VALUE CHAIN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

PACKAGE OF PRACTICES
for
VCDP-ASSISTED

RICE PRODUCTION AND POSTHARVEST ACTIVITIES

November 2017
Table of Contents

Page
Table of content 1
Acknowledgement 3
Purpose and Intended Users of this Handbook 4
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Importance of rice in Nigeria 5
2 Ideal soil and site for rice production 5
3 Land preparation 6
3.1 How to make a rice nursery for transplanting 7
3.1.1 Reasons for a nursery 7
3.1.2 How to make a rice nursery 7
4 Selection of rice variety to be cultivated 8
4.1 Type and sources of rice seed 8
5 Rice planting, when, how and plant population 9
5.1 Transplanting the seedlings from nursery (manual method) 9
6 Soil nutrient management 9
6.1 Water management 10
7 Weed control 11
7.1 Recommended use of herbicides for weed control 12
8 Prevention, control and management of rice pests & diseases 12
9 Harvesting 14
9.1 How to harvest 14
9.2 Field drying 15
9.3 Cleaning/winnowing 15
9.4 Storage of paddy 15
10 Financial plan for rice production 16
11 Rice Postharvest 18
11.1 Rice processing 18
11.1.1 Threshing, winnowing & drying 18
11.1.2 Parboiling 18
11.1.3 Drying after parboiling 19
11.1.4 Milling 20
11.1.5 Bagging and labelling after milling 20
11.1.6 Storage 21
11.1.7 Marketing 21
11.2 Use of rice husks for production of briquettes 21
Acronyms 22
References 23

Tables
Table 1: Some Rice Varieties in Nigeria 8
Table 2: Herbicides and How to Use them 12
Table 3: Rice Pests/Diseases and How to Control them 13

Illustration
False bottom paddy parboiling 19

1
 Photos
Photo A: Wet land tillage using a motorised tiller 6
Photo B: Dry land prepared for rice planting 6
Photo C: Pre-germinated rice seeds 8
Photo D: Rice nursery before transplant 8
Photo E & F: Single seedling transplant 11
Photo G: Bund keeping water within the plot 11
Photo H: Rotary weeders 12
Photo I: Bacterial leaf blight 13
Photo J: Bacterial leaf streak 13
Photo K: Rice blast 13
Photo L: Brown leaf spot 13
Photo M: Mechanical threshing 14
Photo N: Parboiled rice spread to dry 19
Photo O: A processor de-stoning milled rice using a De-stoner 20

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The preparation of this Package of Practices on Rice Production and Postharvest Activities was
commissioned by the FGN/IFAD-assisted Value Chain Development Programme (VCDP) under contract
number VCDP/NPMU/LCS/10/2017.

Development Input Limited is honoured to serve as the Consultant responsible for writing this Handbook,
which is intended for use by agricultural extension workers and farmers who are literate or have literate
family members to translate the information to them.

Development Input Ltd takes this opportunity to acknowledge the ideas and practical tips received from
our consulting associates in various parts of Nigeria. Their input helped to make this manual user-
friendly and responsive to many of the information gaps that Rice producers and postharvest economic
actors may be having. Special thanks to Ojonide Grace Samuel for invaluable technical input in addition
to anchoring the administrative/secretarial aspects of the work.

We are hopeful and delighted that VCDP participants will benefit from using this manual, thereby
increasing the economic productivity of VCDP-assisted agricultural commodity value chains, and
meeting the wider policy objectives of the Project and the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development (FMARD). Above all we appreciate the National Programme Coordinator of VCDP, Dr.
Ameh Onoja, for his invaluable ideas on this work.

Utiang P. Ugbe uugbe@msn.com

Lead Author/Researcher

λ Development Input Limited RC 235738

Block C, Suite 1, BARUMARK Estate.

Wuye Junction (opposite Eternal petrol station), Wuye District, ABUJA, FCT, Nigeria.
P. O. Box 1577, Area 1 Post Office, Abuja, Nigeria.
Phone: +234-803-580-3363.
Email: frontdesk@devinput.com; Website: http://www.devinput.com.

3
PURPOSE AND INTENDED USERS OF THIS HANDBOOK

This handbook provides simple and useful tips on how rice farmers can increase their farm
yields, reduce production costs, and increase profitability through intensified production
techniques and appropriate agronomic practices. Intended users of this manual include small- to
medium-sized rice farmers whose farm sizes range from farms of 0.2 to 10 hectares, agricultural
extension agents, trainers, and researchers. The handbook also covers rice postharvest value
chain activities.

Most smallholder rice farmers and processors rely on household labour and occasional hired
labour. Larger farms are normally those that are commercially oriented and use mainly hired
labour rather than household. The tips in this manual are useful for both smallholder subsistence
farmers/processors and commercial farmers and processors. It is our hope and expectation that
the use of this little handbook will increase their productivity and income.

Where appropriate in this handbook, labour-saving technologies are recommended, and their
current prices indicated to enable interested parties who have the financial resources to source
for such technologies. Photographs or graphic illustrations are inserted at various points to
simplify the narrative text.

4
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Importance of Rice in Nigeria

Rice is a major and very most important food staple in Nigeria. According to projections by the
Helgi Library, the annual per capita rice consumption for Nigeria in 2017 is about 34.5kg. i As at
May 2017, the national annual total consumption of rice was about 8 million tonnes, while the
domestic annual total production was about 6 million tonnes, ii leaving a supply gap of about 2
million tonnes which represents the annual rice import.

Given this background, and in line with the broad economic agenda of the federal government to
increase non-oil economic growth and end the current overreliance on petroleum, it is a policy
objective of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD) to
incentivize a boost in the domestic production of rice and other selected agricultural
commodities in the country. Within this policy ambit, the Value Chain Development
Programme (VCDP) was funded by International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
and the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) to provide a menu of integrated support services
aimed at the development of the rice and cassava value chains, including production and
postharvest activities.

2. IDEAL SOIL AND SITE FOR RICE PRODUCTION

Rice is cultivable across all agro-ecological zones in Nigeria. Consequently, smallholder or
subsistence production of rice is carried on in almost every rural community in the country,
while some zones have become known for intensive commercial-scale production. The ideal
soils for rice production in Nigeria are in river basins or ecological watersheds with the
following characteristics:

(a) Heavy soils;

(b) Slightly acidic (pH 5.5 to 7.0) soils;
(c) Soils moderately high in clay content (40% – 60%);
(d) Soils containing a good amount of organic matter (e.g. from cleared vegetation);
(d) Soils having excellent humification; and
(e) Soils that are well drained.
Even though rice can grow on loamy or sandy soils, such soils are not ideal for efficient
production, especially commercial cultivation. The ecology of the location (i.e. whether lowland
or upland), the production objectives, and the innovativeness of the farmer would form part of
the considerations in choosing a site for rice farming. However, some farmers try to produce
rice on poor soils because they have no access to better alternative land.
This handbook focuses on a rice production method known as the System of Rice
Intensification (SRI). The conventional system of rice production is what is generally practiced
among both smallholder and commercial rice farmers in Nigeria, and needs no introduction here.

5
The SRI is a system of rice production that is seed-efficient, water-efficient, land-efficient, and
generates a higher yield than the conventional rice production system. This manual will
illustrate the step-by-step activities involved in SRI.
3. LAND PREPARATION

After selecting an appropriate site for rice cultivation, the next step is to properly prepare the
piece of land for rice planting. The following set of activities is recommended:

(i) Apply appropriate herbicides to the selected site, and then wait about 2 weeks for the
vegetation to die and form organic matter on the land;
(ii) The timing for bush clearing would depend on the intended farming season (i.e.
whether dry season or rainy season). The annual cycles of rainfall differ in the southern
parts of the country from the northern; therefore, herbicide application or bush clearing
and removal of woody matter from the land should be appropriate to the climate of the
area;
(iii) Remove any woody matter from the land and leave the dead leaves to form mulch;
(iv) Plough the land using an appropriate equipment e.g. a hoe or a plough which may be
motorized (see Photo A); tractorized, hand-pushed, or animal-driven; ridging is not
required in rice cultivation, unless the land is a steep slope;
(v) Harrow at least twice to create the best tilth that enables rapid growth for the rice;
(vi) To achieve adequate water retention without causing flooding or erosion, make bunds
to accumulate some of the rain water on the land; however, to avoid water logging on
the farm, create an embankment round the farm plot, and make drainage channels every
5m x 20m to ensure that run-off water flows out to the embankment. The 5m x 20m
drainage channels also serve as useful walkways for the farmer during important
operations, such as weeding and harvesting (see Photo B);
(vii) For rain-fed system of rice cultivation, plough and harrow the land just before the first
rains of the season;
(viii) Level the farmland to reduce erosion; for a large-scale commercial farm, divide the
field into plots of 50m2 to 100m2 for better water management.

It is recommended that during land preparation, the farmer should also be preparing a rice
nursery for later transplanting unto the main farm.

6
Photo A: Wet land tillage, using a motorized tiller. Photo B: Dry land prepared for rice planting
Photo source: VCDP Nigeria

7
3.1. How to make a rice nursery for transplanting

3.1.1. Reasons for a rice nursery

A rice nursery is important because:
(i) It conserves seed use and prevents waste;
(ii) It enables the farmer to control the plant population on the main farm through
transplanting;
(iii) It enhances early harvest from date of transplanting;
(iv) It is time-efficient because it can be done while land preparation is ongoing; and
(v) It enables the farmer to transplant only the healthiest plants and screen out the plants that
show less vitality.

