Mechanical Properties of High Strength S690 Steel Welded Sections Through Tensile Tests On Heat-Treated Coupons - ScienceDirect

10/5/22, 1:39 PM Mechanical properties of high strength S690 steel welded sections through tensile tests on heat-treated coupons
coupons - ScienceDirect
Journal of Constructional Steel Research

Volume 166, March 2020, 105922
Mechanical properties of high strength S690 steel welded

sections through tensile tests on heat-treated coupons
Ho-Cheung Ho a, b, Kwok-Fai Chung a, b , Ming-Xin Huang c, David A. Nethercot a, d, Xiao Liu a, b, Hao Jin a, b,
Guo-Dong Wang e, Zhi-Hong Tian f
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2019.105922 Get rights and content
Highlights
• Based on practical welding processes, various heat input energy were specified to
establish parameters of temperature histories, i.e. maximium temperatures and
cooling rates t8/5, for subsequent correlation with changes in microstructures.
• Gