Course Number & Title: Unit 2: Functions of Communication

STUDY GUIDE

Introduction

Imagine yourself living in a world without communication. The empty space surrounds
you. You can’t establish relationship, express your thoughts or even share your ideas. What
would life be like? Could the world even survive?

Communication plays an important role in our lives. It is the process of sending and
receiving messages through verbal or nonverbal means, including speech, or oral
communication; writing and graphical representations (such as infographics, maps, and
charts); and signs, signals, and behavior.

Learning Objectives

After completing this module about functions of communication, learners are expected to:

1. Discusses the functions of communication.

2. Identifies the speaker’s purpose(s).
3. Watches and listens to sample oral communication activities.
4. Ascertains the verbal and nonverbal cues that each speaker uses to achieve his/her
purpose.
5. Comprehends various kinds of oral texts.
6. Identifies strategies used by each speaker to convey his/her ideas effectively.
7. Evaluates the effectiveness of an oral communication activity.

HUMANS COMMUNICATE FOR SEVERAL REASONS

Humans communicate for several reasons and each function is based on the speaker’s
purpose for communicating.

Regulation and Control as a function of communication means being able to use

language, gestures, and emotions to manage individual or group activities such as a parent
telling a child not to misbehave or a policeman directing pedestrians not to jaywalk but cross
on the pedestrian lane.

Regulation and Control are also observed when a student asks his or her parents to
stop teasing him or her about having a crush in school. Siblings are also told not to look for
that crush in school. Friends and classmates are under strict orders not to talk about the
crush at all.
 Motivation is the third function of communication and is the most purposive. When
people communicate, they always have a purpose or a reason. Why do people talk about this
and not that? Why talk to him but not to her? It is because there is a goal to be achieved, a
motive that must be accomplished.

The motivation to talk with the teacher is perhaps to ask him/her for more time to
finish a class project. Members of a church youth group listen to a certain candidate in the
upcoming Church Council elections. A customer convinces a vendor to sell a bigger sized
mango for the same price as a smaller one.

Appealing to the listener’s feelings is the function called Emotional Expression. It is

used by a speaker for the purpose of moving another person to act, to move in the particular
direction the speaker wants that person to move. Filipinos can be moved to tears by a movie,
a TV drama, or even a song. A speaker may appeal to Filipino listeners by disclosing how he
or she was also moved by that particular movie, TV drama, or a song. Photos of suffering or
devastation tug at the heartstrings of a Filipino.

The Social Interaction function of communication is the most obvious, the most
often used, and the most popular. Just think of how many times people interact with other
people by talking to them, conversing with them, laughing with them, and just enjoying each
other’s company.

Recall what communication activity one recently engaged in that used social
interaction involving friends, classmates, neighbors, or even other people like vendors and
jeepney/bus/tricycles drivers. Notice that one’s interaction with different people from
different groups will not be the same interaction experience. Still, communication happens
between you and them.

Whether talking to friends or acquaintances, to convince or motivate them, what is

usually necessary is to provide information. To illustrate, a Filipino scientist provides
information to a low-income community on how to light up their homes by using a bottle
filled with water and a teaspoon of bleach. The school dentist tells a kindergarten class how
to brush one’s teeth properly. A weather forecaster on TV tracks the path of a low-pressure
area (LPA), which might turn into a typhoon.

VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL CUES

Verbal and Nonverbal cues used by the speaker to achieve his or her purpose.
 Verbal cues are the specific words chosen and used. The speaker and the listener,
when using verbal cues, should be respectful of each other’s culture as well as their age,
gender, social status, and religion.

Regulation and Control

The words are usually directives, orders, requests, etc. meant to regulate and control other
people’s behavior. In certain cases involving women or in situations in Philippine society
involving a superior and a subordinate, an order is oftentimes worded as a request.

Motivation

More direct and purposeful words are chosen for both men and women, although these can
be softened for children and the elderly.

Emotional Expression

There are words children use that the elderly might find insulting and vice versa. Also, be
careful about using English words in different cultures. For example, the word “gift” means
poison in German. So do not tell a German visitor that one has a gift for him or her. Words
should be carefully chosen.

Social Interaction

The words usually used are mostly informal terms and casually delivered, although
Philippine society dictates certain decorum when talking to elders or figures of authority.

Information

Verbal cues in this case really have to be carefully chosen. The scientist most likely will use
Filipino to be understood by many and will use ‘po’ and ‘opo’. The dentist will use simple
words for the benefit of the children in the kindergarten class. The weather forecaster will
not use too much technical jargon to be understood by people listening to the radio and
watching TV.

Nonverbal cues include hand gestures, bodily action (including posture), vocal tone
(paralanguage), and eye contact. The speaker and the listener, when exhibiting nonverbal
cues, should be respectful of each other’s culture as well as their age, gender, social studies,
and religion. The tone and the bodily action that accompany the words are authoritative and
firm. Eye contact is direct. In our culture, these cues may be softened for children and the
elderly.

Regulation and Control

The tone and the bodily action that accompany the words are authoritative and firm. Eye
contact is direct. In our culture, these cues may be softened for children and the elderly.

Motivation

Strong words are accompanied by emphatic gestures and a forceful tone of voice. Direct eye
contact is necessary to underscore the speaker’s sincerity and conviction.

Emotional Expression

When we appeal to someone by using emotions, we accompany this appeal with touching,
hand holding or hugging, or even putting an arm around someone’s shoulder. Certain
societies do not allow men and women to touch, while others still frown on men and women
intermingling freely (unless they are married or related by blood). This has to be considered
when using the function of emotional expression.

Social Interaction

The tone used is friendly, even testing, and the bodily action is relaxed. Social Interaction
uses the most verbal and nonverbal clues with the most adaptation for the simple reason
that it concurs every day, nearly 24 hours a day. Given the number of people interacting with
each other, the verbal and nonverbal cues used, including possible combinations, make the
interactions uncountable.

Information

To convince the community to try the experiment, the scientist will do an actual
demonstration. The dentist can show pictures or a video that the children can understand
showing what happens when they do not brush their teeth. The forecaster calmly gestures
on the map, pointing out the path of the LPA, using a soothing tone of voice to avoid alarming
the audience.

Study Questions

 How will I know the message of the speaker is trying to convey?

 If ever that I’ll be a speaker moving forward, how will I effectively convey messages?

Course Number & Title: Unit 3: Communicative Competence Strategies in Various Speech
Situations
Module Number & Title: Lesson 2: Types of Speech Context
Introduction
Communicative competence refers to the speaker’s ability to use language in order to
communicate successfully in different settings of communication or speech context.

Learning Objectives
After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Identify the various types of speech context.
2. Engage in a communicative situation using acceptable, polite and meaningful
communicative strategies
3. Explain that a shift in speech context, speech style, speech act and communicative
strategy affects the following
a. Language form
b. Duration of interaction
c. Relationship of speaker
d. Role and responsibilities of the speaker
e. Message
f. Delivery

A. Communicative Competence
Language is a complex human means to communicate; and messages are spoken and
interpreted differently no matter how similar the discussants are in the language used. To
understand meanings from different perspectives, a good communicator must possess
communicative competence. Communicative competence consists of four competencies:
linguistic, sociolinguistic, discoursal, and strategic.

1. Linguistic competence
It is concerned with the wording of the message. It calls for skill in the choice of words
and one’s ability to follow grammar rules. It is imperative that the language forms you
use are appropriate to the language functions you want to accomplish.
2. Sociolinguistic competence
Refers to the speaker and learner variables. You try to match the language form you
use to the type of context or given situation you are in. for instance when answering
a teacher’s question in class, you do not address the teacher by his or her first name.
Instead, you use the title Sir or Ma’am/Madam, Professor, Mr. /Ms. /Mrs. or Dr. This
type of social function dictates the kind of language to be used. Hence, language use
and the purpose for speaking in relation to social and cultural contexts are
inseparable.
The objective of the communication situation, the topic being talked about, and the
setting as well as the interlocutors involved are interrelated to and fed on each other
insofar as sociolinguistic competence is concerned. It is highly possible that even if
two persons speak the same language, they may still misunderstand each other. This
is because culture sometimes plays a major part, which has been discussed
extensively in the Chapter II. When this happens, learn to activate your schema or
prior knowledge
3. Discoursal competence
Which has something to do with the intended and received meaning, pertains to one’s
ability to organize ideas logically. For exchanges in interpersonal interactions to make
sense, adjacent sentences must be related. There must be coherence and cohesion in
connected sentences. You must pay attention to how you organize and expand ideas.
It is the skill the speaker needs in order to provide an organized and related ideas or
thoughts.
4. Finally, Strategic Competence
Refers to how one is to go about making sense of and responding to message in any
given situation. Anyone is expected to respond correctly and adequately when faced
with any kind of situation. In other words, strategic competence refers to the ability
to get one’s meaning across successfully to communicative partners, especially when
problems arise in the communication process.
Strategic competence is activated when communication learners wish to convey
messages which their linguistic resources do not allow them to express successfully.
The strategies they can use at such times were divided by Corder (1981) into two
main types, message adjustment strategies and resource expansion strategies. Other
researchers have used different terms for the two types: reduction or avoidance
strategies for the first, and achievement strategies for the second.
 Message adjustment strategies involve the tailoring of one’s message to
one’s resources, along the lines of the old slogan, “Language learners should
say what they can, and not what they want to.” These strategies involve either
a slight alteration or a reduction of the message. Using these strategies often
leads learners to feel that what they say sounds simplistic or vague. Message
adjustment is, in fact, a kind of risk avoidance, which is clearly expressed in
the following typical learner statement: “I know how far I can go and what I
shouldn’t even try”.

 To remain in the conversation and to gain time to think, learners may also use
certain conversational formulae or ‘prefabricated conversational patterns’,
such as fillers or hesitation devices. Examples of fillers range from very short
structures: well; I mean; actually; you know, to what are almost phrases: as a
matter of fact; to be quite honest; now let me think; I’ll tell you what; I see what
you mean; etc.
B. Types of Speech Context
1. Intrapersonal context occurs when we engage in a communication with ourselves. It
rarely happens but only occurs in our heads as we think through our choices, strategies,
and the possible consequences of our actions. This takes place subconsciously. We talk
to ourselves when we reflect on certain events, ideas, and experiences.
2. Interpersonal context refers to the communication process that involves another
person or a small group of persons. In this communication, the other person is familiar
to us, and we as communicators engage in a direct, straightforward transfer of messages.
In interpersonal communication, there are five types: dyadic communication, small
group communication, public communication, mass communication, and organizational
communication.
In dyadic exchange, the two interactants or communicators take turns making
assertions or responding and reacting to what the other says. They both contribute
to the dialogue using short utterances. On the other hand, the discussants in a small
group play different roles, as indicated below:
 Initiator: begins the discussion by presenting or calling attention to the topic
or issue to be discussed. This gets the conversation underway.
 Clarifier: elaborates or extends thoughts or ideas beyond the limited
explanation of the topic. This is to ensure that the group has more or less the
same frame of mind and can follow the ensuing exchange of ideas.
 Energizer: activates/empowers the discussion by introducing controversial or
salient issues or cracking jokes to make the discussants come alive when
interest in the topic starts to diminish.
 Facilitator: directs the discussion and helps discussants feel more at ease in
using the language.
 Process-observer: watches and listens to the group’s discussion but does not
participate in the conversation unless called upon to speak.
 Recorder: notes down details to serve as a record of what was said and agreed
upon by the group.
 Time-keeper: notes the time to let the discussants know the time left for the
group to wind up the discussion and complete the task they set out to do.