3.1.2. How to make a rice nursery

(i) Select an appropriate wet parcel of land near a river bank (i.e. it should not be too clayey
or too sandy); nursery location should be as near to the main farm as possible to prevent
conveying over a long distance that will harm the seedlings;
(ii) The size of the nursery plot would depend on the size of the intended farm; a nursery
measuring 500m2 (50m x 10m) can provide enough seedlings for 1 hectare;
(iii) Clear the land in advance, making sure that all organic matter is left on the soil to
decompose; or introduce organic matter to the plot in advance if needed, but do it early
enough to enable it decompose completely before ploughing;
(iv) Plough carefully and harrow as required;
(v) Peg out the nursery beds of one metre wide each, and as long as needed; the one metre
width enables the farmer to reach every part of the nursery bed;
(vi) Leave a space of 40cm to 50cm between the beds, to serve as irrigation channels;
(vii) Remove any stones, clumps, sticks, or other hard objects from the bed, to facilitate
uprooting the seedlings later on;
(viii) Prepare pre-germinated rice seeds by putting the rice seeds in a jute bag or cloth and
soaking in water for about 12 hours; remove the seeds from water and keep in a ventilated
place at a temperature of about 30°C to trigger germination within 24 – 36 hours (see
Photo C);
(ix) Broadcast the pre-germinated rice seeds on the prepared beds, ensuring even distribution
of the seed. Do not place the seeds too close, to prevent them crowding out each other
when they begin to grow. A seed rate of about 2kg for a 10m long bed is recommended;
(x) Carefully sprinkle water on the beds at least twice daily;
(xi) In some situations, if it is necessary to use crop protection products (CCP) to combat insect
attack, do not spray until the seedlings are at least 5 days old;
(xii) At 10 – 14 days, depending on the rice variety and the nursery conditions, the seedlings
should be at 4th leaf stage, which is regarded as the optimal stage for transplanting (see
Photo D);
(xiii) For easy uprooting, flood the nursery beds beforehand to soften the soil;
(xiv) To uproot, hold a few seedlings at a time and pull sideways; handle the seedlings with
care; move the seedlings to the farm site for transplanting.

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 Photo C: Pre-germinated rice seeds Photo D: Rice nursery before transplant

4. SELECTION OF RICE VARIETY TO BE CULTIVATED

Different varieties of rice perform differently in different agro-ecological zones in Nigeria. It is

important to select the right variety for the right zone or ecology. Farmers are strongly advised
to obtain appropriate guidance from their rural extension resource person, or the nearest
Agricultural Development Programme (ADP), or River Basin Development Authority (RBDA),
or the National Agricultural Seed Council (NASC), or an Agricultural Research Institute in their
locality.

4.1. Types and sources of rice seed

For open pollinated varieties (OPVs) of rice, farmers are strongly advised to plant certified rice
seeds, and to avoid replanting the grains harvested from their farms; this will ensure a better
yield as the seeds will have high viability. For hybrid varieties, farmers must acquire new seeds
for every planting cycle, without an option. It is important for farmers to source their planting
seeds from officially recognised sources, and to ensure that the seeds are certified by the
National Agricultural Seed Council (NASC).

As general information, the following varieties are used in Nigeria:

Table 1: Some Rice Varieties in Nigeria

Variety name Maturity Grain Ecology Possible yield

period shape
FARO 66 118 days Long Lowland (flood-tolerant) 4 – 7 mt/ha
FARO 67 118 days Long Lowland (flood-tolerant) 4 – 7 mt/ha
FARO 52 (WITA 4) 115 – 120 days Long Lowland 4 – 6 mt/ha
FARO 44 115 days Long Shallow swamp 4 – 6 mt/ha
FARO 50 125 days Medium Shallow swamp 4 – 6.5 mt/ha
FARO 58 110 days Long Upland 4 – 6 mt/ha
FARO 56 120 days Long Upland 4 – 6 mt/ha
Note: contact your agric agent or seed company for locality-specific information on seed varieties.

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5. RICE PLANTING: when, how, and plant population

The following activities are recommended when transplanting from rice nursery to the main
farm:
The best time to transplant rice is when the following 3 conditions are met simultaneously:

(i) The farmland has been appropriately prepared;

(ii) The nursery seedlings have reached 10 to 14 days; and
(iii) The raining season is about to be established (for rain-fed production).

Careful planning is required in order to achieve the above-named 3 conditions simultaneously.

For guidance on how to prepare a calendar for the farming season, ask a competent resource
person, or ADP, RBDA, National Agricultural Extension Research and Liaison Services
(NAERLS), or the relevant agricultural research institute nearest to you. In general, the months
of March – April would be an appropriate planting window in southern Nigeria, while May –
June is appropriate for the northern savannah region.

