K. Silaipillayarputhur and S. A. Idem JAGR - Volume 4, Issue 10 (2011), pp.

59-77

Full Article Available Online at: Intellectbase and EBSCOhost │ JAGR is indexed with Cabell’s, JournalSeek, etc.

JOURNAL OF APPLIED GLOBAL RESEARCH

Journal Homepage: www.intellectbase.org/journals │ ©2011 Published by Intellectbase International Consortium, USA

SPARK ADVANCE EFFECTS IN SPARK IGNITION ENGINES

Karthik Silaipillayarputhur1 and Stephen A. Idem2

1Kordsa Global, USA and 2Tennessee Technological University, USA

ABSTRACT

g he objective of this study was to determine optimum spark timing in spark ignition engines in
order to maximize the power output. A finite heat release model was considered for
comparison with the baseline case of an ideal Otto cycle. Losses occurring due to heat
transfer were considered. A relation was established to determine an optimum spark advance as a
function of engine speed.

Keywords: Spark Timing, Four-Stroke Spark Ignition Engine, Internal Combustion Engine, Engine
Power and Engine Speed

INTRODUCTION
There are many types of internal combustion engines. Heywood [1] and Ferguson and Kirkpatrick [2]
classified internal combustion engines by their design, application, working cycle, type of fuel used,
method of ignition, method of cooling, etc. Depending on the method of ignition, IC engines are
classified as spark ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI) engines. The present study deals with a
parametric study of the effects of spark advance and combustion duration during the combustion
process of a SI engine. Spark advance can be defined as timing of the spark discharge before the
piston reaches top dead center (TDC) during the compression stroke. One goal of this paper is to study
spark timing for a particular engine at a given engine speed. In addition, a parametric study of the
change in power at varying engine speeds is performed. The concept of finite heat release model is
introduced and is applied to the combustion process in a SI, four-stroke, internal combustion engine.
The analysis considers the losses due to heat transfer in the engine. For a given mass of fuel and air
inside the combustion chamber, and at a given engine speed, an optimum spark timing is sought that
produces maximum power.

There are numerous references available in the literature pertaining to internal combustion engines.
Rassweiler and Withrow [3] considered the mass fraction burned in various cycles. This fraction of
mass burned is represented as a function of the crank angle by the Weibe function. Heywood et al. [4]
discussed the determination of Weibe function, and this requires the knowledge of the spark advance
and the combustion duration. Combustion duration is the change in crank angle from 1 to 90 percent
burned fraction. The duration depends on engine speed, spark timing, equivalence ratio, heat transfer,
and the residual mass fraction. It also depends on the combustion chamber geometry and the
turbulence intensity of flow.

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 Spark Advance Effects in Spark Ignition Engines

Engine heat transfer is also affected by spark timing and combustion duration. Alkidas [5] studied the
behavior of heat flux for different types of engines, with the main operational variable being the engine
speed. Alkidas and Myers [6] observed that heat flux is a maximum for stoichiometric mixtures. For
either leaner or richer mixture compositions, the heat flux decreases. Borman and Nishiwaki [7]
observed that the variations of heat fluxes were considerably different from cycle-to-cycle. This is due to
the combustion gases that move in a transient three-dimensional pattern undergoing rapid changes in
temperature and pressure.

A number of studies were performed for the improvement of calculations of the heat transfer coefficient.
Annand and Oguri [8, 9] developed expressions for the determination of a suitable formula for the heat
transfer coefficient during the compression stroke. Han et al. [10] discussed the variation in these
calculations and developed a different formula for the heat transfer coefficient. Overbye et al. [11]
performed a study describing the unsteady heat transfer in engines. Bohac [12] discussed the
development of a global model for steady state and transient heat transfer studies in SI engines. In this
study it was observed that a large amount of heat is transported through the engine oil.

