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How do internet memes affect Brand image

brand image?
Hsuju Teng
Department of International Trade, Chihlee University of Technology,
Taipei, Taiwan
Chi-Feng Lo Received 23 May 2020
Department of Marketing and Logistics Management, Revised 1 November 2020
25 January 2021
Chihlee University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, and 16 April 2021
Hsin-Hui Lee Accepted 3 June 2021

Department of Health Diet and Industry Management,

Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung City, Taiwan

Abstract
Purpose – This study aims to investigate how Internet memes affect brand image.
Design/methodology/approach – The authors first used the Delphi method to refine Internet memes’
constructs and dimensions and developed a scale for Internet memes. Second, the authors used a questionnaire
to collect data from 348 valid Internet consumers.
Findings – The authors proposed four significant characteristics of Internet memes: humour, high positive
emotional intensity, brand interactions and prestige, and high spreadability to prompt consumers to remake,
share and spread memes. The study results indicate that Internet memes positively influence the brand image.
However, not all meme characteristics were correlated with the brand image; only brand prestige, interaction
and humour enhanced brand image.
Originality/value – For scholars in online marketing communication research, this study shifts the current
paradigm of brand-generated and customer-passive to user-generated and customer-active. It also addresses
the importance of pandemic effects of Internet memes on brand image. To be specific, this study presents the
important symbolic values that Internet memes need to include to affect consumers’ behaviour in response to
perceived brand image by applying both mind infection and symbolic value perspectives. Finally, this study
redefines the dimensions and measurements of Internet memes to address the lack of consensus and concrete
scales regarding meme transmission characteristics and extending into online marketing communication
strategies.
Peer review – The peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/OIR-
11-2019-0364
Keywords Symbolic value, Mind infection, Propagation characteristics, Online marketing communication
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
With the prevalence of Internet use, Internet memes have become a novel and indispensable
online communications strategy (Wei et al., 2012; Dubey et al., 2018; Zannettou et al., 2018).
Internet memes generally refer to a process by which text, images and videos are widely
promoted, which allows online users to increase awareness of transmitted information
through humorous and ironic texts (Miltner, 2018). They can also transmit information in an
extremely short time (Wei et al., 2012; Dubey et al., 2018; Zannettou et al., 2018). Hence,
academia has begun to pay more attention to their online propagation effect on information
diffusion (Brubaker et al., 2018). Additionally, the marketing field now attaches importance to
its application in marketing communication strategies (Chen, 2012). According to marketing
communication literature, brand image is the first stage in which consumers become aware of
new products and information via various channels (Rogers, 1995; G€okerik et al., 2018). Since Online Information Review
the online environment has no geographical limitations and consumers can easily interact © Emerald Publishing Limited
1468-4527
with each other, online information propagation can be faster and more extensive compared DOI 10.1108/OIR-05-2020-0192
OIR to traditional marketing channels. Scholars and marketers have started to focus on the
effectiveness of online information diffusion and its application to marketing communication
(Bakshy et al., 2012; Guille et al., 2013).
Although the literature proposes some effective interactive communication channels, such
as two-way dialogues and online brand communities (Rowley, 2009), most of these strategies
are brand-generated and customer-passive. However, the main characteristics of Internet
memes, unlike traditional online marketing communication channels, are that they are user-
generated and customer-active. The current literature has limited discussions on user-
generated and customer-active communication channels, like memes and their impact on brand
image. A review of most related literature is currently in Brubaker et al. (2018), which discusses
relationships between memes and online public engagement. However, this study discusses
how political issues spread at a macro-level and does not mention impacts on consumers at a
micro-level. Furthermore, although existing literature has explored memes’ propagation
characteristics (Brubaker et al., 2018; Shifman, 2014), there is no consensus on the propagation
characteristics and no explicit scale of measurement. Finally, most of the antecedents of brand
images are related to consumers’ internal psychological perceptions (Chinomona, 2016;
Krishnamurthy and Kumar, 2018; S€a€aksj€arvi and Samiee, 2011). However, these are not only
subjective but also lack a solid understanding of the influence of external social stimuli such as
Internet memes on brand image (Gr€onroos, 1997). How do Internet memes affect brand image?
What is the vital insight that causes Internet memes to link to a brand image? The answers to
these questions are still unknown and require further investigation. Therefore, the purpose of
this study is to explore how Internet memes affect brand image.
According to some researchers, memes can be compared to a “social contagion” whereby
consumers are unconsciously “infected” and “infect” others, and this eventually leads to a
“pandemic effect” (Marsden, 1998; Robertson, 2017). Benaim (2018) has further proposed that
the internet meme’s nature has a symbolic value, and online users spread memes because of
that. By combining these two perspectives, this study proposes that Internet memes must be
built in terms of their symbolic value to result in consumers being infected in the mind. We
believe that if the research gap is filled regarding the possible mind infection effect by
Internet memes’ symbolic value on brand image, advertisers using memes will be able to
provide more comprehensive online communication marketing strategies that influence
consumers’ behaviour through brand image.
This study provides several essential contributions. For scholars in online marketing
communication research, this study may shift the current paradigm of brand-generated and
customer-passive to user-generated and customer-active. It also addresses the importance of
the pandemic effect of memes on brand image and the drawbacks of brand image literature
that primarily focuses on consumers’ internal psychological perceptions without considering
external social stimuli. Additionally, by applying both the mind infection and symbolic value
perspectives, this study presents the important symbolic values that memes need to infect
consumers’ minds and thus change their behaviour based on a brand’s image. Finally, this
study redefines memes’ dimensions and measurements to address a lack of standards
regarding scale and propagation characteristics.