5.1. Transplanting the seedlings from nursery (manual method)

(i) Do not delay between uprooting the seedlings from nursery and transplanting on the farm.
Delay in transplanting the seedlings can cause slow revival or even death of the seedlings;
(ii) The recommended spacing for the transplanted seedlings on the farm ranges from 15cm to
20cm between the plants; it is normal to space 20cm x 20cm and even 22cm x 22cm.
Experiments in Tanzania show that the optimum spacing that gives the highest yield under
SRI is 25cm x 25cm, especially for late maturing varieties. However, the recommended
spacing for early maturing varieties in Nigeria is 20cm x 20cm;
(iii) Spacing at 20cm x 20cm gives a plant population of 250,000 stands per hectare;
(iv) Insert the seedling about 5cm deep, then cover the root with soil and press slightly;
(v) If the seedlings look healthy with strong vitality, plant one seedling per stand; and
(vi) If the rice farm is under irrigation system (whether manual or mechanized), apply water as
appropriate; if rain-fed, it is important to plant just when the rains are establishing, so that
the seedlings receive water soon after transplanting.

6. SOIL NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

Integrated soil nutrient management combining both organic and inorganic plant nutrients,
results in the optimal output of rice; it also conserves the natural resource base for future use in
line with sustainable agriculture. Where possible, soil testing should precede land preparation
and transplanting in order to have a good knowledge of the nutrient profile of the soil and to
address the land nutrient needs appropriately.

In general, land preparation as recommended under the Section 3 (Land Preparation) above, will
suffice. Composting on the farm can also provide good organic manure. However, it is
customary (and indeed strongly recommended) to boost the nutrient profile of the soil and of the
rice plants by applying inorganic fertilization.

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All rice ecosystems across Nigeria respond positively to the application of nitrogen (N),
phosphorous (P) and potassium (K). The recommended N-P-K doses vary according to each
agro-ecological zone. The main zones for rice production in Nigeria are categorized as:

(i) The Sahel belt and the northern guinea savannah ecology;
(ii) The southern guinea savannah ecology; and
(iii) The forest, lowland shallow swamp ecology.

Recommended N-P-K doses for these different ecologies differ, and it is strongly advised that
farmers seek guidance from extension workers in their locality on the specific brands and
combinations of fertilizer to acquire for each farming season. This is because it is possible to get
N-P-K in combined formulations in a single bag, or separate bags for nitrogenous, phosphate and
potassium fertilizers respectively. A competent resource person would share knowledge on the
proportion of each of these fertilizers to apply, and the best times to do so.

In general, some fertilizers are applied at:

(i) Planting time;

(ii) 2 – 3 weeks after planting, coinciding with the first weeding; and
(iii) 6 – 10 weeks after planting, coinciding with the onset of panicle stage.
Farmers should be sure to obtain guidance from competent resource persons before investing
money on particular types of fertilizers, and should not apply fertilizer without first obtaining
reliable advice on how and when to apply it.
When applying the appropriate fertilizer and at the appropriate time, do so after a sufficient rain,
and at a space of about 10cm from the base of the rice plant.

6.1. Water management

For rain-fed rice production as practiced across Nigeria, the best the farmer can do is to plant or
transplant the rice farm just before the rains are established, and to create field bunds and
intricate flow channels for flood water to enhance water retention and saturation in the farm (see
photos E, F & G). This will supply the water needed for the rice plant to grow through all the
stages such as tillering, panicle initiation, milking, dough, and up to harvest.
For irrigated rice production, the operational activities would depend on the type of irrigation
system, whether manual or mechanized. Whatever the source of water, whether from man-made
sources or from rainfall, it is important to manage the water well; this is to ensure that the rice
plants benefits maximally from the available water on the farmland. Doing this involves making
good bunds and drainage channels to achieve appropriate water levels and saturation for an
appropriate number of days.

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 Photo E & F: Rice plant at 23 days after single seedling transplant from 10days old nursery.

Photo G: Bund keeping

water within the plot
Photos source:
GSARDI, Gumel,
Jigawa State

As with fertilizers, any specific prescriptions or recommendations on water management in rice

production would depend on the agro-ecological zone. The competent local extension agent
with an accurate history of the local ecology should be able to provide practical advice on
effective water management activities that are low-cost and manually applicable.

7. WEED CONTROL:
Weeds compete with planted crops for soil nutrients, and therefore flourish at the expense of the
crop. Rice is particularly sensitive to weeds, and has low resilience against them. Therefore,
weed elimination or its effective control is very important to ensuring a healthy crop field and
good yield.

The timing for weed removal on a transplanted rice farm is very important. For most
smallholder farmers, a hoe or a rotary weeder (photo H) is appropriate equipment for weed
removal.

The recommended timing for the first weeding on a transplanted rice farm is 3 weeks after
transplanting, while the second weeding should be done 3 – 4 weeks after the first. A third
weeding might be necessary depending on the types of weeds and their aggressiveness. In
general, the grown rice plants form a canopy that smothers some of the weeds, thereby becoming
more resilient to weed competition than in the early weeks after emergence.