Course Number & Title: Unit 3: Communicative Competence Strategies in Various Speech
Situations
Module Number & Title: Lesson 2: Types of Speech Style
Introduction
According to Martin Joos (1976:156), speech style means the form of language that the
speaker uses which characterized by the degree of formality. The degree of formality of
communication will help you adjust your language depending on the situation or context
and will also help you identify your relationship with the receiver.

Learning Objectives
After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish types of speech style
2. Identify social situations in which each speech style is appropriate to use
3. Observe the appropriate language forms in using a particular speech style
4. Engage in a communicative situation using acceptable, polite and meaningful
communicative strategies
5. Explain that a shift in speech context, speech style, speech act and
communicative strategy affects the following
 Language form
 Duration of interaction
 Relationship of speaker
 Role and responsibilities of the speaker
 Message
 Delivery

Motivational Activity
Have you ever attended a very formal setting such as rituals and church rites?
What about seeing a doctor for a medical check-up?
How do you feel when you share a secret to someone?

Types of Speech Style

The formality level of the language you use to encode the message must be appropriate to
the person you are addressing – the receiver of the message and to the context of the
situation and culture. You use, for example, an informal style in parties and with close friends
of your age. But you use a formal style in academic discussions in the classroom and with
your teachers and elders.

There are five formality levels of communication or speech styles according to

Martin Joos (1962), depending on your relationship with the person you address, the topic
being discussed, and the occasion when the exchange takes place. These include the
following:

1. Frozen style. This style occupies the highest rank in Joos’ classification. It is a style which
is used in very formal setting such as in rituals, church rites, speeches for state ceremonies,
and some other occasions. This style makes use of stock expressions that have not changed
through the years. Examples are the following: “I now pronounce you man and wife,” in
marriage ceremonies and “I solemnly swear… So help me God,” in oath-taking ceremonies.
2. Formal style. This style is used in extended one-way communication, like speeches in
formal situations such as in a graduation ceremony. The sentence structures are complex,
and the words chosen are not used in casual conversation. Hence, the speaker plans ahead
and frames what he/she is to say before it is delivered. Specifically, there are two defining
features of formal styles: modulated intonation, which is the highest importance, and
cohesion and organization of the message.

3. Consultative style. This style is used in semi-formal communication situations where, as

its name goes, a transaction of some sort takes place (e.g., when a patient goes to a doctor for
checkup). The interaction that takes place has two features: a) One speaker supplies
background information and he/she does not assume that he/she will be easily understood
by the doctor, and b) The addressee participates continuously. In this situation, both
participants are active. When one speaks, the other gives short responses or signals that
he/she is listening and can follow what is being said. Examples of consultative code-labels
are “Yes” (professional for yeah), “Uh huh,” “That’s right,” “Oh, I see,” “Yes, I know,” “Well,”
and a few others that are used to distinguish the roles of the listener and speaker.

4. Casual style. This is used among friends and acquaintances in informal situations like in
the canteen or when the students chat. It can also be used to address a stranger if the speaker
wants to treat him or her as an insider.

 There are two defining features of the casual style: a) ellipsis (omission of some
words in utterances) and b) slang. An example of omission in the consultative style as
compared with the casual style is as follows: “I believe that I can help you with that”
is consultative. On the other hand, “Of course, I can help you” is casual.
 Slang refers to non-standard words or expressions, which are known and used by
certain groups: teenager groups, student groups, jazz music players, etc. A young
female is called “a girl” in standard language but in slang, she may be referred to as “a
chick.”

