, rather than the
behaviors of other employees.
7. Hold the performance appraisal
meeting
State the meeting's goals of exchanging feedback and
coming to action plans, where necessary.
161
In the meeting, let the employee speak first and give

their input. Respond with your input. Then discuss
areas where you disagree.
Attempt to avoid defensiveness; admitting how you
feel at present, helps a great deal.
Discuss behaviors, not personalities.
Avoid final terms such as "always," "never," etc.
Encourage participation and be supportive.
Come to terms on actions, where possible. Try to end
the meeting on a positive note.
8. Update and finalize the
performance appraisal form
Add agreed-to commentary onto the form.
Note that if the employee wants to add attach
written input to the final form, he or she should be
able to do so.
The supervisor signs the form and asks the employee
to sign it. The form and its action plans are reviewed
every few months, usually during one-on-one
meetings with the employee.
9. Note that if the supervisor has
been doing a good job supervising,
then nothing should be surprising to
the employee during the appraisal
162
SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR REFLECTION AND

DISCUSSION
 What are some of the ill effects of not doing
regular performance reviews?
 What are some of the law-related requirements
of performance reviews? (HINT: Think about the
points made by Patricia King in Performance
Planning and Appraisal -- these points were
included in your reading for this learning
module.)
 What items of information should be included in
the standard performance appraisal form?
 When should performance reviews be
conducted?
 What is the relationship between the
performance review and the job description?
 What should not be discussed in the
performance review and discussion?
 Always address employee _____, not
characteristics of their personalities.
 What is the best guideline to ensure that the
guideline in question 7 is always followed?
163
 What are some guidelines for carrying out the

performance appraisal meeting/discussion?
 Nothing should be a surprise for the employee
in the performance review meeting when
discussing employee's performance. Why is this
true?
164
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
SUPERVISOR GUIDE
Purpose of Performance
Management
Performance management isn’t simply a once-a-year
evaluation. Good performance management is a
continuous, positive collaboration between you and
your employees all year round.
Most employees want to be successful contributors.
They want to know what is expected of them and
how they can most effectively achieve those
expectations. As a supervisor, it is your job to:
 Communicate expectations clearly
 Provide employees with the tools, training, and
information they need to succeed
 Offer regular, timely, and constructive feedback
 Be reasonable and fair when evaluating
performance
 Recognize successes and achievements
 Address performance issues in a proactive and
timely manner to resolve them before they
become significant
165
Good performance management doesn’t just help the

employee. It can make your job a lot easier and help
you build a high-functioning, productive team.
Other benefits of effective performance management
include:
 Motivated and engaged employees
 Increased retention of good employees
 Reduced costs related to recruiting and training
new employees
 Less time dealing with corrective action issues
 Positive departmental reputation as a great
place to work
If you have any questions about performance
management, talk to your HR consultant.
Hire for Success
Performance management starts before the
employee is even hired. Hiring the right person for
the position makes performance management much
easier.
And to hire the right person you need a clearly
defined position. Make sure you have an up-to-date
job description.
When filling a vacant position, consider whether
departmental needs have changed since the last time
you hired for the position.
166
Also consider the role the position plays within the

organization and what success would look like for
the position.
When assessing candidates for the open position, ask:
 Does the candidate meet the qualifications for
the position?
 Does the candidate possess the necessary
competencies to perform this job? Or, if not, can
the candidate be trained easily after hire?
 Is the candidate well suited for the University’s
and your team’s work environment and able to
uphold its institutional values?
New Employees
During an employee’s first week on the job, set the
individual up for success in this new role by:
 Reviewing the job description and performance
expectations with the employee
 Explaining how the employee’s work
contributes to departmental and University
goals
 Designing a plan to help the employee acquire
all necessary competencies
 Explaining how and when you will provide
performance feedback
167
PROBATIONARY OR TRIAL SERVICE