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 a b

Photo H: Rotary weeders Photo source (a): Development Input Ltd

7.1. Recommended use of herbicides for weed control

Herbicide use is an alternative to manual weed removal. The recommended timing for the first
herbicide application on a transplanted field is 3 weeks after transplanting, while the second
round of herbicide application may be done 3 – 4 weeks after the first. (Table 2)

Table 2: Herbicides and How to Use them

Herbicide Recommended application

Round-up
Ronstar 25 EC
Propanil + 2,4D Amine
Propanil + Fluorodifen
Pre-land preparation: 3 litres per hectare
Pre-emergence: 4 – 5 litres per hectare
Post-emergence
4 litres per hectare (3 weeks after transplanting or at 3 – 4 leaf stage)
4 – 5 litres per hectare

Farmers are strongly advised to seek professional guidance from competent resource persons e.g.
crop protection product (CPP) advisors before selecting and using any herbicide. The brands
and quantities recommended in Table 2 above should not be solely relied upon because all CPPs
should be context-specific and locally relevant to the problem being addressed.

8. PREVENTION, CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT OF RICE PESTS AND DISEASES

Like other crops, rice farms face threats from pests and diseases. Therefore, it is important for
rice farmers to know how to prevent, control and manage the common pests and diseases that
threaten the crop and its productivity on the farm. Rice pests include:

(i) Insects such as termites, stem borer, bugs, gall midge and armyworm;
(ii) Birds of various types;
(iii) Rodents of various types; and
(iv) Herbivores, especially when the rice plants are young.

Rice diseases include:

(i) Bacterial leaf blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv oryzae);
(ii) Bacterial leaf streak (Xanthomonas campestris pv oryzicola);
(iii) Rice blast (Pyricularia grisea, Magnaporthe grisea);
(iv) Brown leaf spot (Helminthosporium oryzae); and
(v) Striga attack.

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 Photo I: Bacterial leaf blight Photo J: Bacterial leaf streak

Photo K: Rice blast

Photo L: Brown leaf spot

Source: http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/pests-and-diseases/diseases

Pests can be prevented or controlled through integrated pest management methods (IPM) which
aim to eliminate or minimize economic threats of pests, while causing zero or the least possible
harm to the environment. IPM combines appropriate agronomic cultural practices, e.g. use of
good quality seed, adjusting the planting date if necessary, crop rotation, efficient management
of water, proper weed control, removal of termite hills, and the use of traps or poison to combat
the pest.

According to Rice Knowledge Bank (http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-

production/growth/weed-management), “disease damage to rice can greatly reduce yield. They
are mainly caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Planting a resistant variety is the simplest and,
often, the most cost-effective management for diseases.”

Table 3: Rice Pests/Diseases and How to Control them

Pests & Diseases Effects Control measures

Locusts, They eat up the leaves of the rice plant, Apply cypermethrin insecticide in
grasshoppers causing defoliation and reducing the right mix as advised by the
crickets photosynthetic functions and grain extension agent or CPP maker.
formation.
Birds They eat up broadcasted rice seeds after Some farmers trap them. Others use
planting and rice grains from heading to scarecrow.
maturity stage before harvest
Rodents (e.g.– They eat up the rice plant Trapping and fencing can help to
greater cane rat reduce attacks by grass-cutter
locally known as (Thryonomoys swinderianus)
grass-cutter)
Ants, termites, Ants occur mainly in the upland fields Termites: Destroy all dead woods
armyworms, stem where they nest below the soil surface and plant residues to check termites.
borers, and green while in wetland fields, they are Apply chloropyriphos or Carbofuran
spider mite confined to rice levees or bunds. 3G.
Stem borers can destroy rice at any Armyworms and Stem borer: apply
stage of the plant from seedling to cypermethrin 10 EC or
maturity. They feed on tillers and cause Lamdacyhalothrin 2.5E.
14
 dead hearts or drying of the central
tiller, during vegetative stage; they also
cause whiteheads at reproductive stage.
Bacterial leaf Causes yellow colouration of leaves,
blight tissue, seedlings wilting.
Brown Leaf spot & They are caused by fungal infections.
rice blast Both diseases can affect the rice plant at
all stages of growth. They are severe
where farm production management is
very poor.
Use all CPPs in the right mix as
advised by the extension agent or
CPP maker.
Plant disease resistant rice varieties.
Split application of nitrogen fertilizer
can also help
Plant diseased-free seeds or resistant
varieties; properly space the plants;
apply compost; split nitrogenous
fertilizer application; avoid farm
activities when plants are wet; burn
diseased-straw and stubble; avoid
water stress; Treat with appropriate
CPP as advised by the extension
agent or CPP maker.