NOMENCLATURE
a – Weibe efficiency factor
Aw – Instantaneous exposed cylinder surface area (m2)
AF – Air-feul ratio
B – Bore (m)
cv – Specific heat at constant volume (kcal/kg-K)
FA – Fuel-air ratio
hg – Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K)
k – Thermal conductivity (W/m-K)
l – Length of the connecting rod (m)
M – Molecular weight of the gas (kg/kmol)
ma – Mass of air (kg)
mf – Mass of fuel (kg)
mm – Mass of charge (kg)
mr – Mass of residual gases (kg)
n – Weibe form factor
N – Engine speed (rpm)
P – Pressure of the gases in combustion chamber at any instant (kPa)
P1 – Initial gas pressure (kPa)
Qin – Amount of heat input (kJ)
Qout – Amount of heat rejected (kJ)
QHV – Heating value of the fuel (kJ/kg-fuel)
r – Compression ratio
R – Engine parameter, R  21
S
Re – Reynolds number
Ru – Universal gas constant for air (kJ/kmol-K)
S – Stroke (m)
T – Temperature of the gases in the combustion chamber at any instance (K)
Tg – Gas temperature (K)
Tw – Cylinder wall temperature (K)

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K. Silaipillayarputhur and S. A. Idem JAGR - Volume 4, Issue 10 (2011), pp. 59-77

T1 – Initial gas temperature (K)

U – Internal energy of the system (kJ)
up – Mean engine speed (m/s), u p  2SN
V – Volume of the cylinder at any instance (m3)
V1 – Initial cylinder volume (m3)
Vd – Displacement volume,  B 2 S (m3)
4
Vf – Flame velocity (m/s)
W – Thermodynamic work done on/ by the engine (kJ)
Wnet – Net work produced (kJ)
WOtto – Net work done by the ideal Otto cycle (kJ)
xb – Fraction of mass burned
xr – Residual mass fraction
 – Gas specific heat ratio  c p 
c 
 v
 – Crank angle (°)
d – Rapid burning angle (°)
s – Spark advance (°)
 – Thermal efficiency
c – Combustion efficiency
 – Dynamic viscosity (kg/m-s)
 – Density of charge (kg/m3)

GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The Otto cycle models the special case of a SI internal combustion engine whose combustion is so
rapid that the piston moves very little during the event. Hence, combustion occurs at constant volume.
A four-stroke Otto cycle is composed of four reversible processes, plus an intake and an exhaust
portion. Consider Figure 1 depicting the air standard PV and Ts diagrams for the Otto cycle. The four
basic processes involved in the operation of the Otto cycle are isentropic compression (1 – 2), constant
volume heat addition (2 – 3), isentropic expansion (3 – 4), and constant volume heat rejection (4 – 1).
The thermal efficiency is given by

Wnet (1)

Qin

where Wnet is the net work of the heat engine and is given by

Wnet  Q in  Q out (2)

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 Spark Advance Effects in Spark Ignition Engines

Figure 14: P-V and T-s Diagrams for Otto Cycle

The quantities Q in and Q out respectively correspond to the amount of heat input and the amount of
heat rejected during the constant volume processes in Figure 1. From basic thermodynamic
relationships, Equation (1) can be readily simplified as
 1
T V 
 1  r  (3)
1 
  1  1  1   2 
T2  V1 

where ‘  ’ corresponds to the specific heat ratio and ‘r’ corresponds to the compression ratio. Therefore,
the principal parameters affecting thermal efficiency of an Otto cycle are compression ratio and specific
heat ratio.

Relative to the ideal cycle, an actual cycle produces less work primarily because of the work loss due to
finite combustion duration, heat transfer, and valve timing. In addition, the thermodynamic state of the
working fluid at the beginning of the compression stroke is a function of residual gas properties and
intake conditions. Also, loss of mass occurs during the cycle because of crevice flow and blow by past
piston rings. In practice, it is observed that valve closing and opening is not instantaneous and does not
occur at the dead center. It is also noted that constant pressure intake and exhaust processes occur
only at low engine speeds.