PERIOD
New classified employees — or current classified
employees moving to a new position — are usually
required to serve a probationary or trial service
period. The length of this period is determined by
the employee’s collective bargaining agreement or
employment program.
During the probationary or trial service period,
closely monitor and provide feedback on the
employee’s work performance and behavior. Provide
coaching and counseling as needed and document it.
If you believe the employee isn’t meeting the
requirements for the position, contact your HR
consultant to determine if the probationary or trial
service period should be ended.
While there is no corrective action “just cause”
standard for ending a probationary period
appointment, there are procedures that must be
followed and dates by which action must be taken.
Professional staff doesn’t have a probationary or trial
service period; instead, they serve on an “at will”
basis, which means that their appointment can be
modified or ended for any reason that does not
unlawfully discriminate against the employee or
violate public policy.
168
Reviewing the Previous Year

Performance reviews typically take place annually.
The review looks back, assessing the employee’s
performance since the last review.
The annual performance review includes a written
evaluation of your employee’s work performance
and a one-on-one conversation to discuss the
evaluation.
Your department’s review schedule dictates when
this annual performance review is due.
Be balanced, honest, and fair in your review of the
employee’s performance. Focus on the work, not the
person.
Acknowledge really good work just as readily as
work that needs improvement. It can be easy to take
strong performance for granted and only point out
problems.
Of course, if an employee falls short of a goal,
document that. But if there is a good reason for that
failure — some circumstance that justifies the
missed goal — explain that as well.
169
THE WRITTEN EVALUATION

Evaluation Forms
Your team may consist of professional staff, classified
staff covered by one or more collective bargaining
agreements, classified staff covered by civil service
rules, and temporary employees.
While performance management principles are the
same for all employees, you may have different
evaluation tools based on the employment program.
We offer some sample evaluation forms on the right
side of this page for campus employees, but your
department may use an evaluation form tailored to
the needs of the department and the type of work
being evaluated. Check with your department
leadership.
The medical centers have a standardized process
through Workday. See the link to the Performance
Review Resources Portal on the right side of this
page.
If you are evaluating a contract-classified employee,
be sure that your evaluation form covers the items
required by the employee’s collective bargaining
agreement.
170
If you have questions about the collective bargaining

agreement requirements, check with your
department leadership or HR consultant.
To fully evaluate your employee’s performance, it
may be useful to solicit performance feedback from
others (such as faculty, students, clients, and peers)
who know the employee’s performance.
Ideally, your employee should participate by
suggesting people who can provide such feedback, in
addition to others that you choose.
A written evaluation is required for your
professional staff employees to receive a merit pay
increase.
Employee Input
Give the employee a copy of the performance review
form you are using and make sure they understand
how the form is used.
If your department doesn’t already require that staff
complete self-evaluations, consider asking your
employees to provide written input on how they
think they performed over the past 12 months.
This input should address achievements and
obstacles as well as goals achieved or not achieved.
The employee’s input can help you remember
specific performance details as well as provide
171
insight on how you can best support them in the

coming 12 months.
The Conversation
Remember that for many employees, the face-to-face
performance review is the most stressful work
conversation they’ll have all year.
For supervisors, the discussion can be just as tense.
Let the employee see that you are committed to
helping them succeed at their job.
If you and your employee have been communicating
openly and frequently throughout the review period,
nothing in the evaluation should come as a surprise
to the employee.
Make sure the employee has the opportunity to
provide input before the review is finalized.
After you and the employee have discussed the
evaluation, both of you must sign the form. If the
employee is hesitant to sign the evaluation because
they do not agree with it, inform the employee that
their signature simply means that they have read the
document.
The employee is allowed to write a letter of response,
detailing their view of their performance and how it
differs from your evaluation.
The evaluation must be stored in the employee’s
departmental personnel file for three years.
172
Planning for the upcoming year