9. HARVESTING

For the rice varieties listed in Table 1, the farm is ready for harvest about 110 to 125 days after
planting, depending on the variety. A rice farm is ready for harvest about 35 – 45 days after
flowering.
Harvesting is recommended once about 80% of the grains become straw-coloured, to avoid
shattering and loss of some grains on the field. Under normal conditions, a practical tip is to
start harvesting 4 – 5 weeks after 50% of the field has flowered.

9.1. How to harvest

Cut a group of the rice stems with a sharp sickle at about 15cm above the ground (this allows
enough length for hand threshing). Tie the panicles into bundles using some of the straws,
arrange in a group ready for threshing. Do not delay threshing after harvest because the panicles
may become brittle and result in higher loss of paddy. Affordable mechanical devices for rice
threshing are locally available in Nigeria.

Photo M: Mechanical threshing. Photo source: VCDP Nigeria

15
9.2. Field drying (i.e. leaving the bundles of panicles under the sun to dry)

This is not recommended because it can lead to quick deterioration in quality of the rice thereby
increasing postharvest losses.

9.3. Cleaning/Winnowing

This involves sorting out non-grain materials and immature grains. The cleaned grains should
then be sun-dried adequately before being bagged for storage. The traditional method of
winnowing involves tossing the threshed grains in the air and relying on the wind to blow away
the chaff, while the grains fall into a waiting container or onto a mat or tarpaulin underneath.
This system is ineffective when there is no wind, and can lead to much paddy loss when the
wind is too strong (the wind will blow away much of the grains). For most smallholder rice
producers in Nigeria, sorting and cleaning by hand, coupled with winnowing, remain the only
available options, even though tedious.

9.4. Storage of paddy

Once properly sun-dried, the rice grains should be bagged and kept in cool, dry and rodent-proof
storage. The storage room should be cleaned and disinfected if necessary by fumigation before
the grains are kept in it. Non-toxic insect repellents may be placed in the store room. Seek
advice and specific recommendations from the nearest extension agent or other experienced rice
farmers, marketers and warehouse operators on pest control products to acquire and how to use
them.

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10. FINANCIAL PLAN FOR RICE PRODUCTION
Smallholder Rice Farm: Single Hectare Cost/Revenue Plan
Variety: Faro 44
Season: Rain fed
Expected Yield: 5000 Kg
Number of packaged 100kg bags: 50
A. Estimated Cost of Inputs
# Item Qty Unit of Unit Cost Total Cost
Measure (Naira) (Naira)
1 Seed 50 Kg 500 25,000
2 NPK 6 Bags 12,000 72,000
3 Urea 2 Bags 7,000 14,000
4 Micronutrients 2 Litre 1,500 3,000
5 Seed Treatment 17 Sachet 400 6,800
6 Pre-emergence 4 Litres 1,700 6,800
7 Empty bags 50 100 kg 300 15,000
8 Seed storage pest management 2 Litre 2,000 4,000
supplies
  Subtotal A     146,600

B. Estimated Cost of Operations

# Description Qty Unit of Unit Cost Total Cost
Measure (Naira) (Naira)
1 Land clearing 12 Man-day 2,000 24,000
2 Ploughing 1 Ha 30,000 30,000
3 Harrowing 1 Ha 15,000 15,000
4 Basins/Bunds - labour 1 Ha 15,000 15,000
5 Nursery Establishment - labour 10 Man-day 2,000 20,000
6 Transplanting - labour 25 Man-day 2,000 50,000
7 Herbicide Application - labour 3 Man-day 2,000 6,000
8 Supplementary Weeding - labour 20 Man-day 2,000 40,000
9 Fertilizer application - labour 2 Man-day 2,000 4,000
10 Harvesting - labour 20 Man-day 2,000 40,000
11 Threshing - labour 50 Bag 500 25,000
12 Bagging - labour 50 Bag 100 5,000
13 Transport ( loading & offloading) 50 Bag 300 15,000
14 Storage/Warehousing 50 Bag 500 25,000
  Subtotal B     314,000
A+B     460,600
  C. Other Costs        
1 Payment for agric advisory services 5 Man-day 5,000 25,000
2 Land lease/ha (15% cost of - %   69,090
production)
3 Agricultural Insurance (15% cost of   %   69,090
production)
  Subtotal C     163,180
A+B+C     623,780
4 Miscellaneous       30,000
  TOTAL 653,780

D. Estimated Revenue from sale of harvested paddy

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 Description Quantity (Bags,
# Kg) or
Amount (Naira)
a Expected Yield per Hectare 5000 Kg
b Number of 100kg bags of paddy 50 bags
Total Cost of Production
c (inputs, operations & other costs) per hectare N653,780
d Estimated cost of production per 100Kg bag (c/b) N 13,076
e Estimated price of 100kg bag of paddy rice N26,000
Projected gross revenue from sale of 5000 kg paddy N1,300,000
f (e x b)
g Estimated sales & sundry expenses N100,000
Net Revenue/loss per hectare cultivated (f – c - g) N546,220