Finite Heat Release Model

In the ideal cycle, the fuel is assumed to burn at a rate that results in constant volume combustion.
Actual engine data do not really match this simple model. The finite heat release model predicts the
heat addition as a function of crank angle. This model is required in order to assess the effects of spark
timing or heat transfer on the engine work and efficiency. The mass fraction burned is given by the
Weibe function [2]

  
n

x b    1  exp  a s
  (4)
   d  

This is a curve fit to experimental data where ‘a’ and ‘n’ are adjustable parameters. These parameters
depend on the engine load and speed to a certain extent. The heat release starts at   s , i.e., x b  0 .
This curve approaches 1 asymptotically. The end of combustion is typically defined at x b = 0.9 or 0.99
for SI engines. The quantity ‘  d ’ refers to the duration of heat release and is also termed as the rapid

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K. Silaipillayarputhur and S. A. Idem JAGR - Volume 4, Issue 10 (2011), pp. 59-77

burning angle. Differentiation of Equation (4) results in the heat release rate, as a function of crank
angle, i.e.,
n 1
dQ dx Q    s  (5)
 Q in b  na in 1  x b  
d d d  d 

The mass of charge is the sum of masses of air, fuel and the residual gases, i.e.,

mm  ma  m f  mr (6)

Dividing throughout by m m yields

mm ma m f (7)
   xr
mm mm mm

where the mass of air is calculated using the conditions at the beginning of the compression stroke. The
term x r corresponds to residual mass fraction. Solving Equation (7) further yields

mm  ma
1  FA  (8)
1  x r 

where FA corresponds to the fuel air ratio. The total cycle heat addition is given as

1  x r Q HV c (9)
Q in  m m
1  AF

where Q HV is the heating value of the fuel,  c is the combustion efficiency, and AF is the air fuel ratio.

The finite heat release model assumes that the heat release occurs during the compression and the
expansion strokes. The heat release equation is incorporated into the differential energy equation to
obtain the model. The differential energy equation for a small crank angle change ‘ d ’ is

Q  W  dU (10)

where

W  PdV (11)

and

dU  m m C v dT (12)

Solving for pressure P yields

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 Spark Advance Effects in Spark Ignition Engines

dP P dV   1  dQ  (13)
    
d V d V  d 

This first order differential equation can be numerically integrated to obtain pressure as a function of the
crank angle. The cylinder volume is given as

 
Vd Vd
 
1
V    (14)
R  1  cos   R  sin  2 
2 2

r 1 2  

where ‘R’ is the engine design parameter and ‘ Vd ’ is the displacement volume. Upon differentiation

 
dV Vd
 
1
 sin 1  cos  R 2  sin 2  2 (15)
d 2 
 

The differential energy equation, Equation (13), is numerically integrated, using the forth order Runge-
Kutta integration presented by Jaluria [13], in order to obtain pressure. This integration starts at bottom
dead center with initial conditions P1 , V1 , T1 , and proceeds through the top dead center and back to the
bottom dead center. After calculating pressure, total work is obtained by integrating Equation (11) over
the compression and expansion strokes, using the trapezoidal rule [13]. The charge temperature is
calculated as a function of crank angle using the ideal gas law.

PVM (16)
T
mmR u

where the charge mass is calculated using specified conditions at the start of the compression stroke.

Heat Transfer Modeling

The finite heat release model discussed in the previous section is modified in order to include the
differential heat transfer to the cylinder walls. This requires knowledge of the instantaneous spatially
averaged cylinder heat transfer coefficient and the engine speed. Using the cylinder head thermocouple
measurements of instantaneous heat flux, the Annand correlation [8] was developed. It uses mean
piston speed as a constant characteristic velocity, and the cylinder diameter as a constant characteristic
length. Properties such as the thermal conductivity and viscosity that are used in the correlation are the
zone averaged instantaneous values. Known constant charge mass and instantaneous cylinder
volumes are used for determination of the instantaneous gas density. The Annand correlation is given
as

