ANIMAL PRODUCTS HYGIENE AND INSPECTIONS

Animal products hygiene and inspection can commonly be described as the sanitary control of
slaughter animals and animal products, with the aim of providing safe and wholesome products for
human consumption. The responsibility for achieving this lies primarily with the relevant public
health authorities who are represented by animal health practitioners and inspectors at the abattoir
or slaughter slab stage. These experts and some others working at different levels of livestock
derived foods value chain are interested in regulating the products production processes in order to
ensure that such products are not compromised due to poor industry practices.

Animal Products from Livestock and Chicken

An animal product is any material derived from the body of an animal. Examples are fat, flesh, blood,
milk, eggs, and lesser known products, such as isinglass and rennet. Animal byproducts, as defined
by the USDA, are products harvested or manufactured from livestock other than muscle meat.

Animal by-products are carcasses and parts of carcasses from slaughterhouses, animal shelters, and
products of animal origin not intended for human consumption, including catering wastes. These
products may go through a process known as "rendering" to be made into human and non-human
foodstuffs, fats, and other material that can be sold to make commercial products such as cosmetics,
paint, cleaners, polishes, glue, soap and ink. The sale of animal by-products allows the meat industry
to compete economically with industries selling sources of vegetable protein.

Animal products have both positive and negative effects on the consumer. It is well established that
animal products are a very important part of the human diet. Animal products provide an excellent
source of protein, and both vitamins and minerals. Some of the important nutrients in animal
products are the following:

• Protein, which when digested, provides an excellent balance of essential amino acids for growth,
muscles, and replacing lost cells.

• Vitamins, particularly vitamin B12, which is only found naturally in animal products, and vitamins
A and D in milk.

• Vitamins in eggs such as choline (125 mg per egg), B vitamins, folate (essential for development),
and lutein, which is important to functioning of the eye and particularly the macula.

• Key minerals: o Calcium, which is essential for bone development and potassium, lowering blood
pressure; it is available from milk and dairy products. o Iron essential for hemoglobin, oxygen
transportation, and, therefore, red blood cell formation together with mortar skill development; it is
available from meat. o Zinc is a critical cofactor, with meat and eggs as excellent sources. o Copper is
another critical cofactor, with meat as an excellent source. o Iodine is essential for thyroid hormone
products and, therefore, normal metabolism, growth, and mental development, and is available
from seafood.

Meat as an animal products

In recent years, meat quality has assumed a greater consumer significance and public attention
there is growing awareness of the link between diet and health and this is reflected in the demand
for more information and for products which are healthy and of consistently high quality. As a
consequence, this has lead to the demand for meat with a high lean content.

Thus, both the diets fed to the animals and the systems of animal production are being increasingly
questioned. It is fortuitous that with the elucidation of the major factors influencing meat quality
and hygiene new opportunities are being created for the development of a consistent, healthy, safe
and attractive product which offers value for money. Factors contributing to the eating quality of
meat are: 1. Appearance 2. flavour (smell at abattoir, taste) 3. tenderness (chew time) 4. Texture

Appearance:

This has to do with the colour of meat and its freshness. Colour is determined by the concentration
of myoglobin. In young animals there is little concentration of myoglobin, but greater in older
animals and the meat becomes darker.

Flavour: Flavour is the combined result of the taste and smells senses and, because it is a subjective
property, is difficult to evaluate. Each species has its own characteristic flavour. Chemical reactions
resulting in some 1,000 compounds during contribute to the individual meat’s flavour

Tenderness: the meat from the young animals is more tender that the meat from old animals. At
time of cooking a lot of connective tissues will become soft especially meat from the young animals.
Connective tissues are easily broken in meat of young animals than the older animals because they
do not easily disintegrate.

Texture: this has to do with the diameter of muscle fibre when muscles are associated with closely
packed diameter. It is called fine texture and it is usually of young animals. Course texture is
associated with wider diameter of muscle and it is usually meat of older animals.

Characteristics of meat quality

meat quality characteristics are basically classified into four main categories:  Organoleptic
properties  Technological quality  Nutritive value  Hygienic characteristics or food safety aspects

Organoleptic properties are the traits that influence the consumer to regularly purchase and eat
meat. Technological qualities refer to the suitability of meat for further processing and are primarily
determined by treatment after slaughter. Nutritional value is concerns with the chemical
composition of the meat and its suitability for human consumption. Hygiene or safety implies
freedom from harmful microorganisms and any residues. These can be controlled through
legislation, proper feeding designs and strategies, quality management schemes on the farm and
procedures in the slaughterhouse and processing plant.