Theoretical background and hypothesis development

Internet meme and brand image
For a marketing communications strategy to be effective, consumers must fully understand
the message conveyed by the brand and the message should be diffused widely. In other
words, memes are designed to catch a consumer’s attention (Pan, 2020; Li et al., 2020; Zhang
and Lin, 2015). Hence, brand image awareness is the first stage of a consumer’s behaviour
when adopting innovative products and services (G€okerik et al., 2018). Brand image was
initially defined as the perceived symbolism of a brand’s commodity (Sommers, 1963), but is Brand image
now mostly defined as a series of brand associations in a consumer’s memory (Aaker, 1991).
In this study, brand image is described as a synergistic and symbolic meaning decoded by

consumers, based on Bivainien_e and Sliburyt_ e (2008) and Hauge (2015).
Factors that influence brand image include brand identity (S€a€aksj€arvi and Samiee, 2011),
word of mouth (Krishnamurthy and Kumar, 2018; Reza Jalilvand and Samiei, 2012) and brand
communication (Chinomona, 2016). However, most of the factors affecting brand images are
related to consumers’ internal psychological perceptions. The present study proposes that
consumers’ perceptions are subjective. It is also critical to consider external social stimuli.
Consequently, using only psychological perspectives to explain brand image is inadequate
for understanding the external social environment’s influence on brand image. External
environmental factors that may influence brand image must also be identified (G€okerik
et al., 2018).
As an external environmental factor, Internet memes allow messages to be widely
propagated. Further, the transmitted messages are more user-generated and consumer-
initiated due to the characteristics of intertextuality, remix and humour (Brubaker et al., 2018).
This makes online marketing communication strategies more effective. Furthermore, academia
has recently begun considering Internet memes as a novel marketing communication channel
(Brubaker et al., 2018; Shifman, 2014). Dawkins (1976) first proposed the concept of the meme.
A meme is defined as an idea, behaviour or style conveyed from person to person. Memes
evolve by replicating (imitation), variation and selection (Dawkins, 1976). Since the online
environment has no geographical limitations and consumers can easily interact with others, the
online information propagation can be faster and more extensive compared to traditional
marketing channels. The term “Internet meme” has been mentioned in digital media, massively
publicised, broadcast on the internet and become well known. Internet memes are relayed
quickly through blogs, message boards, Internet forums, search engines, email, social media or
video-sharing websites (Shifman, 2014).
The current literature on Internet memes can be divided into two major types. The first
type focuses on propagation methods and cascade (Dubey et al., 2018; Wei et al., 2012;
Zannettou et al., 2018). How memes propagate information to different online users is
typically explained by using model derivation. The other type of research discusses Internet
memes’ propagation characteristics (Brubaker et al., 2018; Dıaz and Mauricio, 2013; Shifman,
2014). Model derivation is commonly used for determining the characteristics that memes
must have to achieve extensive propagation. A review of the relevant literature indicates that
regardless of the research type, memes’ propagation methods or characteristics remain
mostly focused on satire or controversial information regarding politics or morality. Users
relate the most to issues they are interested in, contributing to user-generated content and
active propagation (Brubaker et al., 2018; Zannettou et al., 2018). The specificity or meaning of
memes may prompt online users to share (Sela et al., 2019) and even remake memes (Dubey
et al., 2018), thereby achieving multiple-cascade propagation (Wei et al., 2012). Some studies
have proposed that such propagation methods are mostly applicable to propagating political
satire or messages on controversial moral issues. Such characteristics are also mainly focused
on public opinion of macro-level issues (Boudana et al., 2017; Brubaker et al., 2018). However,
in marketing communication, consumer awareness and perception of brands are generally at
the micro-level; it is still necessary to explore whether the macro-level information can be
extended to the micro-level.
From the perspective of mind infection, Marsden (1998) has proposed that memes can be
compared to a “social contagion” whereby consumers are unconsciously infected and then
infect others to contribute to a significant propagation (contagious) effect. Benaim (2018)
proposed that memes have symbolic value and consumers propagate them due to this.
According to this perspective, people view objects in the external environment as symbols
OIR and give them symbolic meanings and significance (Hauge, 2015). For example, when
consumers receive an advertising message related to a brand, they view the brand as a
symbol based on the advertisement’s content. Further, they interpret the symbolic meanings