Nu  a1 Re 0.7 (17)

where the constant a1 is 0.49 for a four stroke engine. The Reynolds number is given in terms of mean
piston speed and cylinder bore and is expressed as

 up B (18)
Re  


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The density of the charge mass is a function of crank angle, such that

PM
  (19)
R u T

The heat transfer coefficient as a function of crank angle is given as

0.49 Re k
0.7
h g   (20)
B

The addition of wall heat transfer modifies Equation (13) as follows

dp   1  dx b dQ w  P dV (21)
 Q in  
d V  d d  V d

where dQ w is the heat transfer rate at any crank angle ‘  ’, and at an engine speed ‘N’. Thus:
d


dQ w h g A w  Tg   Tw

 (22)
d N

The instantaneous exposed cylinder surface area is given by

 2 4V  (23)
A w   B 
2 B

These equations are used for the parametric study of the present model.

OTTO CYCLE ANALYSIS

In order to model the effects of spark timing, combustion duration, and engine speed on engine
performance, it was first necessary to define baseline engine geometry and operating conditions. The
baseline engine was subjected to an Otto cycle analysis. The geometry chosen for this study is
presented in Table 1. The ratio of bore to stroke for the baseline engine was unity, hence this is termed
a square engine. The ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius usually has values of 3 to 4 for small
engines. The values of the compression ratio can be as high as 10 for the largest displacement
engines. The compression ratio selected for the baseline case is typical of spark ignition engines.

Table 1: Baseline engine geometry

B S Vd r R

(m) (m) (m3)

0.1 0.1 7.85*10-3 9 3

The combustion parameters assigned to the baseline engine are presented in Table 2. The fuel heating
value is representative of isooctane. Because of the variability of the gasoline composition regionally

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 Spark Advance Effects in Spark Ignition Engines

and seasonally, isooctane is often used to model SI engine performance [2]. Typical engines can
operate over a narrow range of air-fuel ratios. Generally, slightly rich combustion is employed at idle or
wide-open throttle, and slightly lean combustion is used at highway cruising speeds. The baseline case
assumed complete combustion, i.e., presumably no fuel chemical energy was expelled with the exhaust
products. The baseline case further assumed that there was no mixing of exhaust residual gases with
the fresh charge to begin the new cycle.

Table 2: Baseline engine combustion parameters

QHV Φ AF ratio ηc xr

(kJ/kg)

43,000 1 14.6 1 0

The operating conditions attributed to the baseline engine are presented in Table 3. Standard
temperature and pressure is assumed at the start of the compression process. An implication is that the
engine was operated at wide-open throttle, such that the pressure loss across the throttle was
negligible. Intake manifold heating was taken into account only to the extent that T1 is a variable.
Moreover, pressure losses across the intake and exhaust valves were neglected. Valve pressure loss
has a significant impact on the engine performance [1, 2]. These effects were not considered in this
study. Engines are designed to operate over a wide range of engine speeds. Most SI engines idle at
700 to 1200 rpm. Typically, the engine speed is approximately 2000 rpm under highway cruising
conditions. Hence, the engine speed selected for the baseline study would be that for a moderate load,
i.e., climbing a hill or accelerating.

Table 3: Baseline engine operating conditions

P1 T1 Tw N
(kPa) (K) (K) (rpm)
101 298 400 2500

Table 4 gives a brief overview of temperatures and pressures calculated assuming an Otto cycle, and
applied to the baseline case. A constant specific heat ratio   1.35 was assumed in the analysis. The
Otto cycle performance for the baseline case was analyzed, and is presented in Table 5. For the
operating conditions specified for the baseline engine, the net work and the power are evaluated. For a
typical SI engine, these values are higher than actual measured values. For example, the fuel
conversion efficiency of a SI engine is generally in the range of 25 to 35 percent near cruising speeds.

