EC340 DEC150 Lecture6

Application of Levelling
Contours & Vertical sections
Phiri L.
Civil Engineering, CBU (2015)
Contours & Vertical sections
Elements to be considered
• The meaning, significance and characteristics of contour lines
• The methods of surveying used to find contour lines in the
field
• The methods of interpolating contour lines from the surveyed
data
• Uses of contour lines
• Nature of longitudinal and cross sections
• Fieldwork involved in obtaining data to plot the longitudinal
and cross sections
• Methods of plotting sections
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Contouring
• On large-scale plans of civil engineering and building projects, contouring is the
commonly used method of showing height
Definition: Contours are the intersection of level surfaces with the earth
• The concept of a contour line can readily grasped if a reservoir is imagined
– If the water is perfectly calm, the edge on the water will be at the same level all the way
round the reservoir forming a contour line
– If the water is lowered by, say, five metres the water’s edge will form a second contour
– Further lowering of the water will result in the formation of more contour lines (figure
below)
– Contour lines are continuous lines and cannot meet or cross any other contour line, nor
can any one line split or join any other line, except in the case of a cliff or overhang
– A contour line is drawn on a plan joining all points of the same height above or below a
datum
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Contouring
• Figure below shows the contour plan and section of an island
• The height between successive contours is called the vertical interval or contour interval
and is always constant over a map or plan
• On the section the vertical interval is represented by AB
• The horizontal distance between the same two contours is the distance BC, and is called the
horizontal equivalent
• The gradient of the ground between two points A and C is found from:
Gradient = AB/BC = Vertical Interval/horizontal equivalent
• Since the vertical interval is constant throughout the plan, the gradient varies with
the horizontal equivalent
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Reading contours
• It should be clear from the above that the gradient is steep where
the contours are close together and conversely flat where the
contours are apart
• In the figure below different slope are shown
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Reading contours
• The contours are equally spaced along line (a), indicating that the
slope has a regular gradient
• A long line (b) the contours are closer at the top of the slope than at
the bottom. The slope is therefore steeper at the top than at the
bottom and such a slope is called a concave slope
• Conversely line (c) portrays a convex slope
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Reading contours
• A river valley has a characteristic ‘V-shape’ formed by contours line
(d). The V always points towards the source of the river, i.e. Uphill
• In contrast, the contour of line (e) also form a V-shape but pointing
downhill forming a ‘nose’ or spur
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• Contouring
Choice of vertical interval
• The vertical interval of the contour lines on any plan depends on several
factors, namely:
a. The purpose and extent of the survey
Where the plan is required for estimating earthwork quantities or for
detailed design of works a small vertical interval will be required
The interval may be as small as 0.5m over a small site but 1 or 2m is more
common, particularly where the site is fairly large
b. The scale of the map or plan
Generally, on a small scale maps the vertical interval has to be fairly large
If not, some essential details might be obscured by the large number of
contour lines
c. The nature of the terrain
In the surveys of small sites, this is probably the deciding factor
A close vertical interval is required to portray small undulations on relatively
flat ground
Where the terrain is steep, a wider interval would be chosen
Phiri L.
• Contouring
Direct method of contouring
• Using this method the contour lines are physically followed on the ground
• The work is really the reverse of ordinary levelling for whereas, by the latter operation,
levels of known positions are found, in contouring it is necessary to establish the
positions of known levels
• The figure below shows the plan of the building plot. Contour lines are required over the
sight at vertical intervals of 1m. Temporal bench marks have been established on the
survey points A to F by flying levelling