and value and respond through cognition and behaviour (Entwistle and Rocamora, 2006;
Hauge, 2015).
Certain studies focus on the propagation characteristics of Internet memes as related to
symbolic value. For example, Berger and Milkman (2012) reported that online advertisements
must induce strong positive (i.e. awe) or negative (i.e. anger or anxiety) emotions to be
propagated extensively. Dıaz and Mauricio (2013) proposed that Internet memes must have
spreadability and reproducibility. Shifman (2014) stated that when Internet memes have
positivity (and humour), have high emotional intensity, are easy to understand,
have propagation source prestige, a propagation method and mutation level, users
transmit them extensively. Brubaker et al. (2018) proposed that Internet memes must have
quiddity, have humour, portray the brand and be interactive if they are to be propagated. By
applying both the mind infection and symbolic value perspectives, this study further
proposes that consumers become unconsciously infected by perceiving the symbolic
meaning and then continuously infect others, thus exhibiting a significant propagation
(contagious) effect. The consumers would then have a better interaction with the brand,
thereby increasing consumers’ positive brand associations, thus improving brand image.
The first characteristic of Internet memes is humour. Numerous consumers employ social
media for social interaction and self-presentation; they like to spread content that makes other
users feel happy. Therefore, they show their optimism and sense of fun (Shifman, 2014). When
the propagation information of Internet memes has an entertainment characteristic,
consumers consider them to have symbolic value and may reconstruct, share and
propagate the meme to demonstrate they are optimistic and fun. When other users view,
like or repost the meme because it is entertaining, they spread the meme further, resulting in
more views. This also increases the brand’s positive associations (Gelb and Zinkhan, 1986),
and the brand image is improved.
The second characteristic of Internet memes is high emotional intensity (provoking high-
arousal emotions). According to Shifman (2014), high positive emotional intensity is created
when Internet consumers generate a feeling of elation in the face of something greater than
oneself. Natural wonders, path-breaking scientific discoveries and people overcoming
adversities are prominent examples of narratives that generate “Aw” or “Wow” responses.
This behaviour further stimulates meme propagation, imitation and transformation (Berger
and Milkman, 2012). When the disseminated information of Internet memes has high positive
emotional intensity, consumers consider them “amazing” symbols that reflect their own
positive or negative emotions. When other consumers view, like or repost a meme due to their
emotions being aroused, the meme is further disseminated. This also means that the
opportunities for interaction between the brand and consumers, and consumers’ positive
brand associations increase, resulting in improved brand image.
The third characteristic of an Internet meme is that it should be easy to propagate. Berger
and Milkman (2012) reported that simple videos and jokes are more comfortable to share
because users can easily understand them and assume others also easily understand them.
When an Internet meme has the characteristic of being easier to understand, consumers
consider it to have symbolic value and they may feel more comfortable propagating it. In this
way, consumers propagate them more than through traditional marketing channels, thereby
increasing consumers’ positive associations with the brand, and thus improving brand image.
The fourth characteristic of Internet memes is brand prestige and interactions. Concerning
online news stories, Shifman (2014) found that the more famous an author is, the more likely
people are to spread the piece. Brubaker et al. (2018) further reported that interaction or
transformation between consumers and brands increases consumers’ sharing behaviours.
Consequently, this study proposes that when the disseminated information of Internet Brand image
memes has prestige and interactive characteristics, consumers consider them symbols of
their prestige and interaction and then may reconstruct, share and propagate the memes to
demonstrate that they are also prestigious and interactive. This results in more positive
associations and improved brand image.
In summary, Internet memes must have humour, high positive emotional intensity, be
easy to propagate and confer brand prestige and interactions. These significant
characteristics mean that Internet memes have symbolic value, which leads to a kind of
consumer mind contagion that spreads to others. Consumers interact with others by
recreating, sharing and spreading the symbolic value of the memes. This spread results in
more consumers viewing them, creating more positive associations and cognition for the
brand; thus, brand image is improved. Therefore, this study proposes the following
hypothesis:
H1. Internet memes have a positive effect on brand image.