5. Intimate style. This is a completely private language that is used within the family and
with very close friends. Usually, the intimate group is a pair. It excludes public information
and shows a very close relationship between or among the interactants. The use of jargon or
any vocabulary associated with the group is a feature of this particular style. Examples are:
“honey bunch,” “sweetheart,” or “dear.
Course Number & Title: Unit 3: Communicative Competence Strategies in Various Speech
Situations
Module Number & Title: Lesson 3: Types of Speech Act
Introduction
To every speech uttered, an action takes place. Our speech also reveals our motives or
desires in communicating and also helps us to predict the response or reaction of the
receiver.
Learning Objectives
After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the functions of communication.
2. Identify the speaker’s purpose(s).
3. Watch and listen to sample oral communication activities.
4. Ascertain the verbal and nonverbal cues that each speaker uses to achieve his/her
purpose.
5. Comprehend various kinds of oral texts.
6. Identify strategies used by each speaker to convey his/her ideas effectively.
7. Evaluate the effectiveness of an oral communication activity.

Motivational Activity
The teacher will show a statement about a controversial issue and the students will be
asked the following questions:

“Ordering ABS-CBN to stop its operations is an outrageous attack on media freedom...” -

Amnesty International's Philippines section director Butch Olano

1. What is the exact statement of the speaker?

2. What do you think is purpose of the speaker in giving the statement?
3. What is your response to the statement?

Austin and Searle’s Speech Act Theory

Austin and Searle (1969) in their speech act theory point out that when we speak, there are
three things that have to be considered: what is said, what we actually do when we say it,
and what the expected response or reaction is to what is said.

The first, “what we said,” is called the locutionary force of our speech act. Since the word
locution refers to “saying something,” the term locutionary force consists of words in the
message.

The second, “what we actually do when we say it,” is called the illocutionary force. When a
parent says to a child who did something unbecoming, “Why did you do it?” he could be
asking for an explanation, in which case, the child would give reasons to justify what he did.
On the other hand, that same remark said by a parent to a child could be a censure or a
rebuke indicating that the child was wrong to have done it, in which case, the child is
expected to say he is sorry and will not do it again.

The illocutionary force of the statement “Why did you do it?” could be asking explanation to
justify what one did or censuring or rebuking the addressee, and the expected response to
those two intended meanings would be the perlocutionary force. So if the child just keeps
quiet, then the parent may ask, “Why don’t you answer?” since neither of the expected
responses was made.

Dörnyei and Thurrell (1991) suggest some practical ideas for strategy training which aim
at enhancing some aspects of reduction and achievement skills. Their ideas include: fillers,
going off the point, appealing for help and paraphrase and circumlocution.

To further understand the Speech Act, you may refer to this video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=32Lkl7oUJrQ.

Course Number & Title: Unit 3: Communicative Competence Strategies in Various Speech
Situations
Module Number & Title: Lesson 4: Communicative Strategies
Introduction
Misinterpretation is one of the common challenges in communication. This often leads to a
much complex problem between the speaker and the receiver. In order to avoid
misinterpretation and manage communication well, one should consider different
communicative strategies.
Learning Objectives
After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Engage in a communicative situation using acceptable, polite and meaningful
communicative strategies
2. Explain that a shift in speech context, speech style, speech act and communicative
strategy affects the following:
 Language form
 Duration of interaction
 Relationship of speaker
 Role and responsibilities of the speaker
 Message
 Delivery

Communicative Strategies

1. Topic Initiation. Topic initiation takes place when participants launch the topic they
want to talk about or induce their interlocutors to introduce another topic during the
conversation to prevent the conversation from suspending. However, participants do not
initiate or elicit topics without thinking, but instead follow certain conversational norms.
Participants show their intention to introduce a topic by doing one of two things: checking
the reportability of an item, or by projecting an extended trajectory of talk. Topic initiation
can take place either after the opening sequence or during or after a prior topic.

2. Turn-Taking. All mundane conversation is based on a system of turn-taking. It

facilitates participants’ understanding of each of the turns produced during a conversation
by allocating turns in order. Each participant exchanges turns with one another to
accomplish a particular goal; if there were no sort of order controlling the conversation,
participants would find it difficult to make the conversation last for any length of time.
Sacks et al (1974) explains turn-taking as follows:
“It is a systematic consequence of the turn-taking organization of conversation
that it obliges its participants to display to each other, in a turn’s talk, their
understanding of other turns’ talk, unless special techniques are used to locate
some other talk to which it is directed.”

3. Topic Management. Topics are of central importance in enabling participants to sustain

talk over a period of time. However, not many studies have been conducted to understand
this aspect of conversation. In order to gain a complete understanding of what topics are,
conversation analysts have focused on how topics are initiated, maintained, terminated,
and changed during conversation. Svennevig (1999) maintains that topic is managed
“based on the fundamental assumption that topic structure is not an incidental product of
talk, but an orderly interactional achievement.”

 Topic maintenance refers to the process of establishing a preferred topic as the

topic conversation through the cooperation of participants. When a participant
launches a new topic, the co-participants need to accept the candidate topic as a
topic they all can talk about in order to continue the talk over a certain period of
time. Since topic maintenance does not take place without the recipients’
agreement, it is said to be accomplished through the interactional cooperation of the
participants in the conversation.
 Topicalization is the process of making a proffered (offered) topic newsworthy or
mentionable. It can be done by producing utterances (topicalizers) indicating
interest. Topicalizers express an active and supportive attitude towards the
candidate topic, which reflects the feelings of the speaker – feelings such as surprise,
interest, or approval of the topic.
 Preferred responses are another way of sustaining a proffered new topic of
conversation. If a participant attempts to initiate a new topic by using questions that
include a topical item or informative statements, the co-participants need to
produce utterances which indicate interest in the topical item or information.
 Repetition of some part of a prior turn involving a potential topic can also be a way
of maintaining a new topic. The repetition can be construed to mean that the
recipient has some sort of interest in the prior turn.

4. Topic Shifting. Topic transition or shifting refers to the process by which participants in
a conversation move from a topic-in-progress to a new topic at a potential point of topic
closure, with or without a sequence closing the topic-in-progress. Utterances which may
not show a connection to or may not be suitable for prior talk can be recognized as topic
changes; they indicate that the new topic has no connection with the prior topic, a topic
change takes place.

 Participants may encounter unexpected trouble during a conversation. The type of

trouble can vary depending on the different types and situations of a conversation,
trouble can prevent all or one of the participants from continuing to talk about it.
When this happens they try to change the topic to get out of trouble.

5. Repair. Repair refers to solving problems such as errors or mistakes which can interrupt
talk-in-interaction. Errors or mistakes can repeatedly take place in the speaking, hearing,
or understanding of a talk. However, it is necessary to distinguish between “repair” and
“correction.” Repair is “the treatment of trouble occurring in interactive language”
(Seedhouse, 2004). It plays the important role of sustaining the reciprocity of perspectives
and inter-subjectivity. Correction, on the other hand, is “the replacement of an error or
mistake by what is correct” (Schegloff et al, 1977). This demonstrates that occurrences
related to correction are not always caused by errors and that replacement does not always
take place, and thus in many instances, repair is more suitable than correction.

6. Termination. When participants have been talking for a certain period of time, they will
use one or more techniques in order to terminate ongoing topics. The various techniques
used to close ongoing topics are seen in the different sequences participants develop.
Closing a topic-in-progress is thus a preamble to topic transition, so it is important to
identify where and how the topic transition takes place. When participants in a
conversation pay attention to topic boundaries, they cooperate to develop “analyzable
ends;” that is, they use various mechanisms to construct topic boundaries, and these
mechanisms can be interpreted as techniques designed to close the topics-in-progress.
Topic closure is usually collaborative; participants can signal their willingness for a topic to
come to a close