DIPLOMA PROJECT

Design of a crank mechanism for a four-cylinder in-line spark

ignition engine on LPG, with effective power Pe = 73 kW, at nominal
speed nn = 6000 rpm and compression ratio 𝜀 = 10.5

Graduate:

Cristea Bogdan-Nicolae

Study program: Automotive engineering

Scientific coordinator: Lecturer Dr. Eng. Radu Sebastian

BRAȘOV, 2022

Contents
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................8

1 LEVEL STUDY OF CONSTRUCTION SOLUTION IN THE FIELD OF THEME.......9

1.1 LPG usage in a internal combustion engine............................................................9

1.1.1 LGP advantages...................................................................................................9

 1.1.2 LPG composition................................................................................................10

1.1.3 LPG burning......................................................................................................13

1.1.4 Storage of fuel in the form of liquefied gas......................................................17

1.2 Crank mechanism....................................................................................................18

1.2.1 Crack gear components.....................................................................................19

1.3 Forces that act on the crank mechanism.................................................................20

1.3.1 Inertial forces.....................................................................................................24

1.3.2 The forces resulting from the motor mechanism..............................................26

1.3.3 Engine moment..................................................................................................29

2 PROCESS CALCULATION............................................................................................30

2.1 Initial parameters.....................................................................................................30

2.1.1 Parameters of the gas exchange process...........................................................30

2.1.2 Compression process parameters......................................................................31

2.1.3 Combustion process parameters........................................................................31

2.1.4 Stroke process parameters.................................................................................33

2.1.5 Main engine parameters....................................................................................33

2.1.6 Fundamental dimensions of the engine............................................................34

2.1.7 Indicated diagram..............................................................................................34

2.1.8 External characteristic.....................................................................................36

3 DIMENSIONING CALCULATION................................................................................39

3.1 General aspects.........................................................................................................39

3.1.1 Cylinder design...................................................................................................40

3.1.2 Piston design......................................................................................................41

3.1.3 Bolt design..........................................................................................................47

3.1.4 Sealing Rings......................................................................................................49

3.1.5 Connecting rod...................................................................................................53

2
 3.1.6 Crank shaft.........................................................................................................58

4 KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE MOTOR USING SIMCENTER AMESIM

SOFTWARE.............................................................................................................................68

4.1 General aspects.........................................................................................................68

4.2 Realization of the analysis model............................................................................68

4.3 Graph plotting in Simcenter Amesim.....................................................................71

5 CATIA MODELING........................................................................................................76

5.1 General aspects.........................................................................................................76

5.2 Parts modeling..........................................................................................................76

5.3 Parts modeling..........................................................................................................77

6 TOPOLOGICAL OPTIMIZATION OF A PISTON BY THE FINITE ELEMENT

METHOD USING CATIA.......................................................................................................79

6.1 Applying of finite element method..........................................................................79

7 PISTONS TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND MANUFACTURING...................83

7.1 General aspects.........................................................................................................83

7.2 Piston function, requirements, and types...............................................................85

7.2.1 Sealing and heat dissipation..............................................................................85

7.2.2 Tasks and Requirements on the piston..............................................................85

7.3 Piston types...............................................................................................................86

7.4 Piston materials........................................................................................................86

7.4.1 Aluminum materials..........................................................................................87

7.4.2 Aloys materials...................................................................................................87

7.4.3 Ferrous materials...............................................................................................89

7.5 The technologies and ways of fabrication..............................................................90

7.5.1 Casting................................................................................................................90

7.6 Pistons technological processes and manufacturing.............................................91

3
 7.6.1 Selection and processing of settlement bases....................................................92

7.6.2 Exterior face processing....................................................................................92

7.6.3 Processing the bolt bore.....................................................................................94

7.6.4 Drilling and milling operations.........................................................................94

7.6.5 Sorting by mass groups......................................................................................95

7.6.6 Control operations..............................................................................................95

7.7 Piston reconditioning...............................................................................................98

8 CONCLUSIONS...............................................................................................................99

9 BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................................................................100

4
 INTRODUCTION
This project goal is to achieve a functional design of a crank mechanism for a 4
cylinder naturally aspired engine that use as fuel the liquid petroleum gas (LGP) with a
propane- 4 butene mix that is used in the warm season. The engine shape and design are
similar to that of a gasoline engine because of its qualities and properties in combustion, so
that by changing the fuel supply system we can have an engine that function by using LPG
which is much cheaper and less harmful to environment.
Fist, a documentation was done on the LPG qualities and usage on an engine car. By
knowing the qualities and the behavior of the fuel we can build a mechanism that can enhance
the energy that the fuel can produce.
To have an efficient engine that accomplish the required tasks. We need to know the
way the force can flow through the parts to generate rotary power (torque and power), so that
we can design a system that have a minimum loss in power through loses and to keep in
account the influences of masses that can create inertial forces at high-speed movement. The
engine is classified in certain norms by introducing calculations that have the role of
determining the main parameters of the engine starting from certain input data. After
performing the process calculations, we can introduce the sizing calculations that have the
role of giving a shape to our idea by designing the system by knowing the main dimensions of
the assembled parts and components.
Furthermore, a simulation can be main to generate a more accurate behavior of the engine
and to plot some diagrams that can be used to follow the force and torque development in the
system. Finally, a CAD model can be made to put our idea into function and to give a design
to our parts so that we can have a solid idea of what it has to be done

5
1 LEVEL STUDY OF CONSTRUCTION SOLUTION IN
THE FIELD OF THEME

1.1 LPG usage in a internal combustion engine

Liquefied petroleum gas has been used for several decades to power many types of vehicles,
being known as the most widely used alternative fuel in the world.

1.1.1 LGP advantages

 LPG is clean, does not contain water or other impurities, has a complete combustion
and does not generate calamine deposits on pistons, segments and spark plugs;
 It is a fuel that is obtained at a relatively low cost, the final selling price at gas stations
being 50-60% of the price of gasoline;
 In case of accidental spillage, it is not toxic to soil and aquifers;
 LPG combustion produces up to 15-20% less CO2 than gasoline engines; therefore,
LPG is an excellent fuel for vehicles that are forced to comply with pollution
regulations (which are becoming increasingly stringent);
 Vehicles are less noisy than petrol or diesel vehicles, reducing noise pollution;
 State-of-the-art LPG systems are equipped with explosion protection systems in case
of fire or impact and it has been shown by various tests that the LPG tank is much
safer than a petrol tank;

1.1.2 LPG composition

LPG has become more and more used on cars, as it is a less polluting and cheaper energy
source in terms of the price of other carburetors. Liquefied petroleum gas consists of a
mixture of gases, usually propane and butane, from well gases or crude oil products. The
proportion of this mixture may differ depending on the country or season. For example, in
winter in Belgium and the Netherlands a ratio of 50/50 is used and in summer of 30/70
propane / butane. In addition to propane and butane, pentane, cetane and other compounds
can be added like methene, ethane, etc.
Methane, ethane, propane and butane are a series of paraffinic hydrocarbons. They are
colorless gases at normal temperatures, with poor gasoline smell and insoluble in water. The
table below shows the physical properties of these hydrocarbons:
6
 Table 1.1. The main physical constants of a hydrocarbon
Name Methane Ethan Propane Butane
Molecule mass 16.032 30.07 44.00 58.12
Gas constant J/kg*K 518.722 276.744 188.778 143.177
Melting point (at p0=¿ 1.013 * 105 N/m2)
Melting temperature K 90.65 89.55 83.25 138.15
Melting temperature C° -182.50 -183.60 -189.90 -135
Melting heat kJ/kg 58.615 92.947 80.387 76.326
Boiling point (at p0=¿ 1.013 * 105 N/m2)
Vaporization temperature K 111.45 184.55 230.55 273.65
Vaporization temperature -161.70 -88.60 -42.60 -0.5
C°
Vaporization heat kJ/kg 548.471 540.097 447.988 403.608
Critical temperature K 190.65 308.15 369.95 426.35
Critical temperature C° -82.50 35 96.80 153.20
Critical pressure MPa 4.6287 5.06 4.33 3.648
Critical density kg/m3 162 210 226 …

Normal state (at p 0=¿ 1.013 * 105 N/m2 and T 0=273 K

Density kg/m3 0.7168 1.356 2.019 2.703
Relative density in the air 0.5554 1.0489 1.5617 2.0908
Specific heat at constant 2.117 1.666 1.550 1.918
pressure kJ/kg*K
Dynamic viscosity N*s/m2* 10.35 8.55 7.50 6.80
−6
10
Thermal conductivity 0.03024 0.01826 0.01512 0.01349
W/m*K
Air diffusion coefficient cm 3 0.16 … 0.10 …
/s
Specific heat ratio 1.30 1.22 1.14 1.11

7
LPG installation can be put in direct use on a spark engine because the compression ratio and
behave the same as the gasoline when it burns. There are some things that differentiate those
two fuels in burning like the amount of energy that is released, density and other physical
characteristics.

Table 1.2. Comparison between LPG (95% propane) and gasoline

Characteristic LPG Gasoline

Density at 15° C, kg/dm 3 0.51 0.75
Lower hating value
kJ/dm 3 23600 32400
kJ/kg 46350 43200
Vaporization heat, kJ/kg 352,26 297,44
Vaporization heat reported 7.6 9.2
at LHV, MJ
Inflammability limit 1.4 1.15
C.O for:
- engine method (CO/R) 97 82.5
-cetane method (CO/M) 110 92

A gas needs to be liquefied, so that can be easy to store and can be used in certain condition.
If we trying to use a gas, there may be some difficulties in storing the gas in a container,
because the pressure required to store the gas may reach or exceed 20 MPa. The use of a rich
pressure leads to problems in the construction of the supply installation and distribution
system.
Methane liquefies with difficulty, leading to serious storage problems in the car's tank.
Propane and especially butane liquefy easily, the boiling temperature is at atmospheric
pressure at -42.6 °C and -0.5 °C respectively. In Romania the gas is delivered in containers at
a pressure of 0.95Mpa at 60 °C.