Research design
The purpose of this study was to explore how Internet memes affect brand image. In total,
two studies were conducted: one for data collection and one for verification. In Study 1, scale
development was designed by conducting expert interviews and using the Delphi method
and content analysis. In Study 2, exploratory factor analysis was first used to select
questions. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling were then used to
perform reliability and validity tests and test the proposed model.

Study 1– scale development

No consensus regarding Internet memes’ constructs has yet been reached, and no reliable
scale for measurement has yet been devised. We conducted semi-structured, in-depth, open-
ended oral interviews with experts and scholars in industry and academia to understand
preliminarily online consumers’ opinions of Internet memes. The content was guided to be
interviewee-oriented, and the constructs of Internet memes were identified. The Delphi
method was then used for questionnaire content.
Semi-structured interviews. Based on the literature, three indicators were adopted to select
expert group members: the willingness of experts and scholars to participate, professional
ability or seniority in the field and diversification of experts’ source fields (Skulmoski et al.,
2007). The academic selection criteria were oriented towards e-commerce research, especially
related to the online interactive communications field. Conversely, the industry selection
criteria included having at least five years’ practical experience in e-commerce and online
interactive communications. We interviewed six experts and three scholars from industry
and academia. This ratio was used because Internet memes are more extensively employed in
industry than academia, and there are few scholars who were familiar with meme research.
The background of these experts is in the Appendix. This study used semi-structured
interviews to avoid the limitations of structured interviews, such as lack of flexibility and
difficulty in having in-depth discussions of issues. Further, this avoids the time-consuming,
laborious and difficulty of quantitative analysis of non-structured interviews.
The study lasted for nearly three months, from the invitation to the formal confirmation of
the scale. We contacted the invited experts and scholars personally. We have received
practical training on how to conduct the Delphi. Before the interviews, it was confirmed that
the interviewees were familiar with memes. We provided the researchers’ identities and
explained the interview purpose and main interview content through interviews, phone calls
and email. The interviewees were invited, the interviews were audio-recorded so that
OIR transcripts could be obtained and the interviewees were informed that the recorded data
would be kept secure. The researchers recorded their necessary information and the
interview content for safe preservation and to maintain the interviewees’ privacy. The
interviewees were represented using codes. After the interviews, each interviewee was given
a department store coupon as a token of gratitude. The interview protocol was used
(Skulmoski et al., 2007). The experts first confirmed their understanding of the definition of
the research topic and then described their perspective on the characteristics of
Internet memes.
Content and Delphi method analyses. The interview recordings were transcribed and then
arranged and analysed according to the content mentioned above for discussion. The experts’
opinions were analysed using the results of the content analysis. Additionally, they were
asked to supplement the proposed scale and make corrections. The results of content analysis
were then used for scale design by referring to similar items (Haryani and Motwani, 2015;
Kumar and Paul, 2018; Lee et al., 2019; Phelps et al., 2004; Yang and Zhou, 2011) and the first
version of the closed questionnaire for the Delphi method. The first version of the Delphi
method questionnaire was divided into six parts, representing different characteristics. There
were four sessions total, until all the experts and scholars agreed on the questionnaire’s
content. Items were selected preliminarily using the quartile method within the Delphi
method (Holden and Wedman, 1993). Some of the 18 items had low consistency in the second
round. The number of items was reduced to seven in the third round. Finally, in the fourth
round, two items still had low consistency. They were “Reforming and sharing Internet
memes gives me a sense of satisfaction” and “The brand referred to in the internet meme is
very popular, so I wanted to share the meme with other people”. Consequently, these items
were deleted, and finally, 16 items were retained.
This method was used instead of a focus-group interview because the Delphi method
includes anonymous responses from experts. In this method, the experts participate in a
survey and then exchange opinions about the questionnaire contents. They do not know who
the other experts are. Thus, this method eliminates the concern of some participants blindly
going along with the others in face-to-face interviews. Moreover, the modification of expert
opinions is followed by an opinion review, enabling the experts to adjust their views where
appropriate. Through communication and repeated feedback, different ideas can be collected
to reach a consensus.
Furthermore, whether consistency and convergence have been reached among the
experts’ opinions can be determined through statistical analysis. However, the Delphi method
requires the expert panel to repeat the same steps and involves a complicated process.
Without adequate incentives or rewards, experts’ cooperation is difficult to obtain.
Consequently, in this study, only nine experts and scholars were recruited for the Delphi
method survey. Despite the small number of experts, it was close to the standard of 10–15
people in the relevant literature (Delbeq et al., 1975). Additionally, the degree of cooperation
among the experts was high in every round.