The main factors contributing to the eating quality of meat are tenderness, juiciness and colour.
These are dependent upon several metabolic and biological phenomena within the animal or carcass
and include the following:  Intramuscular content or marbling fat  Taint, especially the content of
skatole, indole and testosterone  The type and fatty acid content of the animal’s diet and hence its
carcass  Maturation or conditioning effects  Drip loss and maintenance of the integrity of the cell
membrane post-mortem  Stress during transportation and lairage  The potential to flavour meat 
The effect of feeding

MEAT PROCESSING

Processed meat products are defined as those in which the properties of the fresh meat have been
modified by the use of one or more procedures such as grinding or chopping, addition of seasonings,
alteration of colour, heat treatment, drying and other processing /conservation processes.

EGG AS AN ANIMAL PRODUCT

Parts of an Egg (diagram of an egg and that of reproductive tract)

Yolk. This is the most obvious part of the egg contents—the yellow part near the center.
Albumen. This is the clear part we call the egg white. It’s called this because it turns white when
cooked. There are two layers of albumen: thick (near the yolk) and thin.
Chalaza. Located in the thick albumen, chalaza is simply albumen that is twisted tightly. It
keeps the yolk in the middle of the egg and prevents it from sticking to the inside of the shell.
Shell membranes. The egg contents are surrounded by two thin membranes called the
inner and outer shell membranes. Shell. This is the outer covering of the egg holding
everything together.

Process of egg formation

The yolk and albumen are prepared to sustain the life of a growing embryo - for three weeks, in
chicken. This entire mass is surrounded by two membranes and an external covering called the shell.
The shell provides for an exchange of gases and a mechanical means of conserving the food and
water supply within.
The egg is formed in the mature hen by a reproductive system composed of an ovary and oviduct. .
In this oviduct, all parts of the egg, except the yolk, are formed. It is divided into five regions: (1)
infundibulum or funnel, (2) magnum, (3) isthmus, (4) uterus or shell gland, and (5) vagina.
The egg is formed in the reproductive tract of a female chicken, called a hen. The
reproductive tract is divided into two major parts: the ovary and the oviduct. The ovary is
where the yolk is added. When the yolk reaches the right size, it is released from the ovary
by a process called ovulation. The released yolk is then picked up by the infundibulum. It is
here that fertilization must take place.The yolk then passes to the magnum, where the
albumen is added. It then goes on to the isthmus for the addition of the shell membranes.
The developing egg spends most of its time in the shell gland, where the shell and any shell
pigments are added. As the egg is being assembled it travels down the oviduct small end
first. In the vagina it is pushed out the large end first. This prevents the egg from being
contaminated by faecal material when it is laid.

Double Yolks
Occasionally, a hen will produce double-yolked eggs. Double-yolking sometimes occurs in
older hens, but may occur in young hens that release two ova in rapid succession.  In our
first flock of buff orpingtons, one pullet routinely would lay over-sized eggs, containing two
yolks.  Double yolked eggs are perfectly edible, but are not suitable for breeding. Although
the eggs tend to be larger, they may lack sufficient nutrients and space to support the
development of two chicks, and twin chicks rarely successfully hatch without intervention.
Yolk-less Eggs
A young pullet may produce a yolk-less egg.  This usually occurs when a fragment of
ovarian tissue, or oviductal lining sloughs, and stimulates the secreting glands in the
magnum to produce albumen.  The rest of the egg-formation process may then continue as
normal, except that an egg without a yolk is laid.
Blood Spots and Meat Spots
These are rarely seen in commercially produced eggs, as when the eggs are candled, those
containing blood spots and meat spots are rejected.  The eggs are still perfectly edible, but
are rejected for aesthetic reasons.  Blood spots are normally associated with the egg yolk.
Rupture of tiny vessels during ovulation is typically the cause of blood spots. If you raise
your own hens for eggs you may notice these from time to time.
Thin-Shelled or Shell-less Eggs
Occasionally eggs are laid with thin shells, or may be lacking a shell entirely. A shell-less
egg doesn’t typically look like an egg would if you cracked an egg open.  Usually the yolk
and albumen are at least encased in the shell membrane, but the calcium carbonate hard
shell is not deposited.  This usually results in an egg that has the appearance of a small
water balloon.  These are occasionally found in young pullets first coming into lay, but
providing the pullet is otherwise healthy, this problem should quickly resolve. 