8
1.1.3 LPG burning
Natural gas burns easily and produces a colorless flame. combustion proceeds through a chain
of branched reactions, where the intermediate compounds methyl CH3, formaldehyde CH2O,
formyl radical CHO and carbon monoxide CO2, intervene.
Table 1.3. Hydrocarbon combustion characteristics
Characteristic Methane Ethan Propene Bethena
Mass components %:
C 75 80 81.8 82.75
H 25 20 18.2 17.25
Theoretical necessary 9.25 16.7 23.8 31.0
air for burning, air/ Nm3
LHV, kJ/kg 49499 47436 46348 45720
Self-ignition 812 ...920 820 740 ..820 -
temperature, K
Temperature of the 2148 - 2243 -
flame in air

Figure 1-1 shows the ignition limits of the methane gas and air mixture, taking into account
the initial pressure and the initial temperature. Ignition limits are directly influenced by the
mode of flame propagation:
 when flames propagate up 15% (vol.) methane;
 when flames propagate down 5.95 ...13.53% (vol) methane;
 when flames propagate horizontal 5.40 ... 13.95% (vol) methane;
The laminar velocity of the flame in the concentration of the mixture of methane-air and
propane-air are of the same order of size as gasoline-air, basically LPG and gasoline have the
same order of burning rate in the mixture. In stoichiometric mixture used in experimental
bombs at initial pressure of 1 bar and initial temperature of 300 K, the next burning speeds are
noticed:
 35 cm/s for methane;
 38 cm/s for propane;
 32 cm/s for isooctane (gasoline);
9
 Figure 1-1 Ignition limits of the gas-air mixture

Methane, ethane and propane have a resistance to ignition with detonation in the engine.
Abnormal combustion and self-ignition are easier to control than engines that use gasoline as
fuel. CO for LPG, which contains 95% propane, is 15 units higher than gasoline. (See in
Table 1.2).
There is no universally accepted method of detecting detonation and self-ignition of gaseous
fuels. Most research defines the compression ratio at the limit of detectable detonation and
does not adopt the practice of extrapolating the octane number or engine performance indices.
Figure 2-2 shows the results of the research carried out with an engine of the usual
construction for the octane number determinations for petrol according to the "Engine"
method.
The inlet temperature is equal to the atmospheric pressure, the two compared fuels differ from
each other according to the values of the compression ratio:
 for methane it must be greater than 14;
 for propane greater than 7;
For both fuels, the detonation can be avoided even by using a compression ratio of 16 that has
a sufficiently rich or poor mixture.

10
 Figure 1- 2 Detonation zone at different compression ratio

Temperature is a major factor that directly influences the detonation. Intake temperature is
considered an important variable, especially for supercharged engines. As we expect, with the
increase of temperatures, the compression ratio advances towards the lower values, having
produced the widening of the dosage range that leads to the appearance of detonation. At high
values of the intake temperature, the self-ignition of the mixture is registered, in the
conditions in which the electric spark is delayed. For example, methane self-ignition at 106°C
was recorded at a compression ratio of methane of 15 and propane of 14. During the dosing
interval, self-ignition combustion does not show abnormal manifestations, after exceeding the
dosing limits a severe detonation occurs in the engine.

Figure 1-3 Self-ignition with methane detonations

In each of the methane-propane mixture, there was a slight change in the ignition limits of the
methane. The influence of the presence of propane is manifested on the limits of detonation.

11
 Figure 1-4 Self-ignition with propene-methane detonations

1.1.4 Storage of fuel in the form of liquefied gas

The liquefied gas is stored in cylindrical cylinders made of welded steel sheet. Their capacity
varies in the limits of 40-150 liters. In order to achieve an autonomy of circulation equivalent
to the maximum fuel capacity that enters the tank on the number of kilometers traveled, the
LPG container must be 1.3-1.8 higher than the gas tank. 1 liter of LPG is equivalent to 0.8
liters of gasoline at the energy value produced and a mass 7-8 times larger (the thickness of
the sheet of the LPG container is 6 times greater than that of the usual gas tank). Storage
pressure for LPG is 4-7 bar at a temperature of 50°C. for safety, only 80-85% of the tank is
filled, leaving the rest of the space for gas expansion in conditions of rising temperatures.
The regulations on the use of LPG in motor vehicles in countries where it is officially
introduced are very strict. The standards and indications for the use and installation of the
installations are detailed regarding the pressure, capacity, control of the manufacture of the
containers and safety in use. Installations must be checked periodically so that the state can

12
ensure that they operate in conditions accepted and approved by law.

Figure 1- 5 LPG installation

One LPG installation contains: 1 Gas tank, 2 supply valve, 3 one-way valves, 4 valve, 5 level
indicator, 6 floating devices, 7 motor supply valve, 8 supply connection. The plating space of
the gas tank is isolated from the car, in the case of passenger cars the compartment is in the
trunk.

13
 Figure 1- 6 LPG tank

1.2 Crank mechanism

The crank mechanisms the mechanism of an engine that transform the translational motion, of
a sliding element, in rotational motion. Doing so, transform the thermodynamic energy of a
burning gas into mechanical energy under the form of a rotational torque. This process in
meant to obtain maximum work, a good efficiency and technical feasibility.
By obtaining those good traits, the following disadvantages occur:
 Limitation of speed;
 Uneven force transmission, that require a lot of measurements of the mass and force
distribution for each cylinder, the mass balancing and gear balancing is used even the
 load transmitted from each cylinder in a certain fairing order;
 Excitation of rotational oscillation that put a high stress on the crack shaft and the
other components;
 Tribological problem;
 Problematic geometry of the components;
 High fluctuation of the force in compression to the nominal value;

1.2.1 Crack gear components

In ordinary internal combustion piston engines, the engine mechanism is based on a
connecting rod-crank mechanism. The components that form the crack mechanism are mobile
and some are fix. The mobile components are the main parts that forms the crack gear and the
fix ones.
Mobile components:
 Piston;
 Piston rings;
 Piston pin;
 Crankshaft;
 Connecting rod;

14
The relevant kinematic parts are the main parts of the crankshaft drive that execute the next
movements:
 The piston has an oscillation movement in the cylinder, moving in a straight line up
and down;
 The conrod execute an oscillation movement at the foot and rotates at the head of the
rod, while the body of the conrod swings;
 The crankshaft executes a rotation movement;

15
 Figure 1- 7 The movement of the crank mechanism

1.3 Forces that act on the crank mechanism

The forces that act on the crankshaft drive are generated from the gas pressure in a
combustion chamber and form the inertial forces. The combustion chamber should be seal,
and the pressure gas should not have a leaking spot in the cylinder .

Figure 1-8 Pressure gas forces distribution inside the cylinder

In the Figure 1-8 the gas pressure act on the cylinder, cylinder head and the piston. The piston
is a sliding element, so the pressure will push the piston down and generate useful work
16
through the crank mechanism. The pressure that acts on the cylinder walls will produce inside
stress and pressure that acts on the cylinder head will produce a stress on the connecting. The
repartition of the gas pressure and the inertial forces within the crank mechanism forces can
be influenced by:
 The thermodynamic process: SI or CI engine;
 Design of the engine: turbocharged engine, supercharge engine or natural
aspirated engine;
 Load level: if we have a high gas force, this will reduce the inertial forces
and if we have a low gas force, the inertial forces will be high;
 Dosage of the mixture: the mixture between the air and the fuel can be rich
or lean (a rich mixture produces more power by burning more fuel);
Because of the nonuniform process and movement in an engine, the size and the direction of
the forces that act on the crank mechanism can change during the work working cycle. An
easy method to visualize those forces is statically, a cinematic representation can be use. Is a
lot harder to see how the forces will act dynamically on the crank mechanism. In these days
the computers are responsible for those calculus of the forces, calculation of the movement,
deformation and strength behavior of the mechanical structures. In this way they have a
certain degree of precision in calculation and we can determine the reliability of the
mechanism. The forces are no longer view as vectors a that act on a single point on the parts
that transmit and produce change in the type of force.

The next forces act on the crank mechanism:

 Gas force;
 (Oscillating) inertial force of the piston;
 Oscillating inertial force of the conrod;
 Rotating inertial force of the conrod;
 Rotating inertial force of the crankshaft throw;

17
 Figure 1- 9 Forces acting on the crank mechanism

 Rotating inertial force of the counter mass;

In the Figure 1-9, the represented forces are occurring briefly after the ignition of TDC whit a
crankshaft angle of 30˚ after TDC. The inertial forces are not included.

18
 Figure 1- 10 Cinematic representation of the gas forces

The gas pressure is directly influenced by the crank angle. To determine the variation in
pressure we need to use a pressure diagram , obtaining from it a chrono monogram. The gas
pressure is equal with the pressure in the cylinder minus the pressure in the crankcase. The
crankcase pressure is equal with the atmospheric pressure.

Figure 1- 11 Indicated diagram

N g and S g.The action of the force S g will be felt in the center O, being split into two forces of
' ¿ '
opposite direction S g and S g , equal with the force S. S g will be split in two other components,

19
 ¿
N g and F g.The torque is produced by the action of the S g and S g , producing the engine
' '

moment M t . The moment of overturning M r is produced by N g and N 'g ,it causes motor
imbalance because produces variable reactions to supports. The forces that are balancing each
other inside the engine and did not get transferred to supports or connections are F 'g( are
¿
transmitted at supports) and F g (are transmuted at the cylinder head).

1.3.1 Inertial forces

The forces of inertia in the engine are produced in part by each component of the engine
mechanism that moves in rotation and translation. The accelerated movement of the engine
mechanism is found in: piston group, connecting rod group, crank shaft group. The
calculation relation of the inertial forces in the simplest form is that the force is equal with the
mass of the part, times the acceleration. The inertial force will decrease the overall force, so
its sign will be with minus.

Figure 1-12 Reduction of engine mechanism masses

To simplify the dynamic calculation, we move to a system of equivalent masses that has the
role of approximating the real movement of the masses. By dividing the parts into groups and
by identifying the kind of movement that the components do we can find the inertial forces
for each part in the group:
 Piston group contains the piston, sealing rings, safety rings and piston pin. Each of
these components are subjected to the translation accelerate movement. The whole
mass of the group is considered to be concentrated on the axis of the bolt, taking into
account a single concentrated mass, the acceleration being felt the same for all
components.
20
 The connecting rod group contains the connecting rod, connecting rod cap, bushing,
bearings and screws (depend of the type of connecting rod). The connecting rod is
subjected at two movements, rotation and translation. The connecting rod is
considered to have 2 masses, one in translation and one in rotation. The masses are
placed in the center of the connecting rod head and connecting rod foot. By knowing
the repartition of the mass in the connecting rod group, we can determine the center of
weight and its position from the two centers. It is also important to know that mase of
the group is divided by 75% for m 1 and 25% for m2.

 The crank shaft group is form just from the crank shaft. The main movement that
is produced by the crank shaft, is rotation. When calculating the inertia force, at
the crankshaft, things get a little complicated because it contains more bends and
makes the connection between several pistons and moving connecting rods. The
only option that we have is to calculate separately the inertial force for each crank
Figure 1-13 Reducing the connecting rod mass
of the shaft.