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11. RICE POST HARVEST

11.1. Rice Processing

Rice processing involves a number of operations, the ultimate aim of which is to remove all the
bran, leaving the endosperm (the grain) clean and unbroken. Rice processing in Nigeria is
carried out mostly by micro- to small-scale cottage processing, for local consumption. Large-
scale processing plants have had limited success in Nigeria due to difficulties with securing a
steady flow of raw materials (paddy), or infrastructure-related constraints. Therefore, it is
important to have a rice mill with a capacity that is suitable to the volume of the raw material
base in order to avoid having a redundant or an overworked plant capacity.

A good rice mill has the following indicators:

(i) It produces the most possible quantity of unbroken rice grains with the bran layers totally
and uniformly removed;
(ii) It makes the endosperm to have a good appearance;
(iii) It maximizes the mill’s through put capacity;
(iv) It is power-efficient;
(v) It does not generate abnormal waste;
(vi) It is labour-saving; and
(vii) It maximizes productivity relative to other milling options.

The following steps are involved in cottage rice processing:

11.1.1. Threshing, winnowing and drying (already discussed above);

11.1.2. Parboiling

This involves breaking down the molecular bonds of starch in the rice by steaming the rice in
water, the process called gelatinization. Parboiled rice is more easily digestible than brown rice,
and cooks in less time with no nutritional inferiority. Parboiled rice also has a lower Glycemic
Index (GI) than untreated white rice. Foods with low GI convert less rapidly into sugar, with a
lower risk of causing a sudden spike in the body’s sugar level (which could pose a health risk to
persons prone to diabetes). Appropriate parboiling does not degrade the B vitamins (thiamine
and niacin) in the rice. Over parboiling should be avoided: it makes the rice grain to bulge out of
the endosperm, causing abnormal waste during milling.
Local parboiling in Nigeria is done in a metal drum or pot placed over an earthen tripod or
horse-shoe shaped pot-stand. In the drum/pot, a false bottom is created to hold water, and when
the drum/pot is placed over the fire, the steam from the water rises to the paddy in the chamber
above it, thereby parboiling the rice.
Important tips on rice parboiling by Rice Post-Harvest Processing and Marketing Pilot Project
(RIPMAPP):
1. Wash paddy thoroughly with water before soaking.
2. Start soaking when temperature of mass of paddy and water is at 65 –70 Degree Celsius.

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3. Soak paddy for 8 hours.
4. Use a lid and a false bottom for steaming. The surface of the top portion has to be checked
when steaming time reaches 5 to 6 minutes. Put off the fire under the steaming container to
stop steaming 7 to 9 minutes after observing the very first steam coming from the top
portion of the paddy layer. The husk of several grains splitting at the surface layer of the
paddy is a sign to stop steaming.
5. Spread steamed paddy, accumulated not more than 2cm, on clean mats or on tarpaulin.
6. Turn over steamed paddy sometime during sun drying.
7. Stop drying at moisture contents of 12.5 – 13.0%.
8. Allow dried paddy to cool down over night

Illustration: False bottom paddy parboiling. Source: RIPMAPP

11.1.3. Drying after parboiling

The parboiled rice should be spread on tarpaulin or mats in open air, but care should be taken to
avoid prolonged exposure of the paddy to intense sun heat. The practical objective of drying is
to reduce the moisture content to just under 15% which is ideal for milling and storage.

The main challenges with open-air drying include:

a) Contamination with sand or stones;
b) Attacks or pollution by insects, pests, birds, rodents, and other animals;
c) Chemical pollution, e.g. lead from passing automobiles; and
d) The need to have enough space to spread the paddy and the enough human labour and time
to standby until paddy is dry.

Photo N: Parboiled rice spread to dry.

Photo source: VCDP Nigeria

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11.1.4. Milling
This refers to the de-husking, cleaning, de-stoning, and polishing (where applicable) of the rice
grains. It could also involve grinding the rice grains into powder (flour). There are various
affordable technologies for cottage scale rice milling in Nigeria. The laborious and time-
consuming manual method of rice de-husking (manually pounding the paddy gently in a mortar
and winnowing) is becoming rare, even in the remotest villages; wheel-mounted rice mills are
now available, and some youth groups offer itinerant milling services using the technology.
Larger-scale milling plants are automatic installations with preset capacities, operations and
requirements, and could automatically carry out a gamut of operations (from electric parboiling
to the polishing and bagging of the de-husked grains).

Photo O: A VCDP-assisted processor de-stoning milled rice using a

Destoner before weighing and bagging. Photo source: VCDP Nigeria

11.1.5. Bagging and labelling after milling

The purpose of bagging the rice is to have a uniform quantity in each bag, for weight-based
pricing in the market. Bagging also protects the rice from contaminants until each bag is opened
by the final consumer.

