4 MAINLY WARM FRONTS, OCCASIONALLY COLD FRONTS / Nimbosteatus obit — Oregephic ind was numed for a warm dry wind that occurs in the Alps. There are several! other winds in other parts of the world which are caused by the sume effect, such as the Chinook winds, which flows down the east side of The Foehn Wind occurs when air is forced to rise up a mountain side In stable "onditions. it cools in iy at the DALR until it reaches saturation. At this : es SHRUFOHOD “point, /doud s ‘starts to form and the air continues to rise, but now cools at the SALR. n= eae Once it reaches the top of the mountain it starts to flow down the other side. Initially it warms at the SALR but quickly becomes unsaturated as much of its moisture has already been lost. It then warms at the DALR. SAHIL KHURANA SEC~ 7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290Liu PELELLELOLELELLELLELELELL Ebb bilbil 28 Since the cloud base is higher on the lee side, the air at the base on that side will be warmer than on the windward side. The difference can be as much as 10°C (20°C with the Chinook). As it passes over the crest of the ridge, the lifting force no longer is present so the air flows down the other side. It initially warms at the SALR. Since much of its moisture has condensed out as cloud, it becomes unsaturated again at” @ lower temperature than the original Dewpoint. VY CLOUDS FORMED F a The following clouds can be formed orographically: IN UNSTABLE CONDITIONS 0 cumulus “4 _¥ Cumulonimbus IN STABLE CONDITIONS _ “A Sieces tA Sirdtonmiies wa Altocumutus A Altocumulus lenticularis C cep chondA +-Ounlal, utr \ CLOUD TYPES The cloud types that form are oa that are associated with instability. These are cumulus, cumulonimbus, and towering cumulus. me mOolmbus, and towering cumulus: ‘The following types of clouds are formed convectively: WSL Comutus wt eZ reivenng cumulus _lametoninntes SANIL KHURANA ‘SEC~7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871856280ot +10 he +14 +12 a o col: —— Nel SIeN Ki +12 I Et) ‘ tHe gp - Ce ett “ re tN +20 © Tibudne late dren peysote ths Lie tiag ee gy Hirhlenrs Caeda amt -Sc,Aoce. AAARAARDDNANDDPDADAAANMNM | bere Pp pension hoytar. —— iB : tiie 7 : A, Conde tae oe ed Z m“ dale. ev c iO J a ee c i S : 1571 Aon +7 =eTHIS IS WHY LOW PRESSURE SIGNIFIES A BAD WEATHER CONDITION k& Convection - Air heated by conduction will be less dense and will | therefore rise. This will produce up currents called thermals or convection currents. These will take the the upper Tevels, thus helping to ing to heat the upper atmosphere. Cane p Turbulence clouds can form whenever there is a stable layer. Such a stable. _/ ayer may occur if there is an inversion or isothermal layer above it, preventing lifting. ae Ee CLOUD TYPES vw The following cloud types are formed by turbulence: A Stratus r: Stratocumulus 7, Altocumulus. ¥ Grrocumulus_ REMEMBER : ISOTHERMAL & INVERSION are STABLE ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS SAHIL KHURANA, SEC ~ 7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871865290# Aah wees A et a Gh Sots agin @ Hh gree towel O's sop $ —escdtin Vapornte form aed veg taln Hee os yet Be THAGER a Fella entt lye ae eR Won woN ee RA BB HAR BAH TR ALAAPELLELELELELEELELELEGELEEEE LEE LLG! 3 suunpersrorms (4 -6 ments) 2 TRIGGER ACTIONS. TRC ER ACTIONS There are four different possible trigger actions: . Convection A orographic ualift. convergence, > 1 A Econtalliting (generally in association with cold fronts and eeclusions) © Convection is the most Likely trigger action. Since surface heating is greater in the summer, statistically these thunderstorms are more likely in the summer. They are also more likely during the day and over land and tend to be isolated a c= —— OROGRAPHIC UPLIFT With orographic uplift, thunderstorms can occur at any time of the day or if the uplift is over a range of hills they may night ‘occur in a line form @ These are association with low pressures or non-frontal troughs. Time of day ond