21
 Figure 1-14 Reducing the masses of a crankshaft elbow

1.3.2 The forces resulting from the motor mechanism

Figure 1- 15 The forces resulting from the crank mechanism

Considering the simultaneous action of the gas pressure force and the inertia forces, the force
scheme is obtained , being represented in Figure 1-16 a and in Figure 1-17 b the specified sign
convention is presented.

22
 Figure 1- 18 Variation of forces F, F g , F j ,depending on the α angle

The resulting force F acting on the piston can be represented graphically depending on the
angle of rotation of the crankshaft α .
N=F* tg β (1.1)

F (1.2)
S=
cos β

The variation graph of these

Figure 1- 19 Variation of the forces N and S, depending on the α angle
forces can be observed in the
Figure 1-19. By moving the force S on its line of action, at point B it can be decomposed into
two components: the force Z, oriented towards the direction of the crank, the force T, the
norm on it.
The graphical representation of this forces is realized in Figure 1-20, bellow.

23
 cos( α + β ) (1.3)
Z=S'*cos( α +β )=F*
cos β

sin( α +β ) (1.4)
T=S'*sin( α+ β )=F*
cos β

Because of the masses that are in rotational movement, the connecting rod at the head produce
a force Zb and Zc is produce on the unbalanced part of the crank. These two forces
are negative forces and can lead after the crank direction. Because of the direction that it
takes the force Z can act on:
 Crank pin journal
(1.5)

 Main journal:

Zm =Z+ Zb +Zc =Z- m 2 *r* ω

2
(1.6)

Figure 1- 20 Variation of the forces Z and T, depending on the α angle

1.3.3 Engine moment

In order to highlight the engine moment, proceed as follows: in the center of rotation of the
shaft are placed two forces T 'and T "equal and of opposite direction and parallel to the force
T. In the same center, the force Z of its line of action is placed, denoted Z'. The forces T "and
Z 'give the resultant S" which decomposes into components F' and N '

24
The force F 'is equal to the force F. The first component Fg' is balanced inside with the force
Fg" as previously shown. The force Fj is not balanced and is transmitted to the supports.
The forces T and T ' produce a torque whose moment M represents the motor moment of the
single cylinder, which can be calculated with the expression:
sin( α +β ) (1.7)
M=T*r=F* *r
cos β
It can be observed that the variation of the moment M is identical with the variation of the
force T and will have the same representation, being distinguished only by the scale of the
diagram, because the radius of the crank is a constant size.

25
The force N and N ' on the arm h, form a torque whose moment Mr is called the moment of
overturning and is equal and opposite to the motor moment.
sin( α + β ) (1.8)
M r =-T*r=-F* *r
cos β

2 PROCESS CALCULATION

2.1 Initial parameters

2.1.1 Parameters of the gas exchange process

5 N (1.9)
pa =0.75* 10 2
m

∆T =25 ℃ (1.10)

v p =1.17 (1.11)

pa-pressure at the end of admission;

26
∆T-mixture preheating;
v p-post filling coefficient;

 Coefficient of the residual gasses:

( T0 +∆T) p r (1.12)
gr = * =0.062
Tr e* p a * v p - pr

 Temperature at the end of admission:

T 0 +∆T+g T r (1.13)
Ta = =352K
1+ gr

 Filling coefficient:
pa * T 0 e vp (1.14)
hv = * * =0.75
p0 * Ta (e-1) 1+g r

2.1.2 Compression process parameters

 Polytropic compression coefficient:
n 1 =1.32 (1.15)

 Polytropic compression coefficient:

N (1.16)
pc = pa *e n =16.71*105
1

m2

 Temperature at the end of compression:

Tc = T a * e
n 1 -1
=747K (1.17)

2.1.3 Combustion process parameters

 Gas composition:
C=0.8235kg (1.18)

H=0.1765kg (1.19)

O=0kg (1.20)

27
 kj (1.21)
Q i =46350
kg

kcal (1.22)
M c =0.00877192
kg

ξ =0.9 (1.23)

F z =0.8 (1.24)

 The minimum air required to burn 1 kg of fuel is calculated with the relation:

Lmin =
1
* (
C H O
+ -
0.21 12 4 32
=0.537
kg comb)
kmol air (1.25)

 The actual amount needed to burn the fuel:

kmol air (1.26)
L=l* L min =0.456
kg comb

 The amount of fresh cargo, related to 1 kg of fuel will be:

M 1 =l* Lmin + Mc =0.46522193 (1.27)

 The theoretical coefficient of molar variation of the fresh charge is:

H C (1.28)
0.79*l* Lmin + +
2 12
μ0 = =1.11230
l* Lmin + Mc

 The real coefficient of molar variation of the fresh load:

μ0 + g r (1.29)
μf = =1.106
1+ gr

 The specific molar heat of the initial mixture:

’ -3 kj (1.30)
Cm v =20+17.4*10 * T c =32.997
kmol

 The average specific molar heat of the flue gas for l <1:

Cmv ”=18.4+2.6*l+15.5+13.8*l* 10
-4
(1.31)

28
 -4
* T z =20.610+27.230*10 * Tz

 Incomplete heat dissipation:

kj (1.32)
Qai = Qi - Δ Qi =37200
kg

 Temperature at the end of combustion:

ξ i =Cmv ” mu * Tz (1.33)

Tz1 =2925.887K (1.34)

 Pressure at the end of combustion:

Tz N (1.35)
pz = pc *μf * =72.392* 105 2
Tc m

5 N (1.36)
p’ z = Fz * p z =57.914*10 2
m

 The degree of pressure increase:

pz (1.37)
ð= =4.33
pc

2.1.4 Stroke process parameters

n 2 =1.23 (1.38)

 Pressure at the end of stroke:

pz 5 N (1.39)
pb = n2
=4.014*10 2
e m

 Temperature at the end of stroke:

Tz (1.40)
Tb = n 2 -1
=4169K
e

2.1.5 Main engine parameters

 Coefficient of rounding the diagram:
μr =0.98 (1.41)

29
  Mechanical efficiency:
ηm =0.85 (1.42)

 The average pressure of the theoretical cycle is obtained from:

pc π 1 1 (1.43)
p’ i = *[( *(1- n -1 -
e-1 n 2 -1 e 2
1 )
(n 1 -1)*(1- n -1 )
e 1

5 N
] =10.926¿ 10 2
m
 Mean indicated pressure:
5 N (1.44)
pl =μ r * p ’ i =10.707* 10 2
m

 Engine indicated efficiency:

pi * M1 * T0 (1.45)
ηl = RM * =0.365
p0 * η v *Q i

 Effective mean pressure:

5 N (1.46)
pe = η m * p l=9.101*10 2
m

 Effective efficiency:
ηe = η m * η l =0.31 (1.47)

 Effective specific fuel consumption:

3600 kg (1.48)
ge = =0.313*
ηe * Qi *0.8 kWh

2.1.6 Fundamental dimensions of the engine

S (1.49)
F= =0.9
D

 Necessary cylindrical capacity:

30
 Pn (1.50)
V h =120000* =0.5l
pe *n*i

 Necessary cylindrical capacity:

4* V h 3
1
(1.51)
D= ( ) =89mm
ð*F

 Necessary cylindrical capacity:

S*n m (1.52)
Wm = =18.7
30 s

 Necessary cylindrical capacity:

Vt = i* Vh =2l (1.53)

 Necessary cylindrical capacity:

Pn kW (1.54)
Pl= =53
Vt l

2.1.7 Indicated diagram

 The volume at the end of the admission:
e 3 (1.55)
Va = V h * =0.55dm
e-1

 The volume at the end of the compression:

Va 3 (1.56)
Vc = =0.052 dm
e

 Advance ignition angle:

α s =30° oRac (1.57)

 Advance angle EVO:

α ev =40° oRac (1.58)

 Advance angle AVO:

α ad =20° oRac (1.59)

31
  Delay angle EVC:
βev =30° oRac (1.60)

 Delay angle AVC:

β av =40° oRac (1.61)

 The ratio between the crank radius and the connecting rod length:
1 (1.62)
λ b = =0.25
4

 Connection rod length:

l b =178mm (1.63)

Figure 2-21 Distribution phase diagram

2.1.8 External characteristic

 Effective power:

a*nx nx 2 nx 3 (1.64)
Pex = P emax *[ +b*( ) -( )
np np np

 Specific consumption:

nx nx 2 (1.65)
g= gep *[c-d* -k * ( ) ]
np np

 Hourly consumption:

32
 G cx = Pex * g ex *10
-3
(1.66)

 Engine torque:
Pex (1.67)
M ex =3* 104 *
pi *n

Table 2.1.
n [r/min] Pe [kW] ce [g/kWh] Ce [kg/h] Me [Nm]
1000 13.856 33.039 4.578 96.000
1200 16.936 32.302 5.471 97.783
1400 20.080 31.620 6.349 99.373
1600 23.273 30.994 7.213 100.778
1800 26.499 30.424 8.062 101.998
2000 29.741 29.909 8.895 103.029
2200 32.982 29.450 9.713 103.869
2400 36.208 29.046 10.517 104.527
2600 39.401 28.699 11.308 104.995
2800 42.545 28.406 12.085 105.275
3000 45.625 28.170 12.853 105.370
3200 48.623 27.989 13.609 105.275
3400 51.524 27.864 14.357 104.994
3600 54.312 27.794 15.095 104.527
3800 56.970 27.780 15.826 103.871
4000 59.481 27.822 16.549 103.027
4200 61.831 27.920 17.263 101.998
4400 64.002 28.073 17.967 100.780
4600 65.978 28.281 18.659 99.374
4800 67.744 28.546 19.338 97.783
5000 69.282 28.866 19.999 96.003
5200 70.577 29.241 20.637 94.036
33
5400 71.613 29.672 21.249 91.882
5600 72.373 30.159 21.827 89.541
5800 72.840 30.702 22.363 87.011
6000 73.000 31.300 22.849 84.296
6100 72.959 31.620 23.070 82.867
6200 72.835 31.954 23.274 81.392
6300 72.626 32.302 23.460 79.870
6400 72.329 32.663 23.625 78.301
6500 71.944 33.039 23.770 76.686
6600 71.467 33.428 23.890 75.023
6700 70.897 33.832 23.986 73.314
6800 70.231 34.249 24.053 71.557
6900 69.469 34.680 24.092 69.755
7000 68.606 35.126 24.099 67.904

34
 Table 2- 2
Pe [kW] ce [g/kWh] Ce [kg/h] Me [Nm]
120.000

100.000

80.000

60.000

40.000

20.000

0.000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

Figure 2- 22 External characteristic diagram

 Constants used: Table 2.3

Engine a b c d k
SIE 1 1 1.2 1 0.8

3 DIMENSIONING CALCULATION

3.1 General aspects

The engine mechanism consists of a set of parts that, depending on the size and shape of the
construction, influence the main parameters of the engine such as: power, force and torque. to
be able to assemble with a higher efficiency and cast performance according to the needs and

35
requirements imposed by the environment. The parts must have the most compact shape, be
light and be able to withstand the forces and temperatures imposed with minimal wear.