Labelling is information printed on the rice bag. Good labelling should state precisely the
following:
a. The quantity, quality (e.g. if perfumed or organic), and type of rice (e.g. long grain) in the
bag;
b. Any helpful nutrition information;
c. The rice producer’s identity and place of origin; and
d. Any proof of certification, warrant, or authenticity e.g. NAFDAC registration number or
stamp of approval by the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON).

A good labelling also enhances the visual presentation of the rice packaging, thereby appealing
to consumers and perhaps commanding a higher market demand and price. It is important to
seek professional advice to have good and effective bagging and branding that will enhance sales
and popularity of the rice.

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11.1.6. Storage

After bagging and branding, the bags of rice should be kept under appropriate storage
conditions. Due to poor power supply in Nigeria, most rice warehouses have no air
conditioning, but should be well-ventilated, free of insects and rodents, and have dry floors or
and low humidity. This means that a good rice warehouse should be purpose-built to provide
ample cross-ventilation. Strong pellets with elevated stands from the floor should be installed,
and the rice bags placed on the pellets. Rice farmers or marketers should seek to sell in the off-
season in order to earn higher prices for their rice; therefore, they need to keep the rice in good
storage until the desired favourable price.

11.1.7. Marketing

This involves all activities connected with:

a) Conducting market research to understand the population segment that will potentially buy
the products;
b) Creating awareness among potential buyers by way of advertisement;
c) Setting up product distribution channels and centres, including wholesale and retail outlets;
d) Providing advisory services on how to use the product; and
e) Favourable price competition with other suppliers.

In Nigeria, most smallholder rice farmers may not overtly engage in professional marketing
activities for their produce; nonetheless, they are conscious of market preferences, demand and
price trends, and do respond by choosing to cultivate certain varieties e.g. FARO 44 over other
rice varieties. It is beneficial for rice farmers to form producer groups in order to be able to have
postharvest aggregation, collective bargaining power with big buyers, and reduced marketing
overheads.

11.2. Use of rice husks for production of briquettes

This aspect of the rice postharvest value chain is essentially a waste recycling activity, involving
the use of rice husks (generated during the rice milling process) as raw material for the
production of fire briquettes. The briquettes serve as environmentally friendly substitutes to
firewood which use would involve the felling of trees. Well-made briquettes are smoke-free and
have a slow but intense combustibility. The process of making briquettes is outside the scope of
this field manual. However, interested parties should contact the FGN-IFAD VCDP, which has
project-supported briquette factories as part of VCDP-assisted integrated rice processing centres
in target states in Nigeria.

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ACRONYMS

ADP Agricultural Development Programme

CPP Crop Protection Product
FGN Federal Government of Nigeria
FMARD Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
GI Glycemic Index
GSARDI Green Sahel and Rural Development Initiative
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IPM Integrated Pest Management Method
K Potassium
N Nitrogen
NAERLS National Agricultural Extension Research and Liaison Services
NAFDAC National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control
NASC National Agricultural Seed Council
P Phosphorous
RBDA River Basin Development Authority
RIPMAPP Rice Post-Harvest Processing and Marketing Pilot Project
SON Standards Organization of Nigeria
SRI System of Rice Intensification
VCDP Value Chain Development Programme

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REFERENCES

Africa Rice: http://africarice.blogspot.com.ng/2017/08/nigeria-releases-africarice-flood.html

Agricultural Sciences, 2016, 7, 270-278 Published Online April 2016 in SciRes. 
http://www.scirp.org/journal/as http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/as.2016.74026 

Guideline for RIPMAPP Technology Dissemination: For High-quality Parboiled Milled Rice by Small-
scale Processors. Federal Republic of Nigeria, Rice Post-Harvest Processing and Marketing Pilot Project
in Nasarawa and Niger States (RIPMAPP)
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-
production/growth/weed-management

National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS), Ahmadu Bello University
Zaria. Rice Production, Processing, Utilization and Marketing in Nigeria. Extension Bulletin No. 230
Reuben, P., Kahimba, F.C., Katambara, Z., Mahoo, H.F., Mbungu, W., Mhenga, F., Nyarubamba, A. and
Maugo, M. (2016). Optimizing Plant Spacing under the Systems of Rice Intensification (SRI).
Agricultural Sciences, 7, 270-278.  http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/as.2016.74026 

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i
Helgi Library. URL: http://www.helgilibrary.com/indicators/rice-consumption-per-capita/
A statement credited to Aminu Goronyo, the President of Rice Farmers Association of Nigeria (RIFAN), as
ii

reported in the Business and Economy section of the Punch newspaper dated 17 May 2017. URL:
http://punchng.com/rice-production-in-nigeria-increases-to-5-8m-tonnes-in-2017-rifan/