Study 2 – measurement confirmation and hypothesis testing

Pre-test. This study operationalised Internet memes as images, texts and videos, which have
been heavily publicised and quickly spread (Shifman, 2014). We revealed the real Internet
meme at the beginning of the questionnaire so that the participants understood it. This study
conducted a pre-test to examine the reliability and validity of the scale items. A total of 62
questionnaires—22 Internet and 40 paper questionnaires—were distributed. The average
variance extracted was between 0.51 and 0.63. Furthermore, most composite reliability values
were between 0.64 and 0.83, which reached the threshold value of 0.7, thereby satisfying the
conditions for convergent and discriminate validity (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). For the
reliability test, all Cronbach’s α values were between 0.81 and 0.91, which was higher than 0.7, Brand image
the threshold value commonly accepted in previous studies (Nunnally, 1978). Therefore, the
official questionnaire was further distributed.
Official questionnaire collection. The study subjects were consumers attracted by Internet
memes who liked, shared, commented on and made purchases after viewing Internet memes
on social websites. The cover of the questionnaire explained the purpose of the research and
asked the respondents whether they had ever liked, shared or commented after viewing an
Internet meme. This was asked to ensure that they had specific cognition and understanding
of them. The responses in which the answer to this question was “Yes” were statistically
analysed. This study referenced the Taiwan Electronic Commerce Yearbook (2013) and used
sex and age as stratification variables for stratified sampling. Overall, 38% of the
respondents were male, and 62% female; 8% were under 20 years old, 77.2% were 21–40
years old and 14.9% were 41–50 years old.
Additionally, this study also adopted Chang and Chen’s (2008) sampling distribution as
the second reference, which has quite a similar stratification ratio compared to the Taiwan
Electronic Commerce Yearbook (2013). The ratio of the Internet to paper questionnaires
returned was 6:4. Paper questionnaires were employed as well as Internet
questionnaires because the latter can lead to duplicate responses. Thus, to ensure the
questionnaires’ validity, 40% of the questionnaires were in paper form. The researchers
distributed the Internet questionnaires via different social media (e.g. Facebook, Instagram,
LINE and Dcard). For paper questionnaires, the researchers conducted convenience sampling
on streets in commercial areas. Because sample ratio control with stratification variables was
exerted, convenience sampling was used for practical execution.
After confirming that the respondents had answered all the questions, the questionnaires
were retrieved. A total of 516 questionnaires were distributed, and the first question was
answered “Yes” in 405 of these. The final number of valid questionnaires was 348, with a
valid response rate of 67.4%. The questionnaire responses were completed anonymously to
maintain academic objectivity and neutrality. Before a respondent completed the
questionnaire, the document informed them that an academic questionnaire was
performed only for an educational purpose and that no gift would be provided. Regarding
the internet questionnaires, Internet Protocol addresses were checked to prevent the problem
of duplicate answering.
Research ethics. All researchers received research ethics training. The Delphi method,
pre-test and questionnaire distribution were conducted per the guidelines of the institutional
review board (IRB). The researchers clearly described the study and interview purpose to
respondents. The respondents all provided informed consent to participate in the study.
Anonymous questionnaires were adopted for both the pre-test and full-scale survey to protect
the respondents’ privacy. Respondent data remained private. Apart from the researchers,
none of the respondents knew the other participating experts and scholars’ names or related
contact information for the Delphi method.
Scale measurement, reliability and validity analysis. This study provided a complete
construct, dimensions and research structure after the content analysis and pre-testing
illustrated in Figure 1.
In this study, only the Delphi method was used for designing an Internet meme scale. For the
measurement of other constructs, the literature was referenced. Biel (1992) referred to the brand
image scale and Park et al. (1986) to the concept of a brand image’s symbolic meaning. The
brand image scale was also referred to by BIlg_ In
_ (2018). For the reliability test, all Cronbach’s α
values were between 0.81 and 0.92. Regarding validity, the factor loadings of different items in
this study were all larger than 0.5 except that of item 24: “Other people consider me buying the
brands marketed in memes to be immature”. This was a reverse question and was deleted
because the factor loading did not conform to the standard (see Table 1).
OIR
High
Spreadability
Humour