year depends on the type oflow C cgwise~y-Pt~ »marure stace et The mature stage is characterised by the onset of precipitation. This precipitation is produced hy the combination of ice crystals and water ‘SAHIL KHURANA, SEC ~ 7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 0987186629032 # 22 droplets. The precipitation causes downdraughts of approximately 2000 - 3000 fpm. 8 The up-draughts are still still present, increasing to as much as 10,000 fpm v2 This mixture of up-draughts and downdraughts causes strong - turbulence within and below the cloud. lightning, are are discussed later. LA The moture stoge asts epproximately 2 ~ ® DISSIPATING STAGE LELELLLELELLL This stage commences when the local supply of moisture is no longer sufficient to support t the storm. a a ~The stage is characterised by the appear ‘on anvil: This occurs when the cloud top reaches t the tropopause and is spread 0 out by the d upper winds 0 form a flattopped anvil shope. LbELGLLLS dein cocgrs remove the moisture from the cloud. The precipitation diminishes and the downéraughis are too strong to support roll clouds. ,, usually of posi at the bottom. charge ot the top of the cloud and The build-ups eventually lead to lightning discharge and the heat of this lightning is so much it causes the air to expand explosively b because of which we hear a clap of thunder. an SX wuioh rtning 7 tion Lightning is most likely to occur within 5,000 ft. of the freezing level. ae v ant legen He Temperature between 20° and -10°. Cee ot Shane x « SAHIL KHURANA SEC ~ 7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290 Pr Poh bepPpnapDPApPpPNNNAaA Rnnnyn nh n sk wR wh SoPELELEEELELELLELELELEG EEE EEE ILE 33, nt can cause a pilot to be temporarily blinded. oT Compasses can become totally unreliable. Some damage caused airframe. ® TURBULENCE Turbulence can be violent both within cloud and at their sides. Below the doud, turbulence can be dangerous during take-off and landing and there. can be wind shear. It is possible for a pilot to overstress the airfromé in these conditions. AC GUST FRONT could be up to a height of 6000 ft. and 20 to 30 Km ahead of cloud. dX microsursts ( Le+8tiwn bb ee Microbursts are strong downdraughts of of air that at descend from 1 the centre of CB clouds with speeds up to 60 kt down to levels as low as 300 ft. They are typically less than 5 kin across and last from 1 to 5 ‘minutes. oO They are concentrated in a burst which is up to 3nm (5km) in horizontal length and have a lifetime of about 5 minutes. 7 (AMAGROBURST sa similr event but over a bigger area.) (rx ett, been j Ot Gain _7 A warning sign is VIRGA, which is streaks of precipitation from below . (Recqust tog ng eof) This-can occur at all heights in the cloud where the temperature is between Cant and -45°C. Heavy concentrations of droplets and {large droplet size result in-severe clear Icing. Carburettor icing can occur at temperatures between -10° Cand +30°C and it can be particularly severe between -2°C and + 15°C. Hail can be encountered in the cloud, below the cloud, and beneath the anvil IL SAHIL KHURANA SEC -7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871856290% Le ‘un ths a v. voolt CR Mm Drbha ‘wm a) Nowe manda lnpi ey ce “in ofirerban OF cLalta regen MLE and Sa bot ~8eelhn period - a eT a ets NW Drvten Jikee i Dntacher 33 Jin Dy Gomer of busteloun ,_nanrTreDRPPnnanphnpnpf ARDLHAN ADM Ma ae cabled HEH IS. ep ate Ses cst) a Rome snot (ketPLLLLELEELELELLEELLGLEEEELEEELEELELIE KK BD ep i ‘ The stronger the lifting and the greater the moisture content, the g chance of hail. Hail can be up to 14 am in diameter and can be encountered up to 45000 ft. producing severe skin damage with even a short exposure, MOVEMENT OF THUNDERSTORMS _ Thunderstorms usually move in the direction of the 10,000 ft (700 mb) wind, though large storms and for a supercell by winds at 500 TORNADOS Q These are usually associated with severe thunderstorms anéTropical Revolving Storms (TRS), particularly