Table 4: Otto cycle Temperatures and Pressures

P2 T2 P3 T3 P4 T4

(kPa) (K) (kPa) (K) (kPa) (K)

1961.3 642.9 13671.1 4481.5 704 2077

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K. Silaipillayarputhur and S. A. Idem JAGR - Volume 4, Issue 10 (2011), pp. 59-77

Table 5: Otto cycle performance

Wnet W η

(kJ) (kW)

1.65 34.38 0.537

EFFECTS OF SPARK ADVANCE

The effects of spark advance and combustion duration were evaluated for the baseline engine outlined
in the previous section. Equation 21 was integrated numerically by the fourth-order Runge-Kutta
method, using a crank angle interval of one degree. The thermal properties of the charge were
evaluated using air data, at an average cycle temperature of 1400K. This temperature was chosen
based on [2], wherein similar geometry engine was analyzed, at an equivalence ratio of unity. The
property data presented in Table 6 were obtained from Incropera and Dewitt [14]. The charge density
was calculated at each point in the cycle by the ideal gas law, i.e., Equation 19. The Weibe factor and
Weibe efficiency factor for the baseline case (selected as 3 and 5, respectively) are typical of SI
engines [2].

Table 6: Thermal properties

k µ cv γ
2
(W/m-K) (N-s/m ) (kJ/kg-K) (cp/cv)

0.091 0.000053 0.718 1.35

The following is a discussion of the various parametric studies performed in this study. Initially, the
effect of spark advance on various parameters, at a constant engine speed of 2500 rpm, is presented.
Then the effect of varying engine speeds is discussed. Finally, an empirical relation is established to
approximate the duration of combustion as a function of engine speed. The power of the engine is
estimated and analyzed for constant as well as varying spark timing.

Constant Engine Speed

Cylinder pressure behavior is discussed with respect to Figures 2 and 3. In every case, the
instantaneous cylinder pressure is calculated by numerical integration. This pressure is
nondimensionalized by the prescribed pressure at the beginning of the compression stroke. The engine
speed is kept constant at 2500 rpm. Figures 2 and 3 represent the variations in the pressure of the
cylinder as the spark advance is varied relative to top dead center. The duration of combustion is also
varied. It is observed in these graphs that as the combustion duration is increased and spark timing is
kept constant, the peak cylinder pressure occurs later in the expansion stroke. The magnitude of these
pressures is also thereby reduced. For a given combustion duration, as spark timing is advanced, peak
cylinder pressure increases. Moreover, progressively greater positive pressure is observed during the
compression stroke, i.e., before top dead center. Positive pressure during the compression stroke
implies that more work is required to compress the charge. This results in a decrease in the overall
(net) work. Typically, in order to maximize work, the peak pressure needs to be centered at about 10 to
20 degrees after the top dead center. Corresponding temperature profiles are shown in Figures 4 and
5. In these graphs, it is observed that for fixed spark timing, as the duration of the combustion process
increases, the peak temperatures are significantly reduced. In addition, the attainment of the peak is

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 Spark Advance Effects in Spark Ignition Engines

delayed. For a given combustion duration, as spark is advanced before top dead center, the magnitude
of the peak temperature increases. This likewise has the effect of increasing temperature (and
pressure) on compression stroke, thereby increasing the work required to compress the charge.

Figure 2: Pressure vs. crank angle for θs = 0°

Figure 3: Pressure vs. crank angle for θs = -40°

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K. Silaipillayarputhur and S. A. Idem JAGR - Volume 4, Issue 10 (2011), pp. 59-77

Figure 4: Temperature vs. crank angle for θs = 0°

Figure 5: Temperature vs. crank angle for θs = -40°

The total work done during the cycle has to be positive. This implies that by the end of the expansion
stroke net positive work is transferred from the gases present in the cylinder to the crank shaft. Figure 6
is plotted in order to observe the effect of the total duration of the combustion process on the net work