Now that you have evaluated and discussed the just-
completed performance review period, it is time to
look forward to the next year.
Designing an employee’s goals should be a joint
effort between you and the employee. Allow the
employee a voice in their performance management.
Encourage them to advocate for their professional
growth.
Set Goals
Here are some helpful tips for writing goals:
 Set goals, not for the employee. Employees who
help set their own goals are more motivated to
achieve them.
 Use the SMART formula for setting goals:
Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and
Time-bound.
 Tie individual goals to departmental goals.
Doing so helps the employee see the importance
of their work and increases their job satisfaction.
 Assess the employee’s competencies. Does the
employee need to develop any skills or
knowledge to successfully perform their job?
 Consider the employee’s long-range
professional goals. Do this year’s goals help the
employee reach their long-range goals?
173
Document
Document the employee’s goals, including any
needed training and professional development.
Once completed, be sure the employee has a copy.
Both you and the employee will want to refer to the
document throughout the coming months.
Your department may have a form for documenting
the goals — mostly likely within the annual
performance review form.
If your department does not have a method for
documenting goals, we offer sample annual
performance review forms on the right side of this
page that includes goal planning sections.
SUPPORTING THROUGHOUT THE

YEAR
A lot can happen in a year — for better or worse —
so proactively supporting your employee in their
goals can make all the difference in their work
performance.
Stay Connected
Meet with your employee regularly throughout the
year, formally or informally, so that you can provide
timely feedback about the employee’s performance.
174
These meetings can also be a great time to discuss

any additional support or training the employee may
need to accomplish their goals.
Collaborate
Encourage two-way dialogue with your staff. A
clearly communicated open-door policy is good.
Actively initiating conversations with your staff is
even better.
Create a supervisorial relationship where employees
feel safe to discuss work challenges and mistakes
freely.
You can’t help if you don’t know a problem exists.
And, your employees won’t speak openly if they fear
they will get in trouble for their honesty and
openness.
Address Performance Issues Early
Don’t let performance issues linger.
Addressing them immediately is the best way to
prevent challenges from snowballing into problems
and then into formal corrective action.
Focus on being an effective coach so that you spend
less time — or maybe no time at all — as a
disciplinarian.
175
Revise Goals, If Needed

If an individual’s goals change, be sure to document
the changes and give the employee a copy of the
revised goals.
Throughout the year, keep notes on your employees’
achievements and performance.
This information will come in handy when it is time
again for annual performance reviews.
Recognition
At any time, you can boost employee engagement by
recognizing the good work of your staff.
Recognition can be awarded individually or
collectively, formally or informally, publicly or
privately.
Employee satisfaction and commitment increase
when employees:
 Are recognized for their achievements
 Know that their contributions matter to the
organization
Recognition is most effective when it takes place on
regularly and in a variety of different ways.
It is also important that recognition activities be
aligned with the culture of your unit or department.
176
REFERENCE SOURCES
1. Astrid French, Interpersonal Skills - Developing
Successful Communication, Pelanduk Publications, 1994.
2. David Oates, Leadership: The Art of Delegation, The
Sunday Times Business Skills, 1993.
3. DE MARCO, T. and LISTER , T. : `Peopleware', (Dorset
House Publishing
4. Don't Do, Delegate! - J. M. Jenks & J. M. Kelly, Published
by Bridles Ltd. 1986
5. George T. Fuller, The Supervisor’s Big Book of Lists,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1994.
6. GOODWORTH, C.: 'The Secrets of Successful Leadership
and People
7. JARVIS, C., `B.O.L.A ', Brunel University College, Osterley
Campus, Borough Road, Hounslow, Middlesex, TW7 5DU.
8. Jerald M. Jellison, How To Face Resistance - And Win,
World Executive’s Digest, Page 58-59, Mac 1994.
9. Kenneth Blanchard, Donald Carew and Eunice Parisi-
Carew, The One Minute Manager - Builds High
Performing Team, Fontana: Harper Collins Publishers
1993.
10. Management', (Heinemann Professional Publishing,
1988), pp.10-15.
11. Peter Cusins, Be A Successful Supervisor, Kogan Page,
London, 1994.
12. Robert B. Maddux, Team Building - An Exercise In
Leadership, Kogan Page, London, Second Edition, 1994.
177
13. ROBERTS, W. : `Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun',