in the mid-west of the United States of America. Q They take the form of a violent whirlwing:extending up from the ground into the base of the Cumulonitribus cloud. U The speed of the air in the vortex has been known to exceed 200 knots. U The width of the vortex is typically less than 300 metres horizontally SUPERCELL THUND! RMS Great depth of instability with sufficient moisture (D Vertical windshesr Q jayer at low clouds (4=jux 4% Pitlem) PRECIPITATION Astable There are two theories concerning the formation of precipitation BERGERON THEORY (THE ICE CRYSTAL EFFECT) > Where sub-zero conditions occur, both ice crystals and water droplets may be present. SAHIL KHURANA SEC—7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290Lb bb bb GUCCI ORR ene v oe » PLELEELE > Water vapour may sublimate onto the ice crystals. Collision with supercooled droplets ollows the crystal to grow in size. > Once the crystal reaches a sufficient size, it folls as precipitation. The type of precipitation depends on the temperature of the air through which it falls. & If sufficiently warm, the crystal melts and falls as a rain droplet. if not, it might fall as snow. COALESCENCE THEORY (CAPTURE EFFECT) Inthe cloud there are water droplets of varying sizes. The larger,heavier droplets fall faster and collide with smaller droplets on their way down. When the droplets become sufficiently heavy, they fall as precipitation. SAHIL KHURANA ‘SEC—7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290‘FeonT — J a fej : pee i Cth Gteods). ae Ise ate he eteectoy = | on pps save FallCLov? ) Stats | Riae CH igh) ; - Win DS BF aan Vertabte Verran : Cloves TINGMSIES ED | (F049) Soltimd Sec (pee cre TATION Heosty Rein Rabu Canser | | No halt P ame mens Nee | et Ng BL Pee raaim) 7 _ CF 04) ; ini ¢ | Cc c a3 A frontis the boundary between two air properties. Usually the comparison is made between the relative temperatures of the air masses. There are two main types of front: the warm front and the cold front. masses, generally in motion, with different A amass eo _Anair mass is 2 large section or troposphere moisture in horizontal i uniform properties of temperature and _ HEEbEEEEbEbbELE LS a oh XK WARM FRONT by wv = Warmair overtaking cold air _ ay » U7 Warsi ing lighter ides per Wi st mare 1 Stratiform of clouds 2% Shown on chart as ed line or as f a GELGLELELGLEGL SAHILKHURANA, SEC ~7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290 bbpRessore persicae Win BS CLoews peEaA TATION OO paige alt WSRILITY pretst Ve EN NINN 4 anf Dw hoo ort a ot Hi nnan nnonnn fn nnnann alt ied S PERS a re’ PEE G EEE ECCGLEEELEEEELE LLU 7 < cow rront A cold ar isovertaking assarm ai, 7 sata wy ae wee uv Cold mass being heavier, cold from undercuts warm sir 20 K iss - a oh te, 4 RAPID MOVEMENT 30KNOTS __ SLOW 15 KNOTS AVERAGE _ Cold a” PUSHES UNDER THE WARIM AIR was CP DES OVER COLD AIR wats) STEEP FRONTAL SLOPE Cua SHALLOW FRONTAL SLOPE Giese) @ ( 50) THUNDERSTROM & SHOWERS DRIZZLE AND STEADY ppt — —— . CUMULIFORM CLOUDS STRATIFORM CLOUDS % BMSOn ae TURBULENT. SMOOTH Poss seus GREs fos ) eile dbase | AEG as | SEC 7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 08871866290PEVb bbb bb boeboebb bbb bbhobbe bob beboutri rides 38 OCCULUDED FRONT Acald front moves at twice the speed of a warm front Occluded front formed when a cold front catches up with warm front coup occuysion fe very cold air in the rear is replacing less cold air ahead + Common in summers WARM OCCLUSION