High
Emotional Internet
Meme Brand Image
Intensity
H1

Figure 1. Brand
Proposed conceptual Interaction
framework and Prestige

Variables/items Factor loading α AVE CR

Internet memes

Humour 0.836 0.645 0.844

Interesting 0.70
Makes me have fun 0.87
Feels relaxing 0.83
High spreadability 0.814 0.613 0.825
Clearly understanding the content 0.81
Immediately understanding the content 0.84
Others can immediately understand 0.69
High emotional intensity 0.859 0.564 0.865
Cheers me up 0.76
Is exciting 0.83
Arouses my curiosity 0.80
Enables me to interact with others 0.67
Reduces my sense of loneliness 0.68
Brand Interaction and prestige 0.920 0.618 0.917
Makes others feel interesting 0.55
Makes me want to transform and propagate 0.90
Attract to transform and propagate 0.93
The meme brand is representative 0.70
The meme brand is my first choice 0.64
Brand image 0.885 0.628 0.892
The brand is reliable 0.58
The brand is popular 0.74
The brand entertains me 0.89
The brand is with a lot of fun 0.88
Table 1. The brand is familiar to me 0.83
Reliability and Note(s): N 5 348. CR: composite reliabilities; α: Cronbach’s α and AVE: average variance extracted. All CFA
validity tests factor loadings are significant at p < 0.01

Results
Restructure components of Internet memes
This study analysed the relationships between Internet memes and brand image using linear
structural equations (Figure 2). The results indicated that Internet memes and brand image
 Brand image
High
Humour Spreadability

High
0.900 0.641***
Emotional Internet Brand Image
Intensity Meme

Brand Figure 2.
Interaction and Results of SEM
Prestige analysis between
internet meme and
brand image
Note(s): GFI = 0.790; AGFI = 0.742; CFI = 0.872; IFI = 0.873; RMSEA = 0.095.***p < 0.01

were significantly positively correlated (β 5 0.18, p < 0.01), and the hypothesis was
supported. The factor loadings of each construct were then examined. High positive
emotional intensity was discovered to be the most crucial construct (eigenvalue 5 0.900),
followed by high spreadability (eigenvalue 5 0.698). Brand interactions was the third most
important (eigenvalue 5 0.900) and humour the least (eigenvalue 5 0.619). The results
indicated that Internet memes’ high positive emotional intensity is the factor with the
strongest influence on brand image.
According to the results mentioned above, the direct relationships of different dimensions
of Internet memes with brand images were further analysed (Figure 3). Brand interaction and
brand image were significantly positively correlated (β 5 0.347, p < 0.01). Humour and brand
image had a significant slight positive correlation (β 5 0.148, p < 0.1). Surprisingly, high
positive emotional intensity and high spreadability were not correlated with brand image
despite being critical in meme propagation.