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• Contouring
• A level is set on site at some position from which the bench mark can be observed
comfortably
• In the figure below the level is set at position X and a back sight of 0.92m is observed on the
BM(peg B, RL 7.78m)
• The height of collimation = 7.78 + 0.92 = 8.70m
• From this instrument position, the contours at 7.00m and 6.00m can be observed
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• Contouring
• The staff-man holds the staff facing the instrument and backs slowly downhill
• When the observer reads 1.700m, the bottom of the staff is 7.000m since
• Height of Collimation = 8.700m
• 7m contour = 7.000m
• Staff difference = 1.700m
• The staff man marks the position by knocking a peg into the ground
Phiri L.
• Contouring
• The staff man marks the position by knocking a peg into the ground
• He or she proceeds roughly along a level course, stopping at frequent
interval, while being directed to move the staff slowly up or downhill until
the 1.700m reading is observed from the instrument
• A peg is inserted at each correct staff position
Phiri L.
• Contouring
• In the figure below pegs 1 to 4 have been established on the 7.000m contour
• The 6.000m contour is similarly established at peg 5 to 9 using staff readings of
2.700m
• In order to set out the 5.000m contour, a staff reading of 3.700m is required. The
contour line is denoted by pegs 10 to 14
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• Contouring
• The table shows the appropriate
bookings
• In order to check the levelling a
foresight reading of 3.140m has
been taken to TBM peg D.
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• Contouring
• The eastern end of the sight is too far from instrument station X to allow
accurate contouring to take place
• Consequently, a further instrument set-up is established at point Y and the
levelling operations is continued from there
Phiri L.
• Contouring
Indirect method of contouring
• When using this method, no attempt is to follow the contour lines
• Instead a series of spot levels is taken at readily identifiable location, e.g.
At trees, gateposts, manholes and at intersections of walls and fences
• Contour positions are then interpolated between them
• On open areas, where there are no easily identifiable features, a grid of
squares or rectangles is set out on the ground and spot levels are taken
to each point of the grid
• In theory, when contouring by this method, spot levels are required only
at tops and bottoms of all slopes
• The ground is then treated as a plane surface between them. In practice
many more levels are taken
• Three distinct operations are involved in the indirect method of
contouring:
a. Setting out a grid
b. Levelling
c. Interpolating contours
Phiri L.
• Contouring
Setting out a grid
• On any site, a long side is chosen as the baseline and ranging rods or
small wooden pegs are set out along the line at regular intervals
• The interval depends on the contour vertical interval
• The baseline interval should be 5 or 10m where the vertical interval is
so close (e.g. 0.5 or 1m) and should be a maximum of 20m in all cases
• At 30m intervals, or more if deemed necessary, lines are set out at right
angles to the baseline, using the horizontal circle of the level or by tape,
using Pythagoras theorem
• Further pegs are inserted at 10m intervals along these latter lines
• The other pegs on the grid are established by simple taped
measurements
• The numerous pegs must be easily identified at a later stage so each is
given a grid reference
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• Contouring
Levelling
• A levelling survey is made over the site to every point on the grid and every
subsidiary point
• The reduced levels are then calculated and added to the plan as in figure below:
Phiri L.
• Contouring
Indirect method of
contouring
Interpolating Contours
• Figure below shows
part of the grid, with its
appropriate reduced
levels
• Contour lines may be
interpolated on the grid
either mathematically
or graphically
• First contour positions
are located on the plan
and then joined by a
smooth curve
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• Contouring
• Figure below shows part of the grid, with its appropriate reduced levels
• Contour lines may be interpolated on the grid either mathematically or graphically
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• Contouring
• Example: Calculate the location of
36 m and 37 m contours on line
joining spot heights A and B of
reduced levels 37.2 and 35.8 m
respectively.
Solution:
• By simple proportion
0.2 1.2 1.4
 