(Bantam Press Ltd, 1989).
14. Six Steps to Effective Delegation" - G. Culp and A. Smith
from The Journal of Management in Engineering,
January 1997, Page 30
15. Tan Kwang How, Supervision and Employee Relations,
Times - Federal Publication Sdn Bhd, 1994.
16. Tan Kwang How, Supervision and Human Relations,
17. Tan Kwang How, Supervision and Managing People,
18. Tan Kwang How, Supervision and Managing Work,
19. Tan Kwang How, Supervision and Principles of
Management, Times - Federal Publication Sdn Bhd, 1994.
20. Twyla Dell, How to Motivate People - A Guide for
Managers, Kogan Page London, 1994.
21. VECCIO, R.P.: 'Organizational Behavior', (The Dryden
Press, 198
22. https://www.irmi.com/articles/expert-
commentary/the-role-of-communication-in-effective-
supervision
23. https://hr.uw.edu/ops/performance-
management/supervisor-guide/
178
EFFECTIVE
Supervisory skills are essential as they make someone
qualified to be a leader. Excellent supervisors have a
combination of soft and hard skills that make it possible for
them to do their job well. As a supervisor, you should
reflect upon your interpersonal skills and decide which are
your strengths and which ones you should improve. By
continuing to learn and develop in your role, you can
become an even better supervisor and further your career.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

TAIDIN SUHAIMIN is a Sabah,
Malaysia-based professional trainer,
facilitator and author on personal
development with international
speaking experiences.
He has conducted seminars,
conferences, and courses for
thousands of individuals from more than 250 organizations
across South East Asia and The Middle East since 1993.
Millions of people have also heard or seen him speaking
over the Radio and TV.
Produced By:
USAHAWAN GROUP Management Consultants
https://ugmchrdtraining.com
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EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP & SUPERVISION

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SUCCESS

First Published, 2022

Effective Leadership &

INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP &

LEADERSHIP & SUPERVISION 25

COMMUNICATION & THE SUPERVISOR 50

MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES FOR PEAK

PROBLEM-SOLVING & DECISION-

EFFECTIVE TASKS DELEGATION 133

REFERENCE SOURCES 177

WHO ARE SUPERVISORS?

firing employees, etc.) and ensuring conformance to

SUPERVISION & THE

They also assert that the leadership must be more

WHAT DO MANAGERS DO?

and suggest different natures of activities in the

THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS

THE ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES

Planning Problem Solving

TYPICAL ROLES OF A SUPERVISOR

A good supervisor can be a priceless addition to an

It's not unusual for employees to sometimes see the

WHAT DO SUPERVISORS DO?

It often requires communication and justification for

Employee Performance Management

TYPICAL EXPERIENCE OF A FIRST-

dealing with performance problems, developing job

New Supervisors Often Feel Very

New Supervisors Often Feel

SUPPORT AND DEVELOPMENT ARE

LEADERSHIP & SUPERVISION

Other duties of supervisors include planning,

THE PURPOSE OF LEADERSHIP

Different Ideas of Leadership

Individual has increasing freedom

Individual Leader has

Leader exerts increasing control

The Free-Rein or Laissez-Faire

Enlightened managers use theory y, which produces

Characteristics of The X Theory

How You Can Manage Upwards Your

self-starting, self-motivating, self-disciplined, and

Be aware also that many X theory managers are

THEORY Z - WILLIAM OUCHI

Theory Z also places more reliance on the attitude

ACTION CENTERED LEADERSHIP - A

THE THREE PARTS ARE:

Adair's Action-Centered leadership task-team-

Your responsibilities as a manager

Your responsibilities as a manager

Your responsibilities as a manager

ACTION CENTERED LEADERSHIP &

One skill set does not automatically imply the other

Adair explains: Leadership is an ancient ability about

There are valuable elements of management not

The Action Centered Leadership model is Adair's

Importantly, Adair set out these core functions of

This contradicts most of the motivation gurus who

THE LADDER OF SUCCESS

The Harvard Business Review affirmed that the

SENDER Message RECEIVER

For communication to be effective, the supervisor

THE TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION MODEL

2022 TS EBookL ELeadership&Supervision

2022 TS EBookL ELeadership&Supervision