Egg Formation Timeline The average time an ovum spends in each structure as it passes down the
oviduct Infundibulum: about 15 minutes Magnum: 2-3 hours Isthmus: 1½ hour Uterus: about 20
hours Vagina: just a few minutes

Egg sizes
Eggs are sorted into five different sizes according to weight: Jumbo, Extra Large, Large, Medium,
Small, and Pee Wee. The following are the weight standards and approximate nutritional values
associated with each of these sizes:
UK egg sizes Very Large (> or =73g) (Large 63 - 73g); Medium (53 - 63g) Small <53g
US egg sizes: Jumbo 71g; Extra-large 64g; Large 57g; Medium 50g; Small 43g; Peewee 35g

Egg Quality
Egg quality is a general term which refers to several standards which define both internal and
external quality. External quality is focused on shell cleanliness, texture and shape, whereas internal
quality refers to egg white (albumen) cleanliness and viscosity, size of the air cell, yolk shape and
yolk strength. There are six main factors affecting internal egg quality: disease, egg age,
temperature, humidity, handling, and storage.

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Milk is supposed to be the first and sole food for offspring of mammals as it is an almost complete
food necessary to sustain life. It is secreted by female animals and is white or yellowish-white and an
opaque (non-transparent) liquid.
Composition of Milk
The composition of milk is not constant, but shows a wide variation. Composition depends on the
species of animal but also within a species there are variations between the breeds and between
individual animals within a breed. The composition might even change from day to day, depending
on feeding and climate. In addition, when animals are milked, the first milk differs from the last milk
drops. For example, average water content for cows, goats and sheep are 87, 86, and 82%,
respectively; fat content, 4, 5, and 6.5%, respectively; and protein, 3, 4, and 7%, respectively

Quality Characteristics of Milk

Milk that has been harvested from animals and stored at appropriate cold temperatures in tanks is
transported to processing centres where they are tested for quality before processed. The milk is
checked for protein, fat, flavour, total bacteria count, somatic cell count Apart from TBC, another
measure of the quality of raw milk is the Somatic Cell Count (SCC), which is a direct indication of
infection as there is a very high correlation between mastitis and bacterial infection. Somatic cells
consist almost totally (98%) of white blood cells, and residues.
Milk processing and storage
Processing results in the conversion of the raw milk into other products. Whole milk, once approved
for use, is pumped into storage tanks or silos where it undergoes pasteurization, homogenization,
separation and further processing into different products.
• Pasteurization or heat treatment involves heating every particle of milk to a specific temperature
for a specified period of time and cooling it again without allowing recontamination. is heating at 63
to 66 ◦C for 30 min or 72◦ C for 15 seconds.
•The purpose of homogenization is to reduce the milk fat globules size, which allows them to stay
evenly distributed in milk.
•Separate the cream (fat containing portion of milk) from the milk.
Milk that has gone through pasteurization and homogenization can be processed into many different
forms such as whole (full cream) milk, low fat (defatted) milk, skim milk, fortified milk (low-fat milk
fortified with vitamins A and D), flavored milk (with chocolate, vanilla etc.), condensed milk,
evaporated milk, powdered (dried) milk, and filled milk (animal fat replaced with vegetable fat).
Different milk products are also produced with specific processing procedures such as yoghurt
(curdled milk), ice cream, butter, cheese, casein (milk protein), lactose (milk sugar), whey (liquid
remaining after milk is curdled), and whey powder (dried whey).

ANIMAL FOOD HYGIENE AND INSPECTION

Foods of animal origin are perishable foodstuffs which need special attention during processing,
preparation, transportation and storage to avoid them becoming contaminated and causing ill health
to the consumer.

Meat and its dangers

Meat is among the most highly nutritious foods. It is a good source of protein, fat and minerals. It is
also a highly perishable product because cooked and especially raw meat is a good substrate for the
growth and multiplication of harmful microorganisms. As a result, several diseases may be
transmitted to humans through the consumption of meat or meat products.
Diseases transferred to humans from animals are known as zoonotic diseases. One route of
transmission of zoonotic diseases is by the consumption of infected meat.The most common
zoonotic diseases are.tape worm infection, bovine tuberculosis, anthrax, salmonellosis
Taenia saginata, beef tapeworm infection, Taenia solium, pork tapeworm infection hydatid
disease, diphyllobothriasis, fish tapeworm infection (Diphyllobothriasis is pronounced ‘diff-ill-
oh-both-rya-sis’).,,trichinosis, toxoplasmosis.