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 Spark Advance Effects in Spark Ignition Engines

produced. In this instance, the instantaneous work was calculated by Equation 11. The total work over
the compression and expansion strokes was obtained by numerical integration from -180° to +180°,
using the trapezoidal rule, with an integration interval Δθ = 1°. In every instance, the half-cycle work is
nondimensionalized by the corresponding values from an elementary Otto cycle analysis. It is observed
that as the combustion duration is increased, there is a decrease in the peak values of the net work.
Hence, it can be observed that the cycle diagram diverges more from the instantaneous combustion
assumed in the Otto cycle. For example, the effects of finite heat release rate imply a decrease in
engine work of anywhere from 8-14%, relative to the Otto cycle, at any given spark timing and
combustion duration. It can also be observed that increased duration requires that spark timing be
advanced in order to maximize engine power. It can be inferred from Figure 6 that maximum power is
obtained when combustion is evenly divided over the periods before and after top dead center. For
example, for a duration of 45°, peak engine power is obtained when the spark timing is approximately
22° before top dead center.

Figure 6: Work as a function of spark advance and combustion duration

Figure 7 represents thermal efficiency, as calculated by Equation 1, with respect to spark timing. The
efficiency reaches maximum at a particular spark timing, the value of which depends on the duration of
the combustion process. Only 50% of the chemical energy produces useful work. As the duration
increases, the efficiency is further reduced. Thermal efficiency is reduced even more by valve pressure
losses, valve timing, etc. Generally, these losses are in the range of 25 to 30 percent of the total energy
input. These effects are not considered in this study.

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K. Silaipillayarputhur and S. A. Idem JAGR - Volume 4, Issue 10 (2011), pp. 59-77

Figure 7: Efficiency as a function of spark advance and combustion duration

Effect of Engine Speed on Heat Transfer

In Figures 8 through 11, the rate of heat transfer from the charge to the cylinder walls is calculated at
different engine speeds, and in every instance is plotted against the crank angle. The instantaneous
heat transfer rate is nondimensionalized by the fuel energy input rate, i.e., the product m f Q HV . Figures
8 and 9 represent the heat transfer rate for engines operating at typical idle speed. Likewise, Figures 10
and 11 represent the heat transfer rate for engines operating at high speeds. It can be observed that for
a fixed spark advance, as the duration of combustion increases, the heat transfer rate decreases, and
the peak occurs later in the expansion stroke. Advancing the timing has the effect of increasing rates of
heat transfer for all engine speeds and combustion durations. At any given spark timing and
combustion duration, it is observed that as the engine speed increases the heat transfer rate
decreases. Increased engine speeds tend to promote turbulent mixing in the combustion chamber,
thereby tending to augment heat transfer rates. However, this effect is counteracted by the reduced
time available for the heat transfer to occur over the compression and expansion strokes, as the engine
speed increases.

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 Spark Advance Effects in Spark Ignition Engines

Figure 8: Rate of heat transfer vs. crank angle at 1000 rpm for θs = 0°

Figure 9: Rate of heat transfer vs. crank angle at 1000 rpm for θs = -40°

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Figure 10: Rate of heat transfer vs. crank angle at 3000 rpm for θs = 0°

Figure 11: Rate of heat transfer vs. crank angle at 3000 rpm for θs = -40°

Effect on Engine Speed on Combustion Duration

The previous analyses have implicitly assumed that spark timing, engine speed, and combustion
duration can be varied independently. Combustion duration is a function of many variables, such as
port design, the method of fuel addition, the equivalence ratio, etc. However, the most important
parameter that affects combustion duration in a particular engine is engine speed, since increased

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speed promotes turbulent mixing, thereby augmenting flame speed. In order to develop a relation
between the spark timing, engine speed, and combustion duration, experimental data from Taylor [15]
was used. In addition, a similar geometry engine was assumed, i.e., an engine with the same bore, a
flat piston crown, and central location of the spark plug. Curve fitting these data gives a relationship
between the flame velocity and the engine speed, i.e.,

Vf  0.0071N  3.717  10 7 N 2 (24)

The rapid burning angle (which is roughly equivalent to the combustion duration) is obtained from the
flame velocity using the following relation

 d  360Nt (25)

where 't' is the time required for flame propagation, i.e.,

B2 (26)
t
Vf

The previous equation assumes the spark plug is situated at the centerline axis of the cylinder. Figure
12 is the graphical representation of Equation 25. It can be observed that the duration of the
combustion process increases nonlinearly with speed. Starting at an idle speed of 1000 rpm, it can be
observed that the combustion duration is approximately 30°. At 6000 rpm, the combustion duration
increases to 48°.

Figure 12: Combustion duration vs. engine speed

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K. Silaipillayarputhur and S. A. Idem JAGR - Volume 4, Issue 10 (2011), pp. 59-77

The baseline engine outlined was analyzed by the finite heat release model. Heat transfer from the
charge to the coolant was accounted for in the analysis. It was assumed that the flame speed variation
with the engine speed was described by Equation 24. Two cases were considered. In one instance, a
constant spark advance of 15° was assumed for all engine speeds. In the other, spark timing was
varied as a function of engine speed, wherein the spark advance was chosen such that  s   1  d .
2
Each case was compared to the baseline engine performance predicted by an Otto cycle analysis.

Figure 13 represents the effect of engine speed, spark timing, and combustion duration on the net
power produced. The power produced by an ideal Otto cycle increases linearly with increasing engine
speed. This is because the Otto cycle analysis does not consider losses of any nature, for example,
those due to heat transfer or finite combustion rate. When finite combustion rates are considered, there
is a reduction in the power produced, relative to the Otto cycle. When the spark advance is fixed at 15°
before top dead center, the power produced by the engine is 7% less than that predicted by the Otto
cycle analysis, at 1000 rpm. Similarly, at 6000 rpm, the engine power is 8.5% less than that predicted
by the Otto cycle analysis. Considering the power output for the same engine in which spark is initiated
at an angle which is half the magnitude of the combustion duration, i.e.,  s    d , the predicted
2
engine power at 1000 rpm is the same as that when s = 15°. However, when the spark advance is set
to 24° at 6000 rpm, the engine power is 7.2% less than that predicted by the Otto cycle analysis. This
implies that progressively advancing the spark with engine speed, rather than employing a fixed spark
advance, can yield 1.3% more engine power, at the highest engine speeds where power needs are
greatest.

Figure 13: Power vs. engine speed

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 Spark Advance Effects in Spark Ignition Engines

CONCLUSIONS
The concept of finite heat release model was introduced and applied to the combustion process in a SI,
four stroke, internal combustion engine. The analysis considered losses due to heat transfer in the
engine. There is considerable amount of heat lost to the cylinder walls because of the high charge
pressures and temperatures. This heat is lost through the cylinder walls to the coolant. The spark timing
plays a vital role in the combustion process. Varying the spark timing affects the peak pressures and
temperatures in the chamber.

The main conclusions of this study are as follows. For every cycle there exists an optimum spark timing,
that produces maximum power output. As the combustion duration increases, the net work produced
decreases, because the cycle diagram deviates further from the ideal Otto cycle. For increased
combustion duration, the spark timing needs to be advanced before the top dead center in order to
maximize the engine power output. In order to obtain maximum power, the combustion process needs
to be equally divided over the periods before and after TDC. The heat transfer rate from the cylinder
walls to the coolant increases as the spark timing is advanced, at all engine speeds and durations. In
addition, for a given spark timing and a given duration the heat transfer rate decreases as the engine
speed increases. Engine speed is one of the main factors that affect the combustion duration in an
engine. Increased engine speed causes turbulent mixing, thereby increasing the flame speed. A
relation was developed between spark timing, engine speed, and combustion duration. According to
this relation, combustion duration increases nonlinearly with engine speed. Progressively advancing the
spark yields more engine power than a constant spark advance, as the engine speed increases.

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