‘ , * Ifless cold air in the rear is replacing colder air ahead am % + Inwinters and in less common > * IN BOTH COLD AND WaRM OCCLUSION INTENSE WEATHER TYPES OF AIRMASSES SYMBOL PLACE OF ORIGIN. PROPPERTIES A Polar regions, Extreme low temp, Low humidity in ~ but humidity increases in summers Polar Continental Pe Aub-Polar Low temperatures which increase with Continental area movernent towards lower latitude, Low humidity Polar maritime Pm, Sub-polar and Arct’ Low temperature which increase. with a Oceanic areas movement towards lower latitude , High humidity Tropical Continental Te Subtropical High High temperatures, Low ‘humidity — pressure land area ‘Tropical Maritime Tm Southern border of Moderately high temperature, high * oceanic sub tropice humidity » highs Equatorial (_. Em Equatorial and tropical seas__High temperatures, high humidity SW Maritime) Monsoon In Em ait mass) SAIL KHURANA SEC 7, DIARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866250ASA SAA ae ee Wind is the horizon spon LAS Itisexpressed os 0 wind velocity, which is « combinetion. of direction ond speed, The. rection given is clways that from which the wind is blowing, P“cunanemomerer (Busies fo 43 iaeasurement or surrace win ff, 39 surface of the Earth due to forces acting , nase obid) wet * Hae an oirpor, wind is measured by placing the sensors 10 metres above an even around Surfdce, Aton airport, wind is measured by placi ing the sensors 10 metres above an even-ground surface. ‘THE BEAUFORT SCALE OF WIND, SPEED EQUIVALENTS ARE FOR A STANDARD HEIGHT OF 19 METRES ABOVE CEN FLAT GROUND | Soved Ecuvatnt roan speed gusts < ior) Deserve Fore | Tem | Specifications eal “ “ [em smoce res js itr | 48 2 | lati | os geri breeze | 710 nodes ranches rmaten,nbisting heard in legraph sires umbres wed ly to fe tees nmaton; hearuenencs fe wen walking, 851 [area is tis cf tes: prayed progress 9 | seepode ww | wots | 68 [ea Pron toe fw ete” br Gustis a sudden increase in wind speed lasting a few second: Sustis a sudden increase in wind speed lasting a few seconds, 7 squeit {5.0 wind speed increase of at least 16 kt to a uniform speed of at least 22 kt lasting forat least one minute. squalls are oft with CBs. te is ¢ decrease in wind speed lasting from a few seconds to a few minutes. 7 Gas i f wi of 4 18 0, gusting to 43 kt or more. Gale iso mean surface wind of 24 kt ormor SAHIL KHURANA, SEC~7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290CoklOLis Force (were, & S Ladilede ena ayo ) ; od {i oe corr. j Suet Velocity gf corte ene L x tigen Bey ates nen eon gers to bho Ge = AiG, F i CF 21 ASVS0 —O Visine = See Mery 10. “ a “bak weg =? Tete _| i ee oeMb b bob bbbeoebbbgbesebbbbbbbbbs|tbsbsbecere 40 ¢ 7 wind cradiontisthe the friction layer. (D THE PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE ———E—E— The Pressure Gracient Force (PGF) is the force that initiates movement of air. Ifthere is region of high pressure adjacent to a region of low pressure, the air flows jrom the high pressure to the lov pressure. If there were no other forces acting, this woul ue ur ‘equal, resulting in no more pressure gradient. o ‘THE GEOSTROPHIC FORCE This is also referred to as the Coriolis Force. Geostrophic force is due to the rotation of the Eorth and the law of inertia, The Earth rototes ata ‘fixed speed. At the Equator, the line of latitude with the largest circumference, objects on the Earth move faster than those at higher latitudes, becouse they have to travel a longer distance in ‘the some amount of time. FE tnsummary due to Corio effect, objects eppecr to turn rigitin the Northern Hemisphere, and leftin the Southem Hemisphere. BP a qf This resultont wind is called the Geostrophic Wind and flows parallel to the straight Isobors os shown in the diegrom. I gives rice to Buys Ballot's law, which stotes K “inthe Northern Hemisphere with your barckcto the wind, the low pressure is on your left." “Wed weelben) 4¢° Insummary, the conditions for the geostrophic wind are: A Above the friction layer. (2—~ aovodt) Cabot) AD Greater than 15°N/s latitude bec. Fis VE where CEP (Og: od opp: ) A ssuseta Mt isobars. il near equator Gradient Wind 1 GEOSTROPHIC WIND around a high wo di 3 SAHIL KHURANA aoe Winds ans di OB sec—7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI erbleg lon becamme Chel Sefhorte — ossrisss2sosoncace_ Wis : GeesteoPte Winns Gqeesthop Hic Wines. posbig s ae vernks Sefer Wirt ; Gr. ce bea Pat < SO << spe | Fheriow | ewe ene ee SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE gen vet hadepaans Cai) aloes H Vernged ohn, | woo ft queoopis randy bockea ant wrtgdee beta o oddihion~!t Lad 20° Sex Vol Wat occreos By Sahara, “Gen Beceze (087) A uy Be Surfee casi AG i \ Lane Reece Cyt ) 4 RPTT TELE LEL bb bbb bbbb bbb bhbbbbbbowetrir rrr 41 3K reccosonnr np «© The Geostroghic Wind only opplies to straight parcilel isobors. LAC This wind follows the curved isobars so the ai tarts torotote around the centre of the system. = = rc -. This rotation brings an additional force into play, called centrifuga force. rhs fo force acting eutwards fiom the centre ofthe system SS ees WINDS NEAR THE EQUATOR CF is NIL Near Equator Then Whot wind will flow? At latitudes less than 15 deg. the formule for geastrophic wind breaks down due to the jow value of the coriollis force. With straight isobars the wind tends to flow across the isobors from high to low pressure. However, with curved isobars the situetion is different. In some situations the centrifugal force ‘becomes so large that it balances the pressure gradient force. When this happens, the wind is said to be CYCLOSTROPHIC. Examples are in a tropical revolving storm or o tornado. SEA BREEZE During the doy, the lond heats up mere quickly than the see. The air in contact with the land heats up and rises by the process of convection which jeads to a decrease in pressure at the surface and an increase in pressure ot approximately 4000 - 2060 fag LAND BREEZE After sunset the land starts to cool down much more rapidly than the sea. This leads to a reversal ofthe above situation. The sea surjace experiences a lower pressure and the land a higher pressure @s shown in the diagram. The wind now blows fram the land to the sea. U1 Anabatic wird is the opposite of the Kotabetic wind end occurs during the day on slopes which are stsbject to direct sunlight: As insolation increases, the air in contact with the land warms up; becomes less dense and flows up the slope. U1. the Anahatic wind is typically weaker than the Katabatic (about 5 kt) since it flows ogainst the force of arovity. KATABATI “Disring the night a hillside cools down rapidly. The air in contact with it is cooled by conduction and ‘becomes more dense than the free air next tot. It therefore flows down the hillside. The Foehn Wind was named for a warm dry wind that occurs in the Alps. There ore several ather winds in other parts of the world which are caused by the same effect, such as the Chinook, which Slows down the east side of the Rocky Mountains. The wind must obey Buys Ballots Law: SAHIL KHURANA, SEC~ 7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290od Be @N AY 0 jh Sean spor Hho barge ee Se Co tan ant bed J Tate 2 gud Bf pcetic&-coF® prnd por” ye fer cold smkie Joon oe Aptinin CAT 2a este sear ee ed ata ean aang an nt Grd OrT Wg =P 35 kins [100 NM yvWws > 5 m/s / bm ae we K Rw RR Ee A ew we i Re Bale42 “In the Northern Hemisphere with your back to the wind, the low pressure is on your left.” Hence, in this example, the wind must be blowing off the page. This gives o new law similar to Buys Ballot's Law: “in the Northern Hemisphere with your back to the upper wind, the cold air is on your left.” COLD AIR HAS ACTUALLY A LOW PRESSURE DUE TO HIGHER PRESSURE LAPSE RATE, ¢ INTRODUCTION Ajet stream is a wind greater than 60 kt ia'speed, which manifests Itself as a long corridor of wind with typical dimensions of 1500 nai‘in length, 200 am in width and 12000 fe. in depth. They are caused by large temperature differences in the horirontal, pb oo bb Ue b tb bbb eee © Clear air turbulence (TURB) occurs around the boundaries of jetstreams because of the large horizontal and vertical windshears. = Tp s5kins ioe 0S Bw/s Jem tis strangest near to, or just below, the jet axis on the cold air (low pressure) side with a » secondary area above the axis a “The sub-tropical jet streams exist all year round but move as the heat equator moves. in winter ‘they exist in the latitude band 25°- 40" and in the summer are