The major factors contributing to the continuing existence of beef tapeworm infection in
Ethiopia are lack of proper slaughtering practices and eating raw beef. Open defecation also
spreads the disease. Open field defecation practices are widespread in rural areas and small
urban centres. This means that if a person infected with kosso defecates on open fields, the
infected faeces contaminate the environment, especially pastoral lands used for cattle
grazing. The cattle then become infected. Once inside the animal, the larval stages of the
tapeworm form cysts, also known as cysticerci, in the muscles and some other organs. 

The bacterium that causes anthrax is called Bacillus anthracis. It is capable of producing

very durable and long-lived spores which can cause disease by coming in contact with skin,
by being inhaled and by being consumed. The three forms of disease are:

 Cutaneous anthrax: cutaneous means ‘on the skin’. This is the most common form of
anthrax. It is characterised by localised skin lesions with a black central scar of dead
tissue and non-pitting oedema (oedema means swelling due to fluid building up in the
skin; non-pitting means the swelling cannot be compressed when pushed
down). The people most affected by cutaneous anthrax are skin and hide
workers. Cutaneous anthrax can be treated with antibiotics.
 Inhalation anthrax: is caused by the inhalation of Anthrax spores. It is also known
as woolsorters’ disease because it was an occupational hazard for people who worked
with unprocessed wool. It can cause severe pneumonia, cough, fever, difficulty in
breathing and finally death.
 Gastrointestinal anthrax: is not uncommon in rural Ethiopia and results from
consumption of sick and dying animals, and uncooked meat. Symptoms of intestinal
anthrax are fever, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhoea and
rapid accumulation of fluid in the abdomen.

The control measures for anthrax are to advise people not to eat raw meat from sick and
dying animals like cows, oxen, sheep, camels and goats, and to only eat thoroughly cooked
meat and meat that has been inspected and approved for consumption. Even handling hides
and skins from these dead animals may result in cutaneous anthrax.

 Meat hygiene

Abattoirs and meat transportation

Abattoirs, also known as slaughterhouses, are establishments where livestock are killed
prior to human consumption. Slaughterhouses should be subject to inspection to ensure that
the meat they produce is safe to eat. This includes inspection of live animals and also of the
slaughtered animal carcasses. Before slaughter, the animals should be observed to check
for any abnormalities in their appearance or behaviour that could indicate sickness. After
slaughter, animal carcasses should be inspected by a qualified meat inspector who knows
the signs of specific types of disease and which organs they may be found in. If the carcass
passes the inspection it will be stamped with safe, indelible ink to indicate it has been
approved for human consumption.
The carcass should be transported soon after slaughter, in a special vehicle, to a butchery or
distribution centre. If such customised vehicles are not available, every precaution should be
taken to avoid contamination of the meat during transportation. Even if the meat travels in a
wheelbarrow it should be kept absolutely clean.

Hygiene in the butcher’s shop

Butcher’s shops are the link between the inspected and approved safe meat, and meat
products and the consumer. Therefore the hygienic practices used for handling meat in
these shops determine the health of the meat consumer. For this reason, butcher’s shops
need licences to operate, confirming that they meet all the handling specifications that
ensure the safety of the meat. For example, the licensed premises must have adequate
working space. The walls and floor should be constructed of durable material and be
smooth, impermeable, easily cleanable and light-coloured. There should be adequate
ventilation and natural light. The utensils should be clean and kept in an appropriate place.
The butcher should wear a clean white gown, preferably with an apron and a white hair
cover (Figure 12.5). Importantly, an approved means for the disposal of meat waste should
be provided inside or outside the butchery.

Role in controlling tapeworm infection

Two rules must be enforced, and educating the community about them is an essential part of your
role:

 Noone should offer any food for eating that is unsafe or unfit for human consumption.
 Meat for sale not bearing the stamp of approval of the public municipal slaughterhouse
should be considered unsafe for human consumption.

Additionally there are measures that you can recommend in the community. Abstaining from eating
raw or inadequately cooked meat is a good control measure. The Ethiopian dishes of kitfo or lebleb
kitfo are not safe to eat. However, there are strong cultural reasons for this practice, so people may not
take your advice.