High
Humour Spreadability

High
Emotional
Intensity Brand Image

Brand
Interaction
and Prestige Figure 3.
Results of SEM
analysis between
Note(s): GFI = 0.746; AGFI = 0.628; CFI = 0.832; IFI = 0.834; RMSEA = 0.110. dimensions of internet
meme and brand image
*p < 0.1; **p < 0.05; ***p < 0.01
OIR Effects of internet memes on brand image
This study conducted an exploratory factor analysis for the Internet meme scale. The results
revealed four significant factors related to Internet memes. These factors’ eigenvalues were
all larger than 1, and the total accumulated variance explained was 70.4%. The first group of
items was related to the brand prestige conferred by Internet memes, interaction with a brand
meme post and the reposting of a brand’s meme. The eigenvalue was 7.9, and the explanatory
variance was 43.9%. Because the group’s factors relate to the interaction between brands and
consumers, the group was named “brand interactions”. The second group of items relates to
the levels of emotion stimulated in consumers by Internet memes. The eigenvalue was 2.7,
and the variance explained was 14.7%. This group was named “high positive emotional
intensity”. The items in the third group are related to the humour in Internet memes. The
eigenvalue was 1.1, and the variance explained was 6.1%. The group was named “humour”.
Finally, the fourth group was related to memes’ easy propagation. The eigenvalue was 1, and
the variance explained was 5.7%. This group was named “high spreadability”. The factor
loadings of all items were higher than 0.4, conforming to the factor-loading standard of
exploratory factor analysis (Mata-Toledo and Gustafson, 1992) (see Table 2).
Based on Shifman’s (2014) research, the present study considered six Internet meme
constructs: humour, emotional intensity, easy to understand, propagation prestige,
propagation method, mutation level and interactivity. The common Internet meme
constructs in other articles were integrated, and a scale was developed using the Delphi
method. Finally, four constructs were extracted: brand interactions, high positive emotional
intensity, humour and high spreadability. Brand interactions were an essential construct
regarding their explanatory power, followed by high positive emotional intensity. Humour
was the third most important, whereas high spreadability was the least. This demonstrated
that brand prestige and interactivity with consumers were vital to Internet meme
propagation. Moreover, among the items related to brand interactivity, “wanting to
transform and propagate”, “the brand is representative” and “the brand is my first choice”
showed that prestige was an extremely critical factor in Internet meme propagation.
Triggering the desire to transform a meme in consumers also boosts Internet meme
propagation. Moreover, among the items for high positive emotional intensity, “exciting”,
“interacting with others” and “reducing the sense of loneliness” revealed that if memes can
increase consumers’ sense of interactivity and excitement, propagation is more likely.

Discussions and implications

The research questions mainly address the following points: How do Internet memes affect
brand image? What is a vital insight that causes Internet memes to be linked to the brand

High positive
Factor Brand interaction and prestige emotional intensity Humour High spreadability

Eigenvalue 7.9 2.7 1.1 1

VAE 43.9% 14.7% 6.1% 5.7%
Items Make others feel interesting Cheers me up Interesting Clearly understanding the
content
Make me want to transform Are exciting Making me Immediately understanding
and propagate have fun the content
Attract to transform and Arouse my curiosity Feel relaxing Others can immediately
propagate understand
Table 2. The meme brand is Enable me to interact
Exploratory factor representative with others
analysis of The meme brand is my first Reduce my sense of
Internet meme choice loneliness
image by consumers? Hence, the purpose of this study was to explore how Internet memes Brand image
affect brand image. This study assumed that Internet memes would positively affect brand
image and consumers would be found to have their minds infected by an Internet meme’s
symbolic value. The results also indicated four essential propagation characteristics of
Internet memes: humour, high positive emotional intensity, brand prestige and interaction
and high spreadability. However, not all four meme characteristics were essential to brand
image, only the incorporating symbolic values of brand prestige, interaction and humour.
The primary research contributions of this study are as follows. First, we responded to the
lack of consensus in the current literature on the propagation characteristics of Internet
memes (Brubaker et al., 2018; Shifman, 2014). This study organised the various meme
propagation characteristics identified in previous studies into four major categories, namely
brand interaction (Brubaker et al., 2018; Dıaz and Mauricio, 2013), high positive emotional
intensity (Berger and Milkman, 2012; Shifman, 2014), humour (Berger and Milkman, 2012;
Shifman, 2014) and high spreadability (Dıaz and Mauricio, 2013; Shifman, 2014). Based on
symbolic value, this study further proposed that Internet memes must have four significant
characteristics: humour, high positive emotional intensity, brand prestige and interaction and
high spreadability. This stimulates a mind infection in consumers who then have the desire to
spread, imitate and remake the memes rapidly on social media according to their symbolic
values. Additionally, the Internet meme propagation characteristics identified in previous
literature have been mainly applicable to political or public issues (Brubaker et al., 2018). No
empirical research has focused on online marketing communication effectiveness. Therefore,
this study enables the empirical measurement of Internet memes by using the Delphi method
to develop a scale and apply it to online marketing communications effectiveness.
Second, by applying both mind infection and symbolic value perspectives, this study
presents the important symbolic values that Internet memes need to include to affect
consumers’ behaviour in response to perceived brand image. The results indicate that when
Internet memes exhibit better brand prestige and interactivity and the higher the symbolic
value, the more possibility that consumers will be mind-infected and have the desire to
propagate them. The memes enhance the interaction between consumers and the brand.
Positive associations with the brand and brand image also increase (Krishnamurthy and
Kumar, 2018; Jalilvand and Samiei, 2012). Furthermore, when an Internet meme’s
entertaining symbolic value is higher, consumers propagate the Internet meme to present
themselves as optimistic and fun. Their positive associations with the brand increase (Gelb
and Zinkhan, 1986) the brand’s image. In sum, this study argues that brand prestige,
interactivity and humour in Internet memes are critical factors for marketing communication
strategies. However, not all dimensions of memes directly improve brand image. Although
Internet memes’ high spreadability and high positive emotional intensity can make
consumers propagate them, consumers may not necessarily associate these symbolic values
with the brand. Therefore, they do not improve brand awareness and hence not brand image.
This may occur because these characteristics involve low symbolic values and weak
connection with the brands. This study provides a complete explanation for Internet meme
symbolism mechanisms that create a connection between the minds of consumers and
brand image.
Third, for scholars in online marketing communication research, this study shifts the
current paradigm of brand-generated and customer-passive to user-generated and customer-
active. It also addresses the importance of pandemic effects of Internet memes on brand
image. Moreover, Internet memes positively affect brand image and thus contribute to
understanding the manipulable stimulus to the individual consumer rather than
psychological factors of brand image. Finally, regarding managerial implications, this
study highlights that online interactive communication strategies, like Internet memes, must
be built on the basis of their symbolic value to affect consumers to the point where they are
OIR mind-infected. Specifically, this study suggests that meme advertisers should first design
funny, witty and highly interactive brand memes. At the same time, the memes need to be
widely disseminated to improve the brand reputation and highlight the memes’ symbolic
value. By doing this, the Internet memes’ contagious effect on consumers would be magnified
and consumers would quickly propagate the meme to others, and thus increase the
brand image.

Limitations and further research

There are several limitations to this study. Brubaker et al. (2018) proposed the relationship
between Internet memes and online public engagement. Although public engagement is not
in the scope of this study, online consumers do generate engagement. This study suggests
that researchers could further explore the possible relationship between Internet memes and
customer engagement. Moreover, the research only focuses on Internet memes and brand
image without also examining other possible mediating or moderating factors. We suggest
further exploring whether there are other influencing factors to strengthen the mechanism of
consumer cognition. Additionally, this study has not yet examined whether the Internet
memes designed by different types of marketers will affect brand image. Further research can
clarify the impact of marketers’ characteristics on Internet memes and brand image. Fourth,
this study only investigated a Taiwanese context. Therefore, future studies are recommended
to see whether different study results are obtained in other countries. Finally, this study only
examined a cross-sectional survey that might be a snapshot of information analysed within a
specific period and might require a longitudinal study to have a complete understanding.

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Appendix Brand image

Average years of work

Service units/University/ experience and related academic
Identity Code Department Job title research

Scholar 1 Education/Electronic commerce Assistant Professor 12

department
2 Education/Marketing department Researcher in e-commerce 5
3 Education/Logistic and marketing Professor 18
Industry 4 Marketing/Electronic commerce Manager 7
personnel department
5 International marketing/ Specialist 5
Electronic commerce department
6 International business/Online Manager 10
marketing
7 International business/Online Assistant manager 5
marketing
8 Manufacturing/Online community Director 6 Table A1.
promotion Background of the
9 Marketing/Electronic commerce Owner 8 Dephi experts

Corresponding author
Hsin-Hui Lee can be contacted at: charlottelee523@gmail.com

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