x y 28.7
from which x = 4.1 m, and y = 24.6 m
• The horizontal distance x and y are scaled on the plan to fix the position of 36 m
and 37 m contours respectively.
• When all the exact contour positions have been plotted they are joined by a
smooth curve
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• Contouring
Exercise:
 Figure below shows a network of spot levels. The square grids are 10x10m.
Interpolate on the plan the position 7.5, 7.0, 6.5, 6.0, 5.5, 5.0m contour lines
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• Contouring
Uses of contour plans
• Common uses of contours in construction are generation of:
a) Vertical sections
b) Intersection surfaces
• Vertical sections
 A vertical section is a profile of the ground that would be obtained by cutting
the ground surface along a chosen line
• Intersection surfaces
 The intersection of
buildings/embankments and
ground surface in cardinal in
design and construct
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• Contouring
Uses of contour plans
• DEM creation
• Area and volume calculation of ground surface,
rock and sub-soil
• Catchment delineation
• Planning engineering works such as sewerage and
drainage, water distribution network
construction, construction of highways and
railways, construction of canals, culverts, bridges,
storage reservoirs etc
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Vertical Sections
• Sectioning undertaken for construction work such as road
works, railways, pipelines & canals
• Whenever narrow works of long length, e.g. roads, sewers,
drains etc., are to be constructed, it is necessary to draw
vertical sections showing clearly the profile of the ground
• Two types:
a. Longitudinal: vertical section along the centre line of the complete
length of works
b. Cross-sections: vertical section drawn at right angles to the centre
line of the works
• The information obtained from sectioning is essential in the:
i. Calculation of earthworks
ii. Supplying details about the volume of cut and fill required
iii. Determination of suitable gradients for construction works
Phiri L.
Vertical Sections
• The figure below shows a contoured plan of a proposed building site
• The plan shows the positions of two houses; a centre line of a service roadway
and lines of two sewers which will serve the houses
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Vertical Sections
• Roadway specification
– Width: 4.00m
– Gradient: 1 in 50 rising R1 to R4
– Side slope 1 in 1 (45o)
• Drainage specification
– Storm water:
• Manhole S1 to S4 rising at 1 in 40
• Invert level manhole S1: 2.197m
– Foul water:
• Manhole F1 to F4 rising at 1 in 40
• Invert level manhole F1: 2.950
• Note:
– In dealing with drains and sewers, reference is made to invert level
rather than the formation level
– The invert level is the inside of the bottom of the pipe, but for
practical purposes it may be considered to be the bottom of the
excavation Phiri L.
• Vertical Sections
• In construction work, sewers and roadways are
constructed first of all
• They must be set out, on the ground, in their correct
locations
• In order to cost the development accurately, the
volume of material required to construct the
earthworks (cuttings or embankment) has to be
calculated
• The first step in calculating the earthworks quantities
and in preparing the setting-out information is to
make longitudinal sections and cross sections
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Vertical Sections
Fieldwork procedure
• The centre lines of the road and sewers are set out on the ground by a
series of stakes. The set out is usually done using a theodolite
• A levelling is made along the centre line with levels taken at all changes
of gradient. A level is also taken at every tape length whether or not it
signifies a change in gradient
• A surveyor and three assistants are required if the section is long
• The surveyor takes the readings and does the bookings
• One assistant acts as staff-man
• The other two act as chainmen taking all measurements, lining-in
ranging poles along the centre line
• Flying levelling is conducted from a nearby bench mark to a peg
denoting zero chainage
• Thereafter the levelling is done in series form with intermediate sights
taken as necessary
• As in all surveying work, a check must be provided
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Vertical Sections
Plotting longitudinal sections
• The fieldwork results are computed and all checks applied
• Table below shows the series of levels taken along the centre line of the
proposed roadway
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Vertical Sections
• Plotting longitudinal sections
• The scales are chosen for section drawing, such that the horizontal scale is the same as
the scale of the plan view on the site
• Compared to the length of the section, the differences in elevation of section points will
always be comparatively small
• The vertical scale of the section is exaggerated to enable the differences in elevation to
be readily seen
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Vertical Sections
• Plotting longitudinal sections
• The formation level any construction works is the level to which the
earth is excavated or deposited to accommodate the works
• In the figure above (previous slide) the formation level of the new
roadway at R1 is 4.400m
• The road is to rise at a gradient of 1 in 50 from R1 at chainage 0 to R4 at
chainage 80m
• Since the formation gradient is constant, the formation level along the
chainage is given by:
• Formation level = Gradient X Chainage + Formation at O chainage
• For instance Formation at R4 = (1/50)x80m +4.400m = 6.000m
Phiri L.
Vertical Sections
• Calculation of cut and fill
• In addition to being scaled from the section, the depths of cut or height to fill
are also calculated
• The method is the similar in all vertical sections
• Generally it consist of:
• Calculating the reduced level of each chainage point
• Calculating the proposed level of the new works at each chainage point
• Subtracting one from the other. Where the surface level is higher than the
proposed level, there must be cutting and where the proposed level exceeds
the surface level, filling will be required
• The complete calculation of cut/fill along the centre line of the proposed road
way R1 to R2 is tabulated below
• Note for constant gradient: Formation level = Gradient X Chainage + Formation

at O chainage
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Vertical Sections
• Depth of cut/fill = Ground level – Formation level
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Vertical Sections
• Example
• The table below shows the chainages and reduced levels obtained
during a levelling survey along the line of sewer.
• Draw a longitudinal section along the line of the sewer, showing
clearly:
i. The ground surface
ii. The proposed sewer rising from existing invert level 2.950m at
manhole F1 to manhole F4 at a gradient of 1 in 40
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• Solution
Phiri L.

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EC340 DEC150 Lecture6

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Application of Levelling

Contours & Vertical sections

• Note for constant gradient: Formation level = Gradient X Chainage + Formation

• Depth of cut/fill = Ground level – Formation level

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