The best control measure against meatborne zoonotic diseases is to cook the meat thoroughly before
consumption. Exposing meat to a temperature above 56 oC inactivates any cysticercus bovis (beef
tapeworm cysts) present. Organised and strict meat inspection practices in abattoirs can ensure that
meat is free from tapeworm infection as well as other meatborne diseases.

Finally, avoiding open defecation is a major control measure for zoonotic – and other – faeco-oral
diseases.

12.3  Fish hygiene and its health impact

Globally, fish are a popular food item (Figure 12.6). With the abundant rivers, ponds and
lakes in Ethiopia, fish is among the commonest foods in many parts of the country.

 Environmental conditions that can contaminate fish

Fish are generally considered clean and fresh, but several environmental factors can make
fish unfit for consumption. The factors relate to the food of the fish itself – the fish is what it
eats – and to the cleanliness/safety of the water body. Fish can also be contaminated by
poor handling at any stage from being caught to being eaten.
Water bodies can be contaminated by:

 Industrial chemical wastes which may contain heavy metals.

 Farm chemical drainage containing pesticides which may bioaccumulate; for example,
DDT accumulates in fish tissues.
 Domestic and commercial wastes, drainage and runoff, which may be contaminated
with faeces or other pollutants.

Bioaccumulation is the gradual build-up of chemicals such as pesticides in the bodies of

living organisms.

Diseases associated with poor fish hygiene

Fish is a perishable and potentially hazardous food item if not handled properly. There are
many fishborne diseases associated with the environment in which the fish is grown, and
with the way it is handled after it is brought out of the water, particularly if it is kept at room
temperature.

Some of the zoonotic fishborne diseases include the following:

 Fish tapeworm, common in the Zeway, Arbaminch and Bahir Dar areas in Ethiopia.
People are infected by eating raw and undercooked fish.
 Shigellosis, due to contamination with Shigella bacteria mostly during handling of the
fish and via the faeco-oral route from water contaminated with faeces.
 Salmonellosis, due to contamination with Salmonella bacteria mostly during handling of
the fish.
 Fish parasites, other than tapeworm, that contaminate the flesh.

Fresh fish has bright, convex (bulging) eyes with a dark pupil. The flesh of a fresh fish is
translucent (almost transparent), but as it ages it gets darker and more opaque (you cannot
see through it).

A fresh and sound fish shows the following typical characteristics:

 The gills are bright, usually closed and have no abnormal odour.
 The eyes are prominent with a transparent cornea (the outer surface of the eye).
 The scales are difficult to remove.
 The skin is free from malodorous (bad-smelling) slime and is not discoloured.
 The flesh is firm, the body stiff and the tail rigid.
 The carcass (body) sinks in water.

A fish that is not fresh and is starting to rot shows changes in all these signs. For example,
the gills may be open and discoloured, and the skin slimy and malodorous. The eyes are
opaque and sunken, the scales can be removed easily and the carcass floats in water. The
flesh falls easily from the bones and is easily broken up.
 Preservation of fish

There are traditional and modern ways by which fish can be preserved, such as chilling,
freezing, smoking, drying, salting and canning. In all cases fish should be properly gutted,
washed and chilled immediately upon removal from the water, and kept cold until consumed.

Milk hygiene

Milk is an important food, supplying us with proteins, fat, carbohydrates, minerals and
vitamins.

The provision of a safe supply of milk is of great importance for public health, with the following
objectives:

 The improvement of nutritional status of infants, children and mothers.

 The prevention of disease or physical defects arising from malnutrition.
 The prevention of communicable, zoonotic disease transmission.
 The control of milk adulteration.

Sources of milkborne diseases

Disease organisms in milk are derived from the dairy animal itself, the human handler or the milk-
handling environment.

 What human behaviours might result in milk contamination?

In terms of the environment, the milking and milk-handling processes must be carried out
hygienically, avoiding contamination with soil, manure, animal hair or dirt from the cowshed. The
milk containers must be clean and disinfected.

Diseases that may be transmitted from milk cows

Bovine tuberculosis

Bovine tuberculosis (bovine TB) is a very common infection of cattle. It is caused by the
bacterium Mycobacterium bovis. Infection may be acquired by drinking raw milk from a cow that has
bovine TB. The disease may reach the milk by contamination with faeces or from the coughs of
infected cows. Diseased humans can also contaminate the milk during handling. Milk, therefore,
should always be pasteurised or sterilised before drinking. Raw milk is the usual cause of the forms of
human TB that affect parts of the body other than the lungs.