found in the latitude band 40’ to 48° Polar front jetstreams form in the polar front region in both hemispheres 40° to 65° Nand around 50° ond near any front which is separate from the polar front. The Jetstreams in a polar front depression lie parallel to the fronts. Caused by the temperoture difference between cell SAHIL KHURANA SEC~7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290,| (pig sna [Siggoe—4 Hol Se P ree Handle, [ra DNS @: a Uv He 4 ton, Fhe peler Meg Sd me © Ts ike Petar Colly won Side (D farmed Wirtavles ‘Sees whoug flo Lrellswa, ids tenon pedetlly adda) We user nel ovords LD cdbeabats upper Hint Mey aed A ee ee eee er re ee a mihi wit vated yay TR ty OYbbEbbbbbbubbbbbbbbsbbddddecul PLbbbbbt 2 RK rropicat easreryser 2D sarong easterh thot occur In the Northern hemisphere summer between 10° and 20° north, where the contrest between intensely heated central Asian ploteaux nd uaper ait farther south s greatest. TueRMaL vin : The pressure difference created by different temperatures will cause winds. In the northern = hhemisohere with your back to the wind the cold air wi be on the left, (because this co gives us. low pressure in she upper atmosphere). This wind is known as the thermal wind. "the thermel wind i the component which when added vectoraly tothe geostrophic Wind near the surface will provide the upper wind.” vA Latitude Pressure Level Polar front jet stream 45° 10 65° NIS. "300 hPa ~ 30 000 & Sub-tropical jet stream 20° to 40° WS | 200 hPa - 45 OCOR Equatorial jet stream 10° to 15° WS. | 100 hPa — 55 ODO Ft Polar jet stream _| 79" 10 80" ws: 5U hPa ~ 75 000 ft SAHIL KHURANA SCC~7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290PELbDEGbEbEELEGEELEDbEGbEEELEEEEEL EEL 4 4 Visibility is a measurement of atmospheric clarity. Reduction in visibility can be caused by: » Water droplets, such as cloud, fog, or rain. » Solid particles, such as sand, dust, or smoke. > Ike, such as crystals, hail, or snow. Poor visibility is more common in stable conditions, for example, beneath an inversion TYPES OF VISIBILITY REDUCTION There are several types of visibility reduction, These are: Mist Coused by very smoll water droplets in a RH of more than 95%. The visibility is between 1000 and 5000 metres. Fog Also water droplets. Visibility is less than 1000 COULD BE ZERO metres and RH is very close to 100%. Haze Caused by solid particles such as sand, dust, or smoke. There is no lower or upper limit to visibility but haze is not reported above 5000-m visibility. METEOROLOGICAL VISIBILITY Meteorological visibility is also known as Meteorological Optical Range (MOR) and is the furthest horizontal distance on the ground that an observer with normol eyesight can recognise a dark-coloured object. OBLIQUE VISIBILITY When fiying at altitude, stant visibility is the maximum distance a pilot can see to o point on the ground. The oblique visibility is the distance measured along the ground from the point directly beneath the aircraft to the furthest point the pilot can see. RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE Runway VisuatRange (RVR) Q ‘és the maximum distance in the direction of take-off or landing at which a pilot in the threshold area at 15 Ft above ground can see marker boards by day, or runway lights by night. ©) Q Its only used when the meteorological visibility is less than 1500 metres or when ‘fog is reported or forecast. Three Transmissometers are positioned alongside the runway. SAHIL KHURANA, 'SEC~7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290PELLEELGEEEbLELEGEELEEE Ebb bbb EEE ELEL 4s, A transmissometer comprises a light source transmitter and photo-electrie cell receiver which are separated from each other. Readings are sent to ATC. Three readings can be given, one each for touch-down zone, mid-point and stop-end, Inearlier times done by on observer ‘The RVR con be assessed by positioning an observer 76 metres from the centre line of thé runway in the touchdown area. Ifonly 2 readings are