Figure 3-23 Crank mechanism

To design a motor mechanism, we need some input data to produce a finished product:
 Nominal power P=73 kW;
 Nominal revolutions n=6000 rev/min;
 Number of cylinders i=4;
 Total volume displacement Vt=2000cm 3 ;
 Piston stroke D=81 mm;
 Piston bore A=89 mm;
5 N
 The maximum pressure of the gas pmax =65* 10 ;
m2

3.1.1 Cylinder design

It is adopted as a constructive solution the dry cylinder jacket mounted by pressing.

36
 Figure 3-24 Cylinder main radius

A block wall thickness of 6 mm is adopted for the dry liner. The thickness of the block wall
between two cylinders is adopted as 6 mm for dry liner.
R1=44.5mm (1.68)

R2=47.5mm (1.69)

R3=53.5mm (1.70)

3.1.2 Piston design

 The flat head piston is chosen due to its simplicity of construction and the minimum
heat exchange surface;
 The piston is made of Al alloy based on Si from the group of eutectic alloys. Brand of
alloy: ATC Si12CuMgNi KS 1275 MAHLE 124;
daN
 Modulus of elasticity: E = 7500 [ 2 ];
cm
 Brinell hardness: 90 ... 120 HB at 293 [K];
70...90 HB at 423 [K];
30...40 HB at 523 [K];
daN
 Tensile strength: at 293 K: 20...25 [ 2 ] at 293 [K];
cm
daN
at 423 K: 18...23 [ 2 ] at 423[K];
cm

37
 daN
at 523 K: 10...15 [ 2 ] at 523 [K];
cm
kg
 Density ρ = 2.68… 2.70 [ 2 ];
dm
From a constructive point of view, the piston assembly has the following functional elements:

Figure 3- 25 Piston constructive elements

Figure 3- 26 The main dimensions of the piston

3.1.2.1 Piston head calculation

H=0.85*D=76mm (1.71)

38
 L=0.7*D=62mm (1.72)

l l =0.57*D=50 mm (1.73)

h=0.096*D=8.5mm (1.74)

b=0.40*D=28mm (1.75)

δ =0.09*D=8mm (1.76)

hc =0.034*D=3mm (1.77)

The piston head is verified in the hypothesis that it is a circular plate embedded on the
contour, of constant thickness, loaded with a uniformly distributed load, given by the
maximum pressure of the gases in the cylinder:
di
2
5 N (1.78)
σ rl =0.1875* ( pgmax -1 ) * 2
=1218.75* 10 * 2
δ m
d i =80 mm (1.79)

 Sealing ring bottom diameter d:

t =2 mm (1.80)

j r =1.3 mm (1.81)

d=D-2* ( j r +t ) =82 mm (1.82)

 Piston profile calculation:

3.1.2.2 Piston profile calculation

 Cylinder temperature: 150 …… 350 ° C
Tc =200°C (1.83)

39
  Piston head temperature: 200 …… 300 ° C
Tp =250°C (1.84)

 Ambient temperature (cold engine)

T0 =288K (1.85)

 Coefficient of thermal expansion of the material for aluminum shirts piston

-6 1 (1.86)
a p =20*10 *
k

In order to ensure the normal operation of the piston, it is necessary that the relatively hot play
between the piston and the cylinder be within the following limits:
'
 φ s =0.002… 0.003 in the upper area of the piston
'
φ s =0.003 (1.87)

'
 φ i =0.002… 0.003 in the lower area of the piston
'
φ i=0.015 (1.88)

 Diameter games in hot condition in the upper and lower area:

' '
∆ s = φ s *D=0.27mm (1.89)

' '
∆ s = φ s *D=0.13mm (1.90)

 Hot piston diameter at the top:

Dp =D- ∆s} =88.73 mm ¿ (1.91)

 Outer diameter of the piston in cold condition at the top and bottom:

D* [ 1+ α c * ( TC - T 0 ) ] - ∆ 's (1.92)
D ps = =88.49mm
1+ α p *( T p - T 0 )

(1.93)

40
 D* [ 1+ α c * ( T C -T 0 ) ] - ∆ 'i
Dpi = =88.63mm
1+ α p *( Tp - T0 )

 Cold diameter diameters in the upper and lower area:

∆ s =D- Dps =0.51mm (1.94)

∆ i =D- Dpi =0.37mm (1.95)

3.1.2.3 Sealing port area calculation

The shoulder of the channel for the segment is subjected to bending and bending stresses by
the pressure force of the exhaust gases through the gap between the piston and the cylinder
liner, which acts on the segment.
The values of the unitary efforts are calculated as follows:
 At bending
Mi R p -r 2 (1.96)
σi= =2.28* pgmax *( ) =17MPa
Wz hc

 At shearing:
τ f =0.76* pg =5MPa (1.97)

 Equivalent unit effort:

σech = √ σ2i +4* τ 2 =19MPa (1.98)

In the sealing port region, section A-A near the lubrication segment is reduced due to oil
drain holes.
 It is checked for compression:

π* D p
2
5 N
(1.99)
σ c = pgmax * =301* 10 * 2
4* AA m
Knowing the coefficient of thermal expansion of the piston material, the modulus of elasticity
and other factors, it is possible to calculate the thickness of the piston wall in the port-sealing
area, respectively the diameters.

41
 √ D2p (1.100)
2 2
d 1 = d -(0.02135* * p me ) =74.3mm
l
l = distance from the bottom of the piston to the bolt bore generator [mm];
l=32mm (1.101)

 For the lower part of the sealing port area:

√ Dp
2 (1.102)
2 2
d 2 = d -(0.02135* '
* p me ) =80.2mm
l
'
l =16mm (1.103)

N (1.104)
pme =0.75
mm2

l '= distance from the plane delimiting the segment port area and the bolt bore generator
[mm];

3.1.2.4 Calculation of the piston shell

The specific pressure on the piston jacket to prevent interruption of the oil film must not
exceed a certain conventionally determined value:
Nmax N (1.105)
psm = =0.2643
Dp * LN - Aev mm
2

Dp (1.106)
A ev =2*π* * LN =17283.3 mm2
2

A ev - surface area projected on a normal plane on the axis of the bolt [m2];
LN - the length of the piston mantle[m];
N max - the normal force acting in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the bolt [N];

The thickness of the mantle wall and the inner diameters are determined by the following
relations:
 in the plane of the axis of the bolt:

√ Dp
2 (1.107)
2 2
d 3 = d -(0.02125* * p me * ) =82.36mm
l1

42
 l 1 =¿ distance from the bottom of the piston to the axis of the bolt [mm];

 at the bottom of the mantle:

√ D2p (1.108)
2 2
d 4 = d -(0.00772* * pme * ) =82.38mm
l '1

l '1 = distance from the lower part of the piston to the axis of the bolt [mm];

3.1.2.5 Calculation of sealing ring clearance in the port

√ √
Dp p 1 (1.109)
b= * k* gmax * =4.0
2 100 σa
daN
σ a- allowable unit stress, σa = 5.5… 6.5 [ ];
mm 2
Distance between sealing rings and piston shoulder j a:
t (1.110)
j a =f* *α *T* Dp
b

 f is a constant:
f 1 =0.075[mm] for the fire sealing rings;
f 2 =0.028[mm] for the other compression sealing rings;
f 3 =0.046 [mm] for lubrication sealing rings;
j a1 =0.046mm (1.111)

j a2 =0.014mm (1.112)

j a2 =0.021mm (1.113)

 t - radial thickness of sealing rings [mm]:

t=2mm (1.114)

 b - axial thickness of sealing ring [mm]:

b=3mm (1.115)

43
 1
 α A l- coefficient of expansion for the piston material [ ]:
k
α A l=2 (1.116)

 T fire sealing ring temperature [K]:

T=513.2K (1.117)

 T temperature of the compression sealing ring [K]:

T=428.2K (1.118)

 T temperature of the lubrication segment[K]:

T=239.2K (1.119)

3.1.3 Bolt design

The design of the bolt must meet the requirements of obtaining the lowest possible mass and
sufficient rigidity for the operation of the motor mechanism.
It is chosen as a constructive solution fixed bolt in the connecting rod and free in the piston.
The bolt is made of 41MoCrNi13 alloy steel.

3.1.3.1 Bolt dimensioning

The dimensions of the bolt are adopted from statistical data and calculations are performed to
verify the wear resistance, mechanical stresses and deformations as well as the calculation
specification of the mounting clearances.
 Exterior diameter d e [mm]:
d e = ( 0.24..0.28 ) *D=25mm (1.120)

 Inner diameter d i [mm]:

d i = ( 0.65..0.75 ) * d e =17mm (1.121)

 Bolt length l [mm]:

44
 l= ( 0.88…0.93 ) *D=52mm (1.122)

 Connecting rod leg length l b [mm]:

l b = ( 0.26..0.3 ) *D=21mm (1.123)

3.1.3.2 Wear check

Wear resistance can be assessed by the size of the specific pressure values in the connecting
rod foot (bp) and in the piston shoulders (pp).

Figure 3-27 The distributed forces that act on the bolt

F= Fg + F j =39166.7N
max p
(1.124)

3.1.4 Sealing Rings

The segments have the role of sealing the combustion chamber, of uniformizing the oil film
on the cylinder mirror and of transmitting to the cylinder a part of the heat taken by the piston
from the hot gases. The segments that prevent gas from escaping from the cylinder into the
crankcase are called compression segments, and the segments that distribute evenly and
remove excess oil from the cylinder surface are called lubrication segments.
The solutions adopted in the design of the segment must take into account the requirements
imposed by safety in operation, high durability, sealing efficiency and price.
Nodular graphite alloy is adopted with the following characteristics:
 hardness 300… 380 HB
N
 σ r >500
mm 2
45
The solution is adopted with three segments (two compression and one lubrication) because it
ensures a good sealing of the combustion chamber and an adequate lubrication of the
cylinder.