Brucellosis

Brucellosis is an infectious disease characterised by a high fever. It is caused by bacteria belonging to

the Brucella genus, mostly Brucella melitensis (a disease of goats) and also Brucella abortus (a
disease of cattle) and Brucella suis (a disease of pigs). It occurs mostly as a result of ingestion of
contaminated milk and dairy products (such as cheese) from animals infected with Brucella.
Brucellosis can also be transmitted by blood, urine or tissues of sick animals, so good hygiene must
be maintained at all times around animals.
Q fever

Q fever is an infection caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii (formerly Rickettsia burnetii). Its

name derives from the time when the cause of the fever was unknown – the ‘Q’ stands for ‘query’.
Only one bacterium is needed to cause the Q fever infection! The disease is transmitted through
drinking the raw milk of infected cattle, goat or sheep, and it can also be transmitted in airborne
droplets.

Anthrax

As you read earlier, anthrax is usually caused by spores of the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. The
spores can remain in soil and dust for a long time and they can infect milk. The spores usually reach
the milk via infected blood contaminating the milk, or by dust from the animal’s coat or the
environment.

12.4.3  Essentials of milk hygiene

Milk sanitation, i.e. the protection of milk from dirt and contamination, is essential to prevent milk
infection. Clean milk (with a low number of bacteria) is a necessity, and is possible by using good
milking hygiene (Figur

The essential steps in hygienic milk production are summarised as follow:

Hygienic milk production

 Animals must be clean and healthy.
 Milking should be done away from the herd.
 The milk handler should also be clean and healthy. S/he should wear clean outer garments
during milking or processing the milk.
 The milking room should be clean, ventilated and dustless.
 Utensils and equipment for milking and milk handling must be clean.
 Immediately before milking the udder and teats of the cow must be washed with clean
lukewarm water and dried with clean cloths – a separate one for each cow.
 Immediately after milking the milk must be removed from the shed, placed in a clean and
covered receptacle and kept in a cool place.

Methods of making milk safe

Remember that raw milk should not be consumed without treatment to protect consumers from
milkborne diseases. The following methods are recommended:

Boiling

This is the most widely practised domestic method of making milk safe. Milk must be boiled for 30
minutes and then cooled to below 10ºC. It must be protected from contamination by flies, dust, etc.
Boiling in this way can prevent the transmission of bovine TB and brucellosis.

Sterilisation

This method ensures that all microorganisms and their spores are killed, but it also affects the
nutritional quality of the milk as the process destroys vitamins, especially vitamin C. Sterilisation is
carried out by raising the temperature to between 110ºC and 130ºC for at least 20 minutes.
 Drying

In the drying process all the water is removed by evaporation and what remains is solid, dry milk
(powdered milk). The powder is not sterile, but once dry, it can be stored for extended periods.

Pasteurisation

 What is pasteurisation?

Pasteurisation is not sterilisation but it is a process in which all pathogenic microorganisms, many
other non-spore forming bacteria and many enzymes in the milk are destroyed or inactivated without
much affecting the nutritive value and the chemical nature of the milk. In practice one expects to find
no faeco-oral bacteria and not more than 10,000 microorganisms of any type per millilitre of
pasteurised milk. You learned the details of pasteurisation in Study Session 10.

Poultry and egg hygiene

Poultry consumption has greatly increased in recent years (Figure 12.10). Due to poor hygiene,
poultry and poultry products are responsible for a number of foodborne illnesses including
salmonellosis, staphylococcal food poisoning and botulism. Other, less common diseases
include psittacosis or ornithosis, also known as parrot fever, which is a zoonotic disease caused by the
bacterium Chlamydophila psittaci, and ‘bird flu’, which is a viral disease that can affect both poultry
and people.

Poultry keeping and processing

Correct sanitation procedures involve all stages in the operation from live poultry pens to retail
establishments, including processing, packing, storage and transportation. Whether in large-scale
commercial production or domestic poultry keeping, the poultry handlers must be healthy and
maintain food handlers’ hygienic practices. In the poultry farm, the housing, feed and water supply
must be safe. The plant and equipment must be cleaned daily. In particular, any dead birds must be
removed from coops. During processing, hygienic methods of killing and dressing must be used.

Handling eggs

Although most freshly laid eggs are sterile inside, the shells soon become contaminated by faecal
matter from the hen and the lining of the nest. When collecting eggs, any visible dirt should be rubbed
off the shells. During handling, contamination can also arise from washing water and from any
packing material. However, some eggs will be spoiled on the inside, generally because of cracks in
the eggshell through which bacteria can enter. It is important to test for egg spoilage, and this can be
done in the following ways.

Inspection

Eggs should first be inspected for cracks, leaks, stains or dirt on the exterior and general bloodiness or
translucent spots in the yolk when candled (see below). You are looking for freshness, soundness, size
and cleanliness of the shell

Shaking

A fresh egg makes no sound, but a stale (bad) egg makes a sound when shaken.
Candling

This is performed by holding the egg between the eye and a light such as a candle flame or the sun.
As the shell is translucent, you can assess the internal quality and the size of the yolk.

Floating

Fresh eggs usually sink to the bottom of a bowl of water, whereas spoiled eggs float and can be
removed. Floating occurs because, in spoiled eggs, the air cavity is bigger, which makes the egg more
buoyant. The problem with this method is that the water may penetrate through the eggshell pores so
it is important to use clean water, change it frequently and not to leave eggs in the water.

Breaking

In this test, around 10 eggs out of 100 are taken randomly and checked for spoilage by breaking them
open to see what is inside. This is the most accurate testing method but it is not cost-effective, so is
only used when the other methods are not exercised – for example, in large-scale operations.

Storing eggs

Since eggs are perishable food items, they need proper storage. They should be kept cool and dry.
Maintenance of the egg’s internal quality depends on the time and conditions of storage, especially
the temperature and the presence of tainting substances in the storage environment. Eggshells are
porous and eggs can quickly absorb foreign odours which will taint the contents. It is therefore
advisable to avoid storing strong-smelling and volatile materials such as kerosene or varnish near egg
stores.

Slaughtering and Handling of Meat

Slaughtering means putting the food animals to death and thereafter preparing the
carcasses for human consumption. The essentials in the slaughter of food animals are that it
should not cause unnecessary suffering to the animals and bleeding should be as efficient as
possible. Besides, it should be safe for the handlers also.

Slaughter types

Home slaughter

In developing countries animals are often slaughtered at home, and this practice is likely to
continue for many years to come. Domestic slaughter of animals is not recommended.
Instead, animals should be taken for slaughter at an approved slaughter slab.

Emergency slaughter

As an emergency, animals that have been hit by a vehicle, or have broken limbs, or have
been gouged by horns, or damaged in any other accidental way can be slaughtered on the
understanding that slaughter takes place immediately after the accident before the
multiplication of pathogenic and other micro-organisms can start and all broken, damaged
or bruised bones or meat are considered as condemned and discarded as such.

Dry slaughtering

This occurs when all the operations: flaying, evisceration, splitting and despatching are done
without the carcass coming into contact with water, either directly or through wet walls,
floors or equipment. It must not however be understood to mean that the premises are
dirty or unwashed, on the contrary, strict pre-slaughter hygiene and thorough cleaning and
washing of the premises and equipment must be carried out after each slaughter operation
so that the next slaughter takes place in clean, dry premises. Care must be taken that meat
does not come in contact with intestinal contents, floors hides and skin and unsafe water.

Muslim method of slaughter or Halal

When animals are to be slaughtered according to Muslim injunction, the meat produced
thereof is known as Halal meat. Such must follow the following principles:
a) The animal must be healthy and conscious.
b) Slaughter should be quick, with a single stroke cut to the throat without inflicting
suffering to the animal. Stunning is not acceptable.
c) The animal should be slaughtered lying on the floor with its head facing Mecca. The neck
of the animal is severed by cutting the four major blood vessels (carotid arteries and jugular
veins) with a sharp knife. The spinal cord is left intact. So the nerve centres controlling the
heart and lungs remain functional and an efficient bleeding is ensured. It also enhances the
keeping quality of meat.
d) The name of Allah be invoked during the slaughter
e) Since pig is regarded as unclean animal, and the consumption of pork is prohibited under
the Muslim injunction, it is not acceptable to slaughter pigs under the same roof as cattle,
sheep or goats. Also, a meat shop selling mutton, goat or beef slaughtered according to
Muslim rites cannot sell pork to non-Muslims.

Humane Slaughter of Food Animals

This is also known as scientific slaughter. Such a slaughter avoids unnecessary pain and
cruelty to food animals and ensures as complete bleeding as possible. It also ensures speed
of operation and safety of the personnel. Stunning is a process employed to create a state of
immobility or unconsciousness at the time of slaughter.

