Handout

Sextus Empiricus
From Outlines of Pyrrhonism (200 CE)

Summary:

Sextus describes skepticism as the suspension of judgment on any issue whatever –

neither advocating nor opposing any view – and thereby achieving a mental state of
tranqulity. How, though, are we able to suspend our judgments with apparently obvious
truths, such as “there is a red ball in front of me”? According to Sextus […] we begin by
noting that an object, such as a red ball, will appear differently to different animals. To a
dog, it may appear on shape or color; to a cow, another; to a housefly, another.
However, we will never be in a position to say that the perceptions of one animal are
more accurate that those of another. Thus, we must suspend our judgment about the true
shape or color of the ball.1

What is skepticism?

Skepticism is the philosophical doctrine that we cannot know anything for certain.

In the passages below, Sextus describes skepticism as involving a suspension of judgment. We

must suspend judgment about everything – including the existence and characteristics of objects
in the external world. According to Sextus, when we hold back our opinions about everything
(neither denying nor affirming anything), we reach a state of “tranqulity” (calmness of mind).

 “What is Skepticism? Skepticism is an ability to place appearances in opposition to

judgments in any way whatever. By balancing reasons that are opposed to each other, we
first reach the state of suspension of judgment, and afterwards that of tranquilly.”

 “Suspension of judgment means holding back opinion so that we neither deny nor affirm
anything. Tranquility is the repose and calmness of mind.”

 “The primary principle of Skepticism is to oppose every argument by one of equal

weight, and in this way we finally reach the position where we have no dogmas.”

What is the aim of skepticism?

The aim of skepticism, according to Sextus, is tranquility. Tranqulity follows from a suspension
of judgment. The passages below describe the process of reaching tranqulity:

1
From Louis Pojman. Introduction to Philosophy, 4th edition, 2008, p. 42

1
  “We say, then, that the aim of Skepticism is tranquility in those things which pertain to
the opinion, and moderation in the things that life requires of us. In order to attain
tranquility, the Skeptic begins to philosophize about the ideas and to understand which
are true and which are false. He then faces contradictions of equal weight, and, being
unable to judge, he withholds his opinion. As if by fate, while his judgment is in
suspension he attains tranquility in regard to matters of opinion.”

Argument for skepticism

One of Sextus’s main arguments in favor of skepticism is that external objects appear differently
to different beings. A red ball, for example, will appear quite differently to us than a dog, a fish,
a snake, etc. Furthermore, who is to say which appearance is the correct one? We cannot say
that the way in which the red ball appears to us is more correct (or closer to how the ball really
is) than a dog, a fish, a snake, etc.

 “Since the same things appear differently according to the difference in animals, it will be
possible for us to say how the external object appears to us, but as to how it is in reality
we shall suspend judgment. For we cannot ourselves judge between our own ideas and
those of other animals, being ourselves involved in the difference, and therefore much
more in need of being judged than being ourselves able to judge […] Since ideas differ
according to the difference in animals, and it is impossible to judge them, it is necessary
to suspend the judgment in regard to external objects.”

Implications of skepticism

It Sextus is right, we can only make claims about what appears to us and never what is.

For example, if I see a red ball, the most I can say is “there appears to me a red ball”, not
“there is a red ball”. I must withhold my judgment as to whether the ball really is red and,
perhaps, even whether there exists a ball at all.

 “I say that the criterion of the Skeptical School is appearance […] no one doubts that an
object appears to be such and such; but we do question whether it is as it appears.”

 “The principle thing in uttering these formulas is that he says what appears to him, and
communicates his own feelings in an unprejudiced way, without asserting anything in
regard to external objects.”