Figure 3- 28 The main dimension of a sealing ring

t-radial thickness of the segment;

d is - inner diameter of the segment;
d ic - the diameter of the segment channel;

D - cylinder bore;
b - axial thickness of the segment;
hc - segment channel height;

R - radius of the bottom of the channel;

J a - the game on the sides of the segment (J a = hc - b);
J p - piston-cylinder clearance;
1
J r - the radial play of the segment; J r = ∗(d is −d ic) Jr ;
2
t c - the radial size of the channel;

3.1.4.1 Sealing ring calculation

The segment calculation pursues the following objectives:
 To establish the free-form shape and the size of the slot so that by tightening the
cylinder on the cylinder to develop a determined pressure distribution;
 Determine the two basic dimensions of the segment, t and b;
 Check that the voltages that appear in the segment when it is opened for mounting do
not exceed the permissible limit;
46
  Check the slot hot to prevent the heads from joining during operation;
S0 (1.125)
0.425 t N
pe = *E* =0.348 2
3- ρ D 3 D mm
( -1 ) *
t t
 The coefficient that depends on the shape of the pressure gauge of the segment ρ :
ρ =0.196 (1.126)

 Modulus of elasticity:
6 N (1.127)
E=1 .2* 10
mm 2

 Opening the segment in the free state at the level of the middle fiber:
S0 =14mm (1.128)

 segment thickness t:
t=2mm or (1.129)
D
t= =3.46

√
σ
0.5+0.815* a
K m * pe

 Allowable voltage σa :
N (1.130)
σa =5.6 2
mm

 K m coefficient:
K m =1.742 (1.131)

Radial height of the segment:

 for sealing rings:
b=3mm (1.132)

 for lubrication rings:

47
 b=5mm (1.133)

 Calculation of the maximum tension in the segment:

S (1.134)
2* K m t N
σ max = *E* =175.75
ð*(3-ρ ) D 2
mm2
( -1)
t

3.1.4.2 Checking the rings in the channel

Checking the expansion segment is limited to determining the mounting joint Δ 3 in order to
avoid the danger of an impact of the heads with expansion, or too large a joint that would
endanger the seal.
 First compression ring:
Δ 1 = (0 . 11…0 .20)=0.15mm (1.135)

Δ 2 = (0.3…0.7)=0.5mm (1.136)

 Second compression ring:

Δ 1 = (0 . 09…0 . 15)=0.1mm (1.137)

Δ 2 = (0.3…0.7)=0.5mm (1.138)

 Lubrication ring:
Δ 1 = (0 . 11…0 .20)=0.15mm (1.139)

Δ 2 = (0 . 5…1 .5)= 0. 9mm (1.140)

 The clearance at the end of the ring:

Δ 3 = Δ '3 -ð*D*( α s * Δ t s−α c * Δt c )=0.01068mm (1.141)

 Ring expansion coefficient:

48
 -6 1 (1.142)
α s =12*10 *
K

 Cylinder expansion coefficient:

1 (1.143)
α s =12*10-6 *
K

 Piston ring heating:

Δ ts =150K (1.144)

 Cylinder heating:
Δ ts =100K (1.145)

 First compression ring:

Δ 3 =0.004*D=0.365mm (1.146)

 Second compression ring:

Δ 3 =0.003*D=0.267mm (1.147)

 Lubrication ring:
Δ 3 =0.0015*D=0.1335mm (1.148)

 The clearance at the ends of the rings in the hot state:

Δ '3 =(0.0015…0.0030)*D=0.178mm (1.149)

3.1.5 Connecting rod

The connecting rod is the component of the engine mechanism, which transmits, through the
piston pin, the force of gas pressure from the piston to the crankshaft. It consists of three
parts: the connecting rod leg, the connecting rod body and the connecting rod head.
Due to the action of the gas pressure force, the connecting rod is subjected to compression
and buckling. Remaining deformations may occur during compression, which shorten the
connecting rod. The buckling of the connecting rod body causes a disturbance of the

49
parallelism of the connecting rod bore axes and an intensification of the bearing wear. The
stress conditions to which the connecting rod is subjected in the operation of the engine
require the finding of those constructive solutions of the connecting rod that will ensure a
maximum resistance and rigidity in the conditions of a mass as small as possible.

3.1.5.1 Connecting rod foot calculation

The dimensions of the piston pin and the type of piston pin and connecting rod connection
must be taken into account when designing the connecting rod leg.

Figure 3-29 Connecting rod leg dimensions

 Outer diameter of connecting rod foot:

d e =(1.25…1.65)*d =34mm (1.150)

 Inner diameter of connecting rod leg:

d i =2+2* h b =34mm (1.151)

 Radial thickness of the connecting rod leg:

h p =(0.16…0.20)*d =5mm (1.152)

 Radial thickness of bushings:

h b =( 0.08… 0. 085)*d =2mm (1.153)

The contact length of the piston pin with the connecting rod foot:
a=21mm (1.154)

50
3.1.5.2 Yield stress
The tensile force has the maximum value when the force due to the gas pressure is minimal,
so when the piston is at TDC at the beginning of the intake stroke. Under these conditions the
tensile force is determined by the following relation:
2
F i = m p *r* ω *(1+ λ )=1270.68N (1.155)

51
 Figure 3- 30 Diagram for calculating the connecting rod length at yield

The unit stresses produced by the tensile force are determined in the following hypotheses:
 The connecting rod leg represents a curved beam embedded in the connection area of
the foot with the connecting rod body;
 The yield force is evenly distributed on the upper half of the leg;
If the embedding angle φ s> 90° , the bending moment and the normal force in the embedding
section have the following expressions:
M i = M0 + N0 * r m * ( 1-cos φi ) -0.5* F i * r m *(sin φi -cos φi )=4064.01N (1.156)
m
N i = N0 * ( cos φ i ) +0.5* F i * r m * (1.157)

( sin φ i -cos φ i ) =429.38N

 Bending moment in section B-B determined by the tensile force:
M 0 =F i * r m *(0.00033* φ i -0.0297)=-578.67 N (1.158)

 The normal force in section B-B determined by the tensile force:

N0 = Fi *(0.572-0.0008* φ i )=725N (1.159)

 Mean radius
d e + di (1.160)
rm= =15.730mm
4

In the embedding section, the bending moment and the normal force require both the
connecting rod leg and the pressed bushing or bolt, in these conditions a proportionality
coefficient is used which has the expression:

52
 1 (1.161)
K= =0.778
Ab EBZ
1+ +
A p Ea

 Bushing section area:

A p =2* h b *a=85.44 mm
2
(1.162)

 The area of the foot section:

A b =2* h p *a=213.6 mm
2
(1.163)

 Modulus of elasticity of the material of the pressed bushing or piston pin:

5 N (1.164)
EBZ =1.5* 10 2
mm

 The elasticity of the connecting rod material:

5 N (1.165)
EOL =2.1*10 2
mm

The stresses in the embedding section A-A for the inner fiber (σ ii), respectively external fiber
(σ ie) produced by the tensile force are calculated with the relations:
6* r m - h p 1 (1.166)
σ ii =[-2*M i * +k* N i ]* =
h p *(2* r m - h p ) a* h p
N
-48.289 2
mm

6* r m −h p 1 (1.167)
σ ii =[2* M i * +k* Ni ]* =
h p *(2* r m −h p ) a* h p
N
44.6153
mm 2

3.1.5.3 Connecting rod body calculation

The most common characteristic dimensions for the double T profile of the connecting rod
body are determined based on the statistical processing of the existing constructions.

53
 Figure 3- 31 Connecting rod body dimensions

H p =(0.048..1)*d e =23mm (1.168)

Hc =(0.048..1)* H p =3 0 mm (1.169)

h i =0.66* Hp =23m (1.170)

Hc + Hp (1.171)
H= =23m
2

B=0.75* Hp =17mm (1.172)

a=0.167* Hp =4mm (1.173)

l=178mm (1.174)

l 1 =137mm (1.175)

The connecting rod body is calculated at fatigue, being subjected to:

 stretching of the maximum inertia force of the masses in translational motion;
 at the resulting compression between the maximum gas force and the inertia force;
The calculation is made in the minimum section then the force that requires the body of the
connecting rod to stretch is:
F i =( m p + m b1 )*r*ω2 *(1+ λ )=1496.6N (1.176)

54
  Tensioning stresses are:
Fi N (1.177)
σi= =7.96 2
A mm

A=B*(H-h)+a*h=188 mm 2 (1.178)

 The connecting rod body is subjected to compression by the force determined by the
relation:
π* D2 (1.179)
Fc = * p g -( m p + m b1 )*r* ω 2 *(1+ λ )=38940.8N
4 max

 The compression stress is given by the relation:

Fc N (1.180)
σc = =207.13
A mm2

3.1.5.4 Connecting the head of the connecting rod

The characteristic dimensions of the connecting rod head are deduced from the dimensions of
the crankshaft. The tensioning request is transmitted only to the cover and is determined by
the force of inertia of the parts in translational motion and by the centrifugal force of the
connecting rod mass which performs the rotational movement less the mass of the connecting
rod cover.
The calculation of the tension is performed admitting the following hypotheses:
 The connecting rod head is a continuous curved bar;
 The most requested section is the recessed section A-A;
 The connecting rod cover has a constant section with an average diameter equal to the
distance between the screw axes;
 The tensile force is distributed on the lower half of the cover according to a sinusoidal
law;
 The bearing deforms together with the cover and takes over a part of the stresses
proportional to the moment of inertia of the cross section;
The tension in the inner fiber in the calculation section is given by the relation:

55
 0.023* d e 0.4 (1.181)
σ = σi *[ + ] N
I cuz A cp + Acuz =120
(1+ )* W cp mm2
I cp

3.1.6 Crank shaft

During the working process, the crankshaft takes over the variable stresses due to the force of
the gas pressure and the force of inertia of the moving masses of translation and rotation,
which have a shock character.
These forces cause significant tensions of tension, compression, bending and twisting. In
addition, additional stresses occur in the crankshaft caused by torsional and bending
oscillations.
When designing the crankshaft, solutions will be chosen to ensure maximum rigidity. In order
to achieve this goal in most constructions, the bearing spindles are placed after each elbow,
their diameters increase, and their lengths decrease, also these measures make it possible to
increase the dimensions of the arms.
To meet the requirements of crankshafts, fatigue strength, rigidity, superior quality of spindle
surfaces, they are made of cast iron or steel.

3.1.6.1 Crank shaft calculation

Given the operating conditions, by calculation, the crankshaft is checked for specific pressure
and heating, fatigue and torsional vibrations. The calculation of the crankshaft has a
verification character, its dimensions being adopted by statistical processing of the
dimensions of the existing crankshafts. Simultaneously with the dimensioning of the
crankshaft, the counterweight configuration is also adopted. (Mass and position of the center
of gravity are determined by the dynamic calculation of the engine).
Relative crankshaft dimensions:
 Crank length:
l = (0.90...1.20)*D=107mm (1.182)

 Main journal diameter:

d p =(0 . 60…0. 80) *D=65mm (1.183)

56
  Main journal length (intermediate):
l pi = (0 . 3… 0 .5) * dp =23mm (1.184)

 Main journal length (mean and external)

l pe = (0 .5… 0 . 7)* d p =34mm (1.185)

 Crankpin journal diameter:

d m = (0 .55… 0 . 7)*D=57mm (1.186)

 Crankpin journal length:

l m = (0.45… 0.6)* d m =32.5mm (1.187)

 Inner diameter:
d mi = (0 . 6… 0 . 8)* d m =4 0 mm (1.188)

 Crank thickness:
h= (0.15… 0.36)* d m =21mm (1.189)

 Crank width:
b= (1.17… 1.9)* d m =87mm (1.190)

 Connection radius:
R= (0 . 06… 0 .1) ∙ d m =3mm (1.191)

3.1.6.2 Journal checking at pressure and heating

To prevent the film from expelling between the journal and bearings, you must limit the
maximum pressure on the journal. The maximum conventional specific pressure on the
crankshafts and bearings is calculated with the relations:
R m max (1.192)
pm max = =21.4943 MPa
dm * l m

57
R m max -the maximum force that loads the crankpin journal;
Rp max (1.193)
pp max = =19.6096 MPa
dm * l m

R p max -the maximum force that loads the main journal;

The heating spindle check is initially performed on the basis of a simplified calculation and
this refers to the determination of the value of the wear coefficient.

K m = √ p m * ω3 =49.2 (1.194)

K p = √ p p * ω =35.2 (1.195)
3

The heating test by this method does not take into account the characteristic factors of the
hydrodynamic lubrication regime.

3.1.6.3 Fatigue checking

Calculating the crankshaft as a statically indeterminate beam involves difficulties. Therefore,
the calculation requires the adoption of a simplified loading and deformation scheme that
considers the crankshaft as a discontinuous beam made up of a number of parts equal to the
number of cranks. The calculation is performed for each elbow in the following simplifying
hypotheses:
 each representing a simple beam resting on two supports;
 the bending moments in the supports are neglected;
 each crank works in the conditions of the maximum amplitudes of the bending and
torsion moments of the variable forces as a sign;
 In the support on the left of the crank a torque M pj acts equal to the sum of the
moments of the cranks that precede the calculation elbow, and in the support on the
right the moment M p(j-1)acts;

58
 Figure 3-32 Scheme of forces acting on a crank of the crankshaft

3.1.6.4 Main journals calculation

The main journal is required for torsion and bending after an asymmetric cycle. Because the
journal length is short, the bending moments have small values and, in these conditions, the
bending check is waived. The main journal from the front of the crankshaft are required at
lower turning times than those acting in the journal from the rear of the shaft and especially in
the final journal, because this sums the average moments produced by each cylinder. The
calculation must be developed for each journal, which involves summing the torques taking
into account the order of ignition.The maximum and minimum moments load the main
journals:
M pmin =-309000N*mm (1.196)

M pmin =352000N*mm (1.197)

 Unitary efforts:
M pmin (1.198)
τ pmin = =-11.477MPa
W pp

M pmax (1.199)
τ pmax = =13.079MPa
W pp

π 3 3 (1.200)
Wp= *d* p =26923.9 mm
32

59
 The amplitude of the voltages and the value of the average voltage are calculated with
the relations:
τ pmax- - τ pmin N (1.201)
τp = =12.2753
a
2 mm 2

τ pmax- - τ pmin N (1.202)

τp = =0.7885
m
2 mm 2

60
 Figure 3- 33 Scheme for calculating reactions in supports

3.1.6.6 Torsion checking

 The maximum and minimum moments that load the crank pin:
M Tmax =620000Nmm (1.203)

M Tmin =-352000Nmm (1.204)

 Unitary efforts:
M Tmax N (1.205)
τ max = =62.2832
W pm mm 2

M Tmin N (1.206)
τ min = =-35.928
W pm mm2

π 3 d mi 3 (1.207)
W p = μ* * d m *(1- )=9797.24 mm
m
16 dm

2 (1.208)
ε= =0.11704
d m - dmi

 The amplitude of the tension and the value of the average tension are calculated with
the relations:
τm - τ m N (1.209)
τm = max min
=49.6058
a
2 mm
2

τ m + τm N (1.210)
τm = max min
=13.6773
m
2 mm
2

61
 Figure 3- 34 Correction coefficient for the calculation of the polar resistance module of the crank pin with eccentric hole

 Safety coefficient for torsional stress:

C τ =2.8601 (1.211)

3.1.6.7 Bending check

Figure 3- 35 Schematic for determining the moment in the plane of the lubrication hole

 Radial forces:
Z=28524N (1.212)

Z1 =47259N (1.213)

Z2 =-6399N (1.214)

62
 b (1.215)
Ax =[Z+( Z1 -Z)* ]-(0.5* Z1 + Z2 )=61332N
lm

 Tangential forces:
T1 =8380N (1.216)

T2 =7568N (1.217)

b (1.218)
Ay = T 1 +( T2 -T 1 )* =6214.67N
lm

 Axial forces:
2
F br = m b *r* ω =722.955N (1.219)

F cb = m cb *r* ω 2 =815.407 (1.220)

 Bending moments:
lm h (1.221)
a= + =26mm
2 2

M x =0.5*l* Ax =3275107Nmm (1.222)

M y =0.5*l* Ay +( Fbr + F cg )*(0.5 * l-a)=329376Nmm (1.223)

M imax = √ M 2x + M2y =3291623Nmm (1.224)

When the crank pin is provided with a lubrication hole, the maximum stress is obtained in the
plane of the hole axis causing a maximum concentration of stresses. Bending moment in this
plan:
θ=45 ° (1.225)

M u = M y *cos θ+ M x *sin θ =254875 Nmm (1.226)

 Unitary efforts:
63
 M imax (1.227)
τ max = =21.4965MPa
Wm

Mu (1.228)
σ min = =16.645MPa
Wm

π* d m
3
d
4
(1.229)
Wm = *[1-( mi ) ]=-153124 mm3
12 dm

3.1.6.8 Crankshaft arm calculation

Figure 3- 36 The crankshaft loads diagram

The crankshaft arm is required for variable loads of tension, compression, bending and
torsion. The safety coefficients for these stresses are determined in the middle of the large
side of the section tangent to the bearing spindle where the highest unit stresses occur. In the
plane of the crank, a compound bending stress arises.The total voltage has the expression:
Bzmax =47295N (1.230)

Bzmin =-16462N (1.231)

6*a 1 (1.232)
σ max = BZ *( + )=233.1MPa
b* h b*h
max 2

6*a 1 (1.233)
σ min = BZ *( + )=-81.134MPa
b* h b*h
min 2

σmax + σmin (1.234)

σm= =75.9812MPa
2

σ max -σmin (1.235)

σa = =157.116MPa
2

64
 Safety coefficient for bending stress:
Cσ =0.5 (1.236)

 The crankshaft arm is also subject to torsion stress:

Tmax =8380N (1.237)

Tmin =-7353N (1.238)

0.5*a* T max (1.239)

τ max = 2
=10.1615MPa
k*b* h

0.5*a* T min (1.240)

τ min = 2
=-8.9162MPa
k*b* h

k =3 (1.241)

τ max + τ min (1.242)

τm= =0.62266MPa
2

τ max + τ min (1.243)

τa = =9.53882MPa
2

 Torsion safety coefficient:

Cτ =14.63 (1.244)

 Global safety coefficient:

Cbr =1.25 (1.245)

65
 4 KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE MOTOR USING
SIMCENTER AMESIM SOFTWARE

4.1 General aspects

Simcenter Amesim is a simulation software for modeling and analysis of multi-domain
systems. It is a package of components that extends over several fields of analysis and
mechatronic simulation and can provide more accurate data from the calculation. It can put
into operation the data generated and saved by the software through graphical representation
of the parameters or by certain creating some animation that it will make easy the process of
following and developing the complexity of a system.

4.2 Realization of the analysis model

First, a compatible model needs to be built to have a proper simulation of the system. The
system from the Figure 4.1 is a sketch model that include an engine that has a multi-port fuel
injection that can generate the required data for a kinematic simulation and can also provide
data about the thermically simulation of the fuel in the combustion process and the heat and
energy that will result for the combustion through the mixture of the fuel with the air. The
sketch model includes the: distribution system, crank mechanism system, intake and exhaust
system, fuel supply system, injection system etc. After the model is sketched, the next phase
of the simulation is to enter the sub model mode that has a variety of sub component for each
introduced sketch. For each component and parts sketch, it will be needed to choose a sub
model that best suits what we need to have in the simulation.

66
 Figure 4- 37 Sketch model

Figure 4- 38 Sub model mod

Next mode is the parameter mode that provide the user the attribute of changing the parameter
of the sub models like number of cylinders, dimensions, volumes, voltage, pressure etc.

67
 Figure 4-39 Parameter setup

The last mode is the simulation mode that takes the model that we sketch and combine it

4.3 Graph plotting in Simcenter Amesim

By using this software one of the project purposes was achieved, that being simulation of an
in-line four-cylinder natural Figure
aspirated spark engine with multi-port fuel injection on GPL.
4-40 Variables resulted from simulation
Because the simulation is complete without any errors, the variable that are the output data of
the simulation can be represented as graphs:

68
Figure 4- 41 Piston displacement diagram

Figure 4-42 Piston velocity diagram

69
Figure 4- 43 Cylinder volume variation diagram

Figure 4-44 Pressure diagram

70
Figure 4-45 Indicated diagram

Figure 4-46 Fg diagram

71
Figure 4- 47 Indicated torque diagram

Figure 4- 48 Moment diagram

72
 Figure 4-49 Effective power diagram

Figure 4-50 Power and torque diagram

73
 5 CATIA MODELING

5.1 General aspects

CATIA is a software platform dedicated to computer-aided design. The name of this program
explains its capabilities (computer-aided three-dimensional interactive application) that is,
with the help of the computer we can request three-dimensional applications with which we
can interact. It is used as CAD (computer aided design), CAM (computer aided
manufacturing), CAE (computer aided engineering), PLM (product lifecycle management)
software or for 3D applications.

5.2 Parts modeling

One of the targets of the project was to use Catia to model the parts of a crank mechanism
with the help of the dimensioning calculus as a mark. Each part of the crank mechanism has a
distinct role and, when we design those parts, we should always think at the loads,
temperature and movements that those specific parts meet.

Figure 5-1 Some of the design parts

Figure 5-51 Some of the design parts

74
 5.3 Parts modeling

Figure 5-52 Crank mechanism Assemble

Catia is a software that has a lot of modules that can vary in usage. One of the most used
modulus of Catia is the assemble module, where we can create constrain between parts and
make the assemble that we desire to have. To put each part into assemble, it means that each
part is dependent of each other and if some dimensions don’t correspond, we can have clashes
between materials. Those clashes can be detected and can help us to fine the problems in
meshing the parts that can appear.

75
 Figure 5- 53 Engine block assemble

When we make an assemble, one part needs to be fix. The engine block is the main part on
which the other parts are mounted, so the fix part needs to be the block.
When an assemble is made between parts, the movement of the mechanism can be given by a
certain part like the crank shaft or by the pressure exerted on the piston through combustion if
we use other software beside Catia.
Besides making an assemble Catia can have the function to create animation of the
mechanism by keeping the constrain of the assemble in check.

76
Figure 5-54 Engine assemble

77
 6 TOPOLOGICAL OPTIMIZATION OF A PISTON BY
THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD USING CATIA

6.1 Applying of finite element method

The finite element method is a numerical method used to solve engineering problems.
Specific problems are usually structural analysis of a component, heat transfer between parts
or fluid flow. Solving these problems is done based on a system of algebraic equations. In
order to be able to solve this system of equations, the computer divides the piece into small-
sized elements, these simple elements bearing the name of finite elements.
The software used to design the parts, CATIA, also has a module for determinations by the
finite element method. In this module, you can simulate the changes that occur on the parts to
deformations due to pressure or temperature. In order to work correctly, it is necessary to
apply material on the piece to be tested in the first phase.
Then the type of force acting on it and its application surface are determined. In order for the
analysis to be complete, a constraint is applied on the part that simulates its assembly in
reality, either a recess, or an assembly with bearings or other possibilities, so the applied force
is transmitted to the part and it begins or does not deform. Following the calculations
performed by the program, the result is presented in visual form, i.e. the piece is colored
differently in areas where it is possible for deformations to occur.
In order to verify the resistance of the parts by the finite element method, the application of
the CATIA Generative Structural Analysis module on the piston used in the engine was
chosen as an example.
Thus, on the upper part of it was applied a pressure of 60 * 105 N / m2 equal to the pressure
in the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke, and in the special area for the exit of the
flame jet a pressure of 96 * 105 N / m2 equal was applied with pressure at the end of
combustion. A Virtual rigid part was applied in the bolt area, which simulates the presence of
the bolt and a flush-type restriction was added to it.

78
 Figure 6- 55 Result after the analysis with finite elements - piston side view

Following the finite element analysis performed on the piston, it turned out that the area of the
piston head provides the necessary resistance to cope with the pressure and temperature in the
combustion chamber. The piston head area is highlighted in shades of blue, this meaning that
the deformation in that area is minimal.Instead, based on the analysis, it was found that the
area of the piston bolt bosses can represent a tension concentrator, in this area being found the
largest deformations, being highlighted with shades of orange and red.

Figure 6- 56 Result after the analysis with finite elements - piston

Another area that can be improved is the segment bearing area which, in order to provide the
lowest possible mass of the piston, has been thinned, so the forces generated by the gas
79
pressure and the high temperature in the piston produce small deformations inside the piston.
Based on the analysis, it was found that the area of the lubrication segment represents a
voltage concentrator, due to the very small distance between the axis of the bolt and the lower
part of the channel of the lubrication segment. To remedy this problem, you can try to
increase the distance between the lubrication segment and the bolt, so in that area you will
find more material to cope with the forces transmitted on the side walls of the piston from the
piston head to the bolt.
In general, following the finite element analysis, it was found that the piston withstands the
cylinder pressure as well as the flue gas pressure, offering a compact construction and with an
optimal mass for the present operating conditions. In order to increase the engine power, the
piston needs to be improved, by adding material in the areas prone to gather tensions.
Also, temperature conditions are very important in making a piston. Due to this fact, a
temperature of 600 K was introduced as a test parameter, to be taken into account by the
program when running the test.

Figure 6- 57 Result after the analysis with finite elements – piston expansion

The greatest translational displacement of the piston material is 0.0592mm. This displacement
is allowable by the tolerances of the piston, but a grater heat resistance can be acquired by
changing or improving the material properties to have a better performance at high
temperatures.

80
 7 PISTONS TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND
MANUFACTURING

7.1 General aspects

The piston, represent the moving part in a cylinder block, that has a translational movement
along the cylinder axis and through the action of the gases that act on the cylinder head
produce the necessary movement and power. The piston, as a moving part in the combustion
chamber, has the task to convert the energy produce in the chamber, resulting by burning the
gas, into mechanical work.
The general form of a piston is that of a hollow cylinder, closed at one end with four
important areas (see in Figure 7.1). The piston crown transfers the force that is exerted on it
through the material of the piston to the piston pin boss and further more to the connecting
rod through the pin and to the crankshaft through the connecting rod.

Figure 7-58 Gasoline engine piston

81
The pressure produced by the burning gas will act on the piston crown, can be represented by
two forces that act on the center of the connecting pin to the piston and one is normal to the
piston, acting on the skirt of the piston and a force that is directed to the connecting rod.

Figure 7- 59 Variation of the piston force on a cycle

During an operating cycle the normal force that act on the piston will change the direction
several time and also the magnitude of the force wile change also.

Figure 7- 60 Normal force curve

82
7.2 Piston function, requirements, and types

7.2.1 Sealing and heat dissipation

The sealing of the combustion chamber is done by the and the piston rings, that has the task of
sealing the fluids and the heat produce by burning the gas mixture in the combustion chamber
and also will not permit the oil to penetrate the combustion chamber in a high quantity. A
prerequisite in the design of the components of the piston is that the material, geometries and
surfaces need to be carefully matches.
When the piston is moving up and down, the piston skirt will press on the cylinder, due to the
normal force on the piston. If the piston will not have a film of lubricant on the cylinder,
because of the friction between the parts the piston and the cylinder can be permanently
damage. The piston needs to slide on the cylinder, but is very challenging to keep a constant
lubrification will near the dead center points of the piston because of the hydrodynamic
lubrification film is less significant in these points and we will have a mix friction and sliding.
In order for the piston to withstand the extreme combustion temperature, it must dissipate the
heat sufficiently. The heat is in the cylinder is primary dissipated by the piston ring, skirt. The
heat will dissipate also to the surroundings like the engine block, cylinder head, oil and other
fluids. Additional oil can be applied under the piston to improve the cooling of the piston.

7.2.2 Tasks and Requirements on the piston

The most important tasks of the piston are:
 transmission of power from and to the working gas;
 variable bounding of the working chamber (cylinder);
 sealing off the working chamber;
 linear guiding of the conrod (trunk piston engines);
 heat dissipation;
 support of gas exchange by air intake and exhaust (four-stroke engines);
 support of mixture formation (by means of suitable shape of the piston surface on
the combustion chamber side);
 controlling gas exchange (in two-stroke engines);
 guiding the sealing elements (piston rings);
 guiding the conrod in longitudinal direction of the crankshaft (for top-guided
conrods);
The necessary requirements of the piston are:
 adaptability to operating conditions;

83
  seizure resistance and simultaneous running smoothness;
 low weight with sufficient shape stability;
 low oil consumption;
 low pollutant emissions values;
 lowest possible friction losses;

7.3 Piston types

Because of various operating principles of combustion engines, we have a large variety of the
engines, so we have a variety of pistons. Each engine type requires its own piston variant,
characterized by its construction, shape, dimensions, and material. For the four-stroke
gasoline engines piston we have as requirement a lightweight design with symmetrical or
asymmetrical shirt profile. These piston types are characterized by low weight and particular
flexibility in the central and lower skirt areas.

7.4 Piston materials

The function of the piston and the loads that act on it present a special requirements profile
for the piston material. If the goal is low piston weight, then a low-density material is
preferred. Besides the design, the strength of the material is crucial for the load carrying
capacity of the piston. The change in loads over time requires good static as well as dynamic
strength. Temperature resistance is also important in view of the thermal loads.
Material pairings between the piston and its mating parts, as well as lubrication conditions,
are of particular significance. They must be considered as a tribological system. Special
surface treatments or coatings improve the properties of the base material.
The requirements for the thermal expansion behavior of the piston material depend on the
material pairing between the cylinder and the piston pin. In view of changes to clearance
between the cold and hot states, the thermal expansion coefficients should differ by as little as
possible.

7.4.1 Aluminum materials

As a light alloy with high thermal conductivity, aluminum is ideal for use as a piston material.
Unalloyed, however, its strength and wear resistance are too low. The discovery of
precipitation hardening by Wilm in 1906 made aluminum alloys suitable for technical
purposes. Metals have a mutual solubility that depends on temperature. At low temperatures
and in the solid state, this value is very low for some metals. After the material is cast, we
84
need to applied to it a thermal treatment to improve the quality of strength and wear
resistance.

Figure 7- 61 Aluminum piston

7.4.2 Aloys materials

Pistons are almost exclusively made of aluminum-silicon alloys of eutectic, and partly
hypereutectic composition, which can be cast easily and nearly always can be forged as well.
Table 7.1 shows an overview of the chemical composition of piston alloys used by MAHLE.
The eutectic alloy M124 is the “classic” piston alloy, and has been the basis for the vast
majority of pistons in recent decades. Even today it is still a very significant, universally
applicable alloy. Pistons made of hypereutectic alloys exhibit even greater wear resistance.
From this group, the alloys M138 and M244 are preferred for two-stroke engine pistons,
while the M126 alloy is used in the USA for passenger car gasoline engines.
The alloys M142, M145, and M174+ have been developed only recently. Their common
characteristic is the relatively high proportion of the elements copper and nickel. This gives
the alloys particularly high strength at elevated temperatures and thermal stability.
Table 7.1

85
7.4.3 Ferrous materials
If the strength or wear resistance of aluminum alloys is not sufficient to meet the loads, then
ferrous materials are employed. This can begin with local reinforcement (e.g., ring carriers),
and extend to parts of composite pistons (e.g., piston crown, bolts), all the way to pistons
constructed entirely of cast iron or forged steel.

86
 Figure 7-62 Cast iron piston

Cast iron materials generally have a carbon content of >2%. In these materials, the brittle
cementite or graphite can no longer be brought into solution by subsequent heat treatment.
They are therefore not suitable for radical hot forming, but their castability can be optimized.