Dressing of Slaughter Animal

Dressing techniques and sequence of dressing operations vary from place to place and are
very much influenced by the equipment and facilities available in the abattoir.
Equipment such as brisket saw, hock cutter, hide puller, bone cutter etc. facilitate the
dressing. The process includes the opening of the carcass, flaying, evisceration, splitting,
inspection and despatch.

1. Flaying: This is the removal of the hide and skin of cattle (buffalo), sheep and goat.
2. Dehairing: The removal of hair and bristles of pigs. This can be done by hand or by
dehairing machine. Plucking or Defeathering is the removal of feathers of poultry. This can
be done by 2 methods (a) Dry method whereby the feathers are plucked after destroying
the nerve centre behind the brain with a knife. (b) Wet method: here, scalding tank with
water is heated to 1300 F is used to loosen the feather and facilitate plucking.
3. Evisceration: Removal of the viscera from the carcass.
Dressing of Cattle 1. After stunning, the animal is hoisted by one leg to the overhead rail. It
is brought above bleeding trough or gully and an incision is made just in front of sternum
cutting the main blood vessels.
2. Bleeding is done into a specially built bleeding trough which carries the blood into a
blood-collecting tank. Complete bleeding is essential as blood is an excellent medium for
multiplication of bacteria throughout the carcass.
3. A cut is made across the larynx, the oesophagus is tied off and the head is skinned and
detached at the atlas joint. 4. Now the forelegs (shanks) are removed.
5. The hind legs are skinned and removed while the carcass is hung by tendons on the
spreader.
 6. Deskinning (flaying) is carried forward from hind and forequarters and hide is now pulled
with the help of a hide puller.
7. Brisket is now opened along with the midline and the pelvic cavity is opened along the
abdominal cavity. Evisceration commences and plucks as well as viscera and removed. A
careful cut releases the viscera which are separated into “thoracic viscera”: lungs, heart,
liver, spleen and the pouch which includes stomach and intestines. The thoracic viscera are
hung on hooks over the viscera inspection table or on special edible offal carries attached to
overhead rails. This is done without delay. The intestinal contents should not be allowed to
spill over the carcass and the floor of the slaughter hall. The testicles, penis and tail should
be removed and not allowed to contaminate the carcass. The mammary gland should also
be removed without it being punctured.
8. Now the carcass is sawn into two halves along the vertebral column.
9. Spray washing of the carcass. The carcass is then inspected and from the inspection line
the carcass is transferred to the chilling room.

Dressing of Sheep and Goat

1. Every effort should be made to ensure that dirt is not carried on the hair/wool into the
slaughter place.
2. After stunning, the animal is hoisted to overhead rail and an incision is given in the jugular
furrow near the head severing both carotid arteries.
3. The forelegs are knuckled and a cut is made to the front, the forelegs are removed at
knee.
4. The neck and cheeks are skinned along with the shoulder. The throat is opened up and
oesophagus is tied.
5. The hind legs are knuckled and a cut is made to the root of the tail. The legs are skinned.
6. The skin is incised in the middle of the bell and skinning proceeds towards the flank. Now
skin is pulled down over the backbone and base of the head.
7. The head and hind legs are removed. Treatment and the use of the head depend on
different customs in various countries.
8. A small cut in the abdomen is extended to the brisket and the breast bone is also split.
9. The pluck and viscera are removed. Kidney and its fat are left in the carcass. Under
conditions where a sheep/goat gantry hoist does not exist, all processes should be carried
out on a skinning cradle.
10. Spray washing of the carcass is done followed by transfer to the chilling room.

Post abattoir Handling of Meat Transportation of meat from the slaughter place to the
butchers’ shop
The aim of hygienic procurement, slaughter and dressing is to ensure that inspected meat
derived from healthy, properly slaughtered animals reaches the consumer clean, unspoiled
and in a wholesome state, free from danger of infection or intoxication.

Refrigeration of Carcasses
The carcasses with identification numbers after complete washing and inspection are
brought to the chilling room where they are kept for about 24hrs to bring the pH below 6.
The carcasses should be as dry as possible. The aim of chilling is to retard the bacterial
growth during the post-mortem changes to extend the shelf-life of the meat. The
temperature of the chilling room should be between 2oC and 4oC. The chilling room should
always be kept clean and the carcasses hung on the rails. The chillers should not be
overloaded and spaces should be left between carcasses for the cold air to circulate,
otherwise cooling will be insufficient and carcass surface will remain wet for rapid bacterial
growth.