given, the first relates to touch down, and the second is prefixed os follows : Q 600 stop end 550. QO 600 mid point 400. Mi /-point and/or stop-end values are suppressed when;- 4) they have equal or higher values than TDZ and é Value above 400 metres, (300/450/600 would be reported R 300). b) If the values are 800 metres or greater, (1000/850/200 would be reported R 1000) RVR is reported in increments of 25 m up to 200 m, 50 m up to 800 m, end 100 mover 800 m RADIATION FOG At night, the ground loses its heat by radiation, The ground becomes cold ond cools the air incontact with it If this lowers the air temperoture below the dewpoint, water vapour condenses out as coplets, resulting in fog if there is alight wind, or dew/frost if there are calm conditions. Conditions necessary for radiation fog to form are: Clear sky which increases the rate of terrestrial radiation (fog can still form in light, high cloud cover such as scattered cirrus). Ol High relative humidity so that only a little cooling will be required for the air to "reach saturation. Q Alight wind of 2 to 8 kt which mixes the air bringing warmer air from above to the surface to be cooled and thickening the fog. SAHIL KHURANA, SEC~7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290PLLLbGLELEEEEE Ebb bb bbb bb bb bbddddddll ‘TIMES OF OCCURRENCE Q Autumn and winter. Night and early morning. The lowest temperotures are carly morning. LOCATION. % Over land - not over sea because there is little DV of temperature. O Firstly in valleys because of the katabatic effect. In onticyclones, ridges and cols. Dispersal: g @) By insolation causing convection which will lift the fog. It witf also help to evaporate the lower layers. 4) By a strong wind lifting the fog to form stratus cloud. HILL / OROGRAPHIC FOG Hill fog is cloud on the sides of or the top of a hill or mountain which has been generated by the movement of humid air up the hillside (orogropiic lifting). Visibility will be 200 metres or less ADVECTION FOG Advection fog is formed by the movement of warm, moist air over a cold surface. The surface can be land or sea. Conditions necessary for advection fog to form: > Winds up to 15 kts to move the air. (May be stronger over seo areas) > A high RH so that relatively lttie cooling is required to produce saturation and subsequent condensation. > Acold surface with a temperature lower than the Dew. Point (DP} of the moving air to ensure condensation. ‘Times of occurrence and location: Q) Over fand areas in winter and early spring. ) Over sea oreas in late spring and early summer. SABIL KHURANA SEC 7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 99871866250,LELLLEEEEELELELEELEEEEEEEEELELELLELIL 7 4) By achonge of airmass. (Wind change). 4) By a windspeed greater than 15 kts which will lift the fog to form stratus cloud. Y Steaming fog, or as it is sometimes called, Arctic Smoke, occurs over sea in polar regions, eg the fiords of Greenland, Iceland and the sea areas of high latitudes. Y Itis caused by cold air from a land mass moving over a wormer sea. p> The small amount of evaporation from the seais enough to cause saturation and: Condensation but the air itself must be very stable. % The fog can be persistent and up to 500 feet thick - may drift inland! Ex- Latest release in harry potter movie STEAM FOG FRONTAL FOG Frontal fog occurs at @ warm front or occlusion. The main cause Is precipitation Jowering the cloud base to the ground. Subsidiary causes are: 9) ‘Evaporation of standing water on the ground. 6) Mixing of saturatedcir with non-saturated air below. The fog can form atong a belt up to 200 run wide which then travels with the front. 0). BY DAY. Measurements are made by reference to suitable objects at known distances jrom an observing position. “b) BY NIGHT. If a suitable arrangement of lights of known candlepower is not aveilable the visibility value obtained has to be the daytime equivalent in terms. of atmospheric obscurity. This is achieved by viewing lights of known candlepower from a known distance through o variable filter in an instrument called a Gold's Visibility Meter SAKIL KHURANA ‘SEC~7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866200‘ce will form on an cirframe if there is: O Water ino liquid state. O Ambient cir temperature below O°C|but see later). Airframe temperature below O°C. EVEN IF THE FREEZING NUCLIE IS NOT PRESENT THE PRESENCE OF THE AIRCRAFT WILL MAKE THE ‘SUPERCOOL WATER DROPLETS TO FREEZE ON IMPACT Size of o Water Droplet % O°Cto-20°C- both large and smell supercooled woter droplets exist. -20°C to -40°C - small supercooled water droplets exist. At these temperatures large supercooled water droplets will have become ice. v Below -40°C - only very small supercooled water droplets con exist-Ail otheis:#ill have become ice. Freezing will occur without the aid of nucle. Insummary, large supercooled water droplets occur: Lin Wand CB from O'C to -20'C 2. In NS at temperatures from 0'C to-10'C. 3. f the NS has been enhanced by orographic uplift, between OCand-20'C. SMALL SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS Insummary, smell supercooled water éroplets occur: 1. In CU and CB from 20°C to-40'C. 2. In NS at temperatures from -10°C to -40' C. 3. Ifthe NS hos been enhanced by orographic uplife, between -20'C nd -40" C. 4. INST, SC, AS, AC from 0 to -40'C. Note: Supercooled water droplets do not occur in the Citriform clouds. These consist of ice crystals. “ ‘THEEFFECTS OF ICING AERODYNAMIC - Ice forms mostly on the leading edges of the airframe and aerofoils. This spoils the oerodynamic shape of the airframe and leads to: Reduced lift (up to 30%) Increased drag (up to 40%) SAHIL KHURANA SEC~7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI 09871866290 / Mobb bb bob bb bul b l, b LF b b 4 4 b b b b 4 L i é bebiis bb ob L L L L 4 b 4 L b 4 4 4 b b 4 b b uv d d ‘I d d d d GA 49 Increased weight Increased stalling speed Increased fuel consumption Increased weight FR ZING PRO: When a supercooled water droplet impacts an airframe, not llof it freezes instantly. The fraction’ that fieezes instantly depends on the temperature of the droplet. For every degree below zero, 4/80 ofthe droplet will freeze on impoct So ifthe temperature is~ 20°C 1/4 will freeze on impact: if the droplet is-40°C, 1/2 will freeze on impoct. ‘So with a warmer droplet, the freezing process is slower. As a fraction of the droplet freezes, latent heats released which deloys the freezing ofthe remainder of te droplet. This lows the liquid port to flow over the airfrome (called flowback) end freeze more gradually: THIS IS WHY SEVERE ICING IN 0 10 7 Deg. 3 TYPES OF ICING (CLEAR ICE (GLAZE ICE or TRANSLUCENT) Clear ice, or glaze ice, forms when large supercooled droplets impact with an airframe. When the droplet impacts the airframe it does not freeze instantly. It starts to freeze and asa result some latent heot is released. This raises the temperature slightly, allowing the woter to flow over the airframe before subsequently freezing. This results in a clear coating of ice which adheres strongly tothe surface of the aircroft. VY Glear ice isa very serious form of icing which is heavy and difficult to remove. Uneven formation on propellers can lead to vibration and chunks brecking off and causing skin damage. The weight, which con be uneven, leads to stability and control problems and the aerofoit shope is spoiled. Because of this, clear ice is usually described as moderate to severe. ¥" Since large droplets only occur in CU, CB, and NS, this type of ice is only found in those 4. eouds, and only in the temperature range 0°C to-20°C. RIME ICE > Forms from impact with smaill supercooled droplets, mest of the droplet freezes instantly with little or no flow back. > alr becomes trapped between the droplets causing the ice to be opaque or cloudy. It is a granular coating which is generally easy to remove. SAHIL KHURANA SEC ~7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI osg71866290