7.5 The technologies and ways of fabrication

There are a lot of ways to manufacture a piston, but the mons used are casting, forging, or 3d
printing that is a new method that has appear 1 year ago.

7.5.1 Casting
Casting is very used when we try to make a piston. After we choose our material, we use a
foundry to melt the material and then we pour it in a hydraulic mold that consist of two pieces
use for casting that are pushed together and form the generative shape of the piston and the
foundry hydraulic press has a piece of the material that is pressed underneath the piston and
form the inner core of the piston. The material is poured in the hydraulic mold and after it
cools down, we will extract it from the mold.

87
 Figure 7- 63 Piston mold casting

The piston in this stage is a half-finished product that needs to be impose to other
technological processes to be finished completely. We can also apply a thermal treatment to
the piston to improve its qualities and his durability.

7.6 Pistons technological processes and manufacturing

The complex shape of the piston, the rigorous technical conditions that must be achieved as
well as the low rigidity of the piston (thin walls) require that some basic requirements be
taken into account during the processing process. The concentricity of the outer contour with
respect to the unprocessed inner contour can be obtained only when the piston is fixed on a
device with internal tightening or self-adjustment. the conditions of perpendicularity between
the segment channels and the outer cylindrical surface require their concentric processing at a
single location. The condition of processing perpendicularity of these surfaces to be executed
within the same location.
The pistons are manufactured in series and the mechanical processing process contains the
following stages:
 selection and processing of settlement bases;
 processing of exterior surfaces;
 bolt bore processing;
 drilling and milling operations;

88
  sorting by mass and dimensional groups;
 control operation;

Figure 7-64 Variants for settlement bases

In Figure 7-7 we present the seating surface of a piston in several varieties. in the variant a
placement, the fruit is made on the outer surface, on the b between the tips and in the variant c
a placement is made with a technical bolt.

7.6.1 Selection and processing of settlement bases.

When choosing them, it is taken into account that by applying the clamping forces not to
cause the piston to be deformed, to have the possibility of executing as many poets as possible
in a single grip, to ensure the most uniform thickness of the walls in conditions of an
unprocessed inner cavities.
The processing of the inner surface of the mantle arm is done at a position on a rough outer
cylindrical face in steps 7.…9 of precision (ISO) and to take into account that the beating of
the front face to the inner arm does not exceed 0.05.…0.07 mm.

7.6.2 Exterior face processing

In the case of series manufactures, the processing of external surfaces and segment channels
is performed on semi-automatic machines with several axes allowing a single concentration of
a large concentration of operations. For finishing the exterior surfaces, turning with a
diamond-tipped knife is preferred. For turning the profiled outer surface (constant or variable
oval) special turning machines are used. Turning is done after copying the shape with a
diamond-tipped knife in two passes (roughing, finishing), respecting an appropriate cutting
regime (n = 5000 rot / min, and s = 0.12 mm / rot).
A method by which the shape of the outer surface of the piston is completely processed by a
template stop, using a device with a special head with a rotating box, rotates and moves along
the piston axis at the same time along the axis of the piston. The circle has its center on the
piston needle, and its projection on a plane perpendicular to the axis is an ellipse and
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constitutes the cross section of the piston. With a special device is made the continuous
variation of the diameter to be processed while moving the head with rotating knives, this
ensures the oval or convex-oval conical shape of the outer surface of the piston.
The semi-finished product is placed on the semi-automatic machine, to keep in mind that the
piston must meet the dimensions in the desired piston chapter. A 1.5mm commercial addition
is taken into account for the piston on the outer surfaces. Figure 7-9 shows: centering and pre-
cutting of the jacket and turning of the hood (1); cap finishing turning (2); segment channel
roughing turning (3); the roughing turning of the mantle and the port segment region (4), the
finishing of the port segment regions and of the channels (5), the turning of the face of the last
channel and of the mantle (6); Elements for the presentation of piston roundness (7).

Figure 7- 65 Schematic of piston machining at an automatic table with several axes

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 Figure 7-66 Copy-turning a template of a variable oval piston

1 -piston ;2-tamplate;3-diamond-tipped knife for roughing;4-diamond-tipped knife for

finishing;5-feeler;6-classic system of following;7-elements for roundness positioning of the
piston .

7.6.3 Processing the bolt bore

In the case of aluminum pistons provided with pouring holes, the semi-fabrication and
finishing of the bore is performed, followed by a finished processing.
Semi-finishing processing consists of single or double deepening or internal turning followed
by reaming. Sometimes to this operation is added the turning of the channels for the safety of
the floating bolt. In general, the operation is performed on bilateral agreements with a drum
table with several workstations. The fixing of the piece is done on the basis of placement in a
vertical position.
Finishing work consists of fine turning with a diamond-tipped knife, using multi-axis boring
machines. the placement of the piece is done, using devices in the form of prisms or sectioned
glasses and folding arms. In some cases, to remove the conicity after fine turning, a reamer
calibration is performed.
Certain technological processes include the rolling of the bolt bore after the finishing turning.
It replaces bore calibration and ensures high requirements for dimensional accuracy and
surface quality.

7.6.4 Drilling and milling operations

For the execution of the radial holes in the channels of the lubrication segments, aggregates
with several working positions placed on a rotating table are used. The weight is executed
simultaneously or by changing the angular position of the piston. The drilling in the piston
shoulders is performed in an independent operation.
Slot milling is performed either on general purpose milling machines equipped with thin disc
phases, or on special drilling and drilling units with several workstations.

7.6.5 Sorting by mass groups

Sorting by mass groups. To avoid various balancing disturbances, pistons of the same mass
group are mounted on an engine. Bringing the pistons into the same mass group is obtained
by removing the excess material determined by a weighing. This excess, due to the
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unprocessed inner piston cavity, is removed by turning the inner arm of the jacket without
affecting the outer surface or the rigidity of the piston. Turning is performed on ordinary
lathes or semi-automatic machines.
In some technologies, due to the precision casting of the semi-finished product, it is passed
directly to the sorting on mass groups.

7.6.6 Control operations.

When performing the pistons, the inter-operation control and the final control are provided.
Often, the final control is performed in separate rooms with air conditioning and constant
temperature using devices and devices with the possibility of simultaneous measurement of
several parameters.
The visual inspection consists of an examination of roughness and surface defects (cracks,
crevices, depressions, wrinkles, burrs, etc.) are not permitted.
Dimensional control consists of: external surface control and sorting by groups of dimensions
marked by colors; control of the bolt bore and sorting by size groups and color marking;
diameter control, the widths and locations of the channels for the segments, as well as the
beating of the front surfaces of the channels, the control of the piston mass and the sorting on
mass groups, with marking by colors.

Table 7.2
Operation Operation name Sketch from the Machine-Tool
number figures ...
1 Reception of the semi-finished -
product
2 Turning Multi shaft lathe
 external contour roughing with 6 positions
 exterior contour finishing
a
 channel roughing for
segments
 finishing channels for
b
weaving segments
3 Cleaning - blowing - Compressed air
blowing

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4 Turning holes for the bolt c Lathe
Machining of two lubrication
holes in the grout
5 Curved and oval finishing lathe - Copy lathe
along the entire length
6 Frontal milling and combustion d Milling machine
chamber milling
7 Adjusting -
8 Washing - Installation and
washing
9 Sorting-marking, by bolt - Bench
diameter (3 groups of 3 in
minimum)
10 Sorting-marking, by outer - Bench
diameter (3 groups differentiated
by one tenth)
11 Sort by weight marking (grouped - Bench
in two grams)
12 Stanation - Installation for
metal coatings
13 Final control - Control table
14 Mating, the pistons will be mated -
4 each with the same outer
diameter, diameter of bolt holes
and weight
15 Storage -

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 Figure 7-67 The sequence of the main operations for the mechanical processing of a piston

7.7 Piston reconditioning

Due to the operation of the pistons, the pistons may have the following defects: scratches or
grips on the work surface; corrugation bridges in segment channels; cracks or ruptures
regardless of size, nature or position, increased play of segments in channels; bolt bore wear,
etc.
Due to the important role of the piston as well as the rigorous conditions for its execution,
when repairing the engine, the piston is changed.

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 8 CONCLUSIONS

 The engine is a complex assembly that includes many elements, each playing an
essential role in its proper functioning. Designing an engine and assembling it on a
computer was a very good way for me to better understand the knowledge gained
during the 4 years of college. Thus, I had the opportunity to understand the role of
each component of an engine and I understood that the development of new products
involves a lot of effort. Even in this project, it was necessary to modify parts so that
when the engine was assembled it could work.
 Computer-aided design is an important step in increasing efficiency and quality in this
area. Thus, the current programs have innumerable functions that aim to improve the
final result, among them we can mention the module for generating sections through
parts, the module that verifies that the parts do not intersperse and that they have a
minimum play or at most the parts are tightly mounted as well as the parameterized
work that gives the possibility easy modification of the 3D model, without the need
for it to be drawn again, a common case in paper drawings.
 Finite element analysis programs play an important role in the development of new
products, helping the manufacturer to reduce the costs for testing parts, which can be
tested and optimized directly from the design phase.
 The purpose of the project was fulfilled, a crank mechanism that can work under the
influence of a LPG as a main fuel was computed, dimension, design and tested using a
simulation program.

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 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Gh. Bobescu, Gh.- Al. Radu, A. Chiru, C. Cofaru, V.Ene, V. Amariei, I. Guber –
MOTOARE
2. R. Basshuysen, F. Schafer – INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE HANDBOOK,
SAE International, Warrendale, 2004
3. D. Abaitancei, C. Hasegan, I. Stoica, D. Claponi, L. Cihodaru – MOTOARE
PENTRU
AUTOMOBILE SI TRACTOARE, Bucuresti,Ed. Tehnica, 1978
4. D. Abaitancei, Gh. Bobescu – MOTOARE PENTRU AUTOMOBILE, Bucuresti,
E.D.P 1975
5. D. Marincaş, D. Abăităncei – FABRICAREA ŞI REPARAREA
AUTOVEHICULELOR RUTIERE Bucureşti, E.D.P. 1982
6. C.Cofaru, N. Ispas, M. Nastasoiu, H. Abaitancei, H.R. Anca, M. Dogariu, A. Chiru, V.
Eni—PROIECTAREA MOTOARELOR PENTRU AUTOVEHICULE, Brasov,
Reprografia Universitatii Transilvania 1997
7. N. Apostolescu,D.Sfinteanu-AUTOMOBILUL cu combustibili neconventionali,
Bucuresti,Ed. Tehnica, 1989

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