MAPPING AND ASSESSMENT OF THE SPATIO-TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION

OF CHL-A AND TURBIDITY IN LAKE BUHI USING SENTINEL-2 IMAGES

AND SPECTRAL INDICES

Amaro, Katrine Ann N.

Cortez, Lyanna Marie G.
Student Researchers

Dr. Ariel C. Blanco

Engr. Jommer M. Medina
Thesis Advisers

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the course

GE 199: Undergraduate Research in Geomatics
1st Semester, A/Y 2022-2023

Department of Geodetic Engineering,

College of Engineering
University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City

November 18, 2022

 Review of Related Literature
Water quality monitoring (WQM) is a process that involves the frequent sampling of
permanent points and data processing to forecast water quality trends (Szczepańska &
Twardowska, 2004). Implementation of this process aims to prevent the further degradation of
the aquatic environment due to natural and anthropogenic activities. Remote sensing is one of
the various methods used to determine the water quality of coastal and inland waters. Its spatial
and temporal advantages over traditional methods allow for the characterization of the
spatio-temporal changes in water quality over large areas (Malahlela, 2019).
This part of the paper presents the literature review on WQM using remote sensing,
specifically, data, methods, and parameters associated with it. The existing and relevant WQM
studies in the Philippines that employ remote sensing methods, as well as WQM studies in Lake
Buhi, will also be presented. Through this literature review, the researchers aim to establish the
existing body of knowledge on the topic and identify the gaps in it.

WQM using Remote Sensing

Remote sensing data

Multispectral (MS), hyperspectral (HS), and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)

are remote sensing data that can be used for water quality retrieval (Yang et al., 2022).
MS data are satellite data that have broad bands, moderate resolution, and wide
availability renders them a suitable data source for WQM as confirmed by many studies
(Toming et al., 2016; Ansper & Alikas, 2019). HS data have narrower bands than MS,
which improves the accuracy of water quality retrieval and allows for the detection of
specific parameters (Giardino et al., 2019). EO-1 Hyperion and HJ1-A are HS data that
have been used for water quality retrieval (Flores-Anderson et al., 2020; Yang et al.,
2011). However, EO-1 Hyperion was decommissioned in 2017 (EROS, 2019) which
renders it unsuitable for studies examining the present condition, while other HS data,
such as HJ1-A HSI, has a low spatial resolution (Yang et al., 2022) unsuitable for
monitoring small water bodies. UAVs have a higher spatial and spectral resolution that
many HS and MS data cannot deliver, however, due to their small areal coverage and
higher costs, it is impractical to use for studies investigating large areas (Yang et al.,
2022).
With the limitations of HS and UAV data, MS images are the remote sensing data
that are widely studied for water quality monitoring. MS sensors include Moderate
Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Medium Resolution Imaging
Spectrometer (MERIS), Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI), Landsat-8
Operational Land Imager (OLI), Sentinel-2 Multispectral Instrument (MSI), and
Sentinel-3 Ocean and Land Colour Instrument (OLCI). MODIS, MERIS, and GOCI are
ocean color sensors that have been widely used for their suitability in water quality
retrieval (Yang et al., 2022). However, due to their sparse spatial resolution of at least 250
m (IOCGG, 2019, as cited in Poddar, 2019), they are not suitable to apply for small
inland water quality retrieval as this requires high-resolution satellite data (Qing et al.,
2021). Philipson et al. (2014) confirmed the limitation of low spatial resolution satellite
data, specifically MERIS, in smaller lake water quality retrieval. Thus, acquiring a source
with the desirable spectral, spatial, and temporal resolution is a challenge in WQM
through remote sensing (Yang et al., 2022).
Sentinel-2 Multispectral Instrument (MSI) offers a higher spatial resolution over
many ocean color sensors, adequate spectral bands, and higher revisit time than similar
medium-resolution sensors such as Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) (Qing et
al., 2021). With these advantages, Sentinel-2 images have been widely used for WQM in
coastal and inland waters (Page et al., 2019, as cited in Qing et al., 2021). Abdelal et al.
(2022) investigated the suitability of widely available MS data, specifically Sentinel-2
and Landsat-8, in estimating Chl-a, CDOM, and turbidity in small-scale inland
waterbodies. They reported these two data are capable of providing a good estimate of
OACs for small-scale inland waters. A comparison of the results of the two satellite data
showed that Sentinel-2 and Landsat-8 produced better estimates of Chl-a and turbidity,
respectively. They noted that their conclusion in Chl-a estimation of Sentinel-2 and
Landsat-8 is inconsistent with the results of Ouma et al. (2020), where they concluded
that although both satellite data performed equally well in estimating Chl-a, TSS, and
turbidity, Landsat-8 produced more accurate estimation. Abdelal et al. (2022) attributed
these contrasting results to the difference in biochemical characteristics of the water
bodies.

Atmospheric correction
In processing these satellite data, removing the atmospheric effects remains a
challenge. Water quality parameters are retrieved by establishing the relationship between
the parameter’s concentration and the scattering signals from the sensors. However, the
scattering signals are not only affected by the characteristics of the water but also the
effects of the atmosphere (Yang et al., 2022). Thus, removing the atmospheric influences
is key to acquiring accurate water quality parameters. Atmospheric correction (AC)
algorithms were developed to eliminate such errors. It aims to retrieve the water-leaving
radiance by removing the signal at the sensor and radiance contributions from the
atmosphere and the water surface (Antoine & Morel, 1999). The most suitable AC
algorithm to employ varies depending on the satellite used and the characteristics of the
water. AC algorithms applicable for Case 1 waters are not applicable to Case-2 waters,
and vice versa (Matsushita et al., 2012).
Pan et al. (2022) evaluated the suitability of ten atmospheric algorithms to
approximately 300 lakes across Canada using Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 data. They
evaluated the following AC algorithms: L2Gen SWIR, L2Gen STANDARD, ACOLITE,
LaSRC, Sen2Cor, ICOR, ICO_SM, C2RCC, C2X, and POLYMER. Their results showed
that C2RCC and C2X resulted in the lowest error and bias per band, but ACOLITE
performed the best in terms of similarity angle. However, none of these AC algorithms
met the target 30% retrieval accuracy, which is attributed to the significant adjacency
error. Warren et al. (2019) evaluated six AC algorithms, which are ACOLITE, C2RCC,
iCOR, L2gen, POLYMER, and Sen2Cor, and revealed that these AC performed similarly
and the best algorithm varies depending on the indicator used. In inland waters, they
revealed that POLYMER and C2RCC attained the most matchups, while ACOLITE
attained the highest R2 in the red and NIR bands. Pan et al. (2022) also noted that C2RCC
and POLYMER gave the best statistics, however, ACOLITE, iCOR, and Sen2Cor
provide better results for eutrophic waters.
 Several studies (Vanhellemont & Ruddick, 2016; Caballero et al., 2020; Caballero
et al., 2022) confirmed the accurate performance of ACOLITE in WQM. In the study of
Caballero et al. (2022), they used ACOLITE as the AC method in processing Landsat-8
and Sentinel-2 images for Chl-a and turbidity retrieval and revealed that ACOLITE
accurately retrieved water-leaving radiance over low to moderate sunglint conditions.

Water quality parameters and retrieval methods

Several water quality parameters of coastal and inland waters can be
quantitatively retrieved using remote sensing methods. These can be categorized into
two: optically active component (OAC) and non-OAC. OACs are water quality
parameters that can be directly retrieved from satellite data because of their optical
properties, while non-OAC are those that do not have direct optical properties and can
only be retrieved using their relationship with other water constituents (Yang et al.,
2022). Non-OACs include important water quality parameters such as pH, total nitrogen
(TN), total phosphorus (TP), dissolved oxygen (DO), and chemical oxygen demand
(COD). However, due to their weak optical characteristics and low signal-to-noise ratio
(Gholizadeh et al., 2016), challenges remain in accurately estimating these parameters
(Sagan et al., 2020). Contrastingly, OACs, such as Chl-a, turbidity, total suspended matter
(TSM), and colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), can be accurately estimated using
remote sensing (Anwar, 2022). Among these OACs, Chl-a and turbidity are good
indicators of the water body’s quality and productivity (Yang et al., 2022).
The occurrence of algal blooms is a natural phenomenon in inland waters,
however, extreme algal blooms are toxic to the aquatic environment (Gholizadeh et al.,
2016). Chl-a is a pigment found in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria that provides
information on algal biomass distribution and is a major indicator of productivity and
eutrophication of water bodies (Gholizadeh et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2022). It generally
exhibits absorption in violet-blue and orange-red wavelengths and reflection in green
wavelengths (Gholizadeh et al., 2016). Specifically, it has two distinct absorption peaks at
440 nm and 675 nm, where the former is higher than the latter because of the presence of
accessory pigments (Gilerson et al., 2010).
 Turbidity is defined as an“optical characteristic of water clarity and is a
measurement of the amount of light that is scattered by particles in the water column.”
(Lopez et al., 2021). The higher the turbidity is, the more difficult it is for light to
penetrate through the water (Gholizadeh et al., 2016). Due to this, turbidity affects the
primary productivity of the water by decreasing the amount of sunlight that reaches the
aquatic plants which is essential for their growth and survival (Baughman et al., 2015, as
cited in Lopez et al., 2021).
Retrieval methods to acquire these parameters are categorized into two -
analytical and empirical. The analytical retrieval method uses bio-optical models and
radiation transmission models in identifying the relationship between water quality
parameters and reflectance (Yang et al., 2022). Shallow water inversion (WASI), Neural
Network Inversion (NN Inversion), 2SeaColor, and Shallow Water Bio-optical Properties
(SBOP) are some of the bio-optical estimation analytical methods. Empirical retrieval
methods describe the in-situ water quality parameters and reflectance through statistical
relationships (Yang et al., 2022). These are further divided into spectral methods and
empirical estimation. Empirical estimation methods include Neural network (NN),
Multiple Linear regression (MLR), long short-term memory (LSTM), and Support vector
machine regression (SVR). On the other hand, Normalized Difference Chlorophyll Index
(NDCI), Normalized Difference Turbidity Index (NDTI), Floating Algal Index (FAI), and
Maximum Chlorophyll Index (MCI) fall under spectral methods.
Sagan et al. (2020) analyzed the advancements and limitations of spectral indices,
bio-optical simulations, machine learning, and cloud computing in inland water quality
monitoring. Empirical approaches yielded the best results for an accurate estimation of
optically active parameters. The studies of Mollaee (2018) and Elhag et al. (2019)
explored the potential of spectral methods. Elhag et al. (2019) used MCI, green
normalized difference vegetation index (GNDVI), and NDTI on estimating Chl-a
concentration, nitrate concentration, and water turbidity of the dam lake of Wadi Baysh,
Saudi Arabia. Using the said spectral methods on Sentinel-2 data resulted in a high
correlation of the indices with the ground truth data of the lake. The study of Mollaee
(2018) monitored algal blooms in Lake Erie. Upon Chl-a retrieval, the results showed
that applying MCI on Sentinel-2 data displayed a strong correlation of R2 = 0.90 with the
Chl-a in-situ data. In the study of Sagan et al. (2020), empirical methods outperformed
other methods, but at any rate, the studies of Mollaee (2018) and Elhag et al. (2019) have
shown the effectiveness of using Sentinel-2 together with spectral methods in water
quality parameters retrieval.
The band ratio of blue and green bands is adequate to estimate Chl-a
concentration in waters where the water quality is dependent on phytoplankton biomass
alone (Tilstone et al., 2021). Waters whose optical properties are affected by suspended
matter and organic matter reduce the efficiency of the blue-to-green band ratio, but
fluorescence-based algorithms are effective in estimating Chl-a in these waters (Gower et
al., 1996). Binding et al. (2013) found that MERIS MCI is an effective tool in monitoring
surficial algal blooms in Lake of the Woods, turbid waters of Lake Erie, and in Lake
Ontario with low chlorophyll conditions.
The red band in the visible range and the near-infrared band were found to be
sensitive to turbidity. An increase in reflectance in these bands indicates an increase in
water turbidity (Toming et al. 2016, as cited in Chen et al., 2022). NDTI uses red bands
and green bands in describing turbidity. The studies of Chen et al., (2022), Bid &
Siddique (2019), and Meena et al. (2021) utilized NDTI on determining the changing
water quality in Haihe River Basin, Panchet Hill Dam, and Rishi Ganga river,
respectively. Turbidity change was observed in the studies and NDTI achieved a high
level of correlation and low root mean square error (RMSE) in relation to total suspended
sediment concentration in the study of Bid & Siddique (2019).

WQM using remote sensing in the Philippines

The threat of water pollution is evident in the inland waters of the Philippines. In
fact, Pasig river is among the 20 polluted rivers worldwide that contribute to plastic
emissions to oceans (Meijer et. al, 2021). The water quality of Laguna Lake was also
found degrading due to the overexploitation of resources and substances released from
the industrial, household, and agricultural sources (Delos Reyes and Martens 1994 &
Tamayo-Zafaralla et al. 2010, as cited in Blanco et al., 2020). Existing water quality
monitoring studies here in the Philippines pursued the application of remote sensing.
Considering the size of Laguna Lake and Pasig River, conventional water quality
monitoring methods are not ideal as they would be costly and limited in terms of spatial
and temporal coverage.
In 2018, Ticman et al. studied the relationship between the in-situ water quality
data of Laguna Lake with Landsat 8 satellite data using band ratios, indices, and
algorithms. Results of the study showed that band ratios have a strong relationship with
the in-situ data, specifically with Chl-a concentration and turbidity. Developed indices
and algorithms also exhibited promising results. From the results of the study, in-situ
data, together with satellite imagery and other remote sensing products work well on
Laguna Lake. The results can also aid in the development of water quality models for
lake monitoring.
Blanco et al. (2020) further explored the suitability of satellite data for water
quality monitoring in Laguna Lake. Instead of Landsat 8, Blanco et al. (2020) utilized
Sentinel-3 Ocean and Land Color Instrument (OLCI) and empirical algorithms in
determining Chl-a concentration which yielded acceptable estimations. Another study in
Laguna Lake is the detection of cyanoHABs and water quality monitoring during the
2020 Pacific typhoon season using Sentinel-2 satellites by Caballero & Navarro (2021).
The study concluded that Sentinel-2 improves synoptic mapping of cyanoHABs, can
provide rapid detection even after extreme events, and can be used for regular water
quality monitoring in Laguna Lake.
Escoto et al. (2021) also utilized Sentinel-2 but on the water quality monitoring of
the Pasig River. Empirical ordinary least squares (OLS) models were generated using
band combinations of Sentinel-2. The regression model was used to estimate Biological
oxygen demand (BOD), Chloride, Color, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Fecal Coliform,
Nitrate, pH, Phosphate, Temperature, and Total suspended solids (TSS). The results of the
study indicated that there are problems with the generated model, but it can roughly
estimate the water quality and provide information on its spatial distribution.
Most of the studies evaluated the suitability of satellite data and remote sensing
methods for water quality monitoring. Noticeably, the studies focused only on a few
major bodies of water in the Philippines, such as Laguna Lake and Pasig River.
WQM in Lake Buhi
Occurrences of fish kill have been reported since 1998 by the Bureau of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources Region V (Arguelles, 2020). Nieves et al. (2020) attribute the
occurrence of fish kills from 1998 until 2018 to the deficiency of dissolved oxygen (DO)
and the effects of ammonia-nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and methane, which are driven by
natural and anthropogenic activities. Natural causes include typhoons and prevailing
seasonal monsoons that cause the upwelling of oxygen-deficient water and toxic products
to the upper level of the lake. The anthropogenic activities that primarily contribute to
fish kill are the excessive number of fish cages and unsustainable farming practices.
Nieves et al. (2020) presented preventive measures to at least combat human-induced
effects. They suggested institutionalizing water quality monitoring of the lake to detect
the possible occurrence of fish kills and avoid economic losses.
Bradecina and Cabrera (2020) examined the relationship of plankton biomass to
the monthly tilapia production in Lake Buhi. They collected and measured samples using
the gravimetric method in four sampling stations scattered throughout the area. Their
study showed a direct relationship between plankton biomass and tilapia production. The
study also revealed that there was no significant difference between the density of
plankton biomass among the four stations. Plankton biomass' existence is favorable for
the lake as it serves as a natural food supply to the aquatic animals in the lake. However,
they noted the importance of maintaining its biomass and density at favorable levels to
avoid extreme algal blooms that are harmful to the aquatic organisms in the lake.
Nieves et al. (2020) and Bradecina and Cabrera (2020) highlighted the importance
of monitoring the quality of the lake to avoid further degradation of the lake and the
recurrence of fish kills. WQM using remote sensing can provide comprehensive
monitoring of water parameters such as plankton biomass. However, the literature review
reveals that WQM studies in Lake Buhi only employ traditional methods (Olaño &
Montojo, 2005; Palma, 2013; Nieves et al., 2020; Bradecina & Cabrera, 2020).
Noted by:

Dr. Ariel C. Blanco

Thesis Adviser

Engr. Jommer M. Medina

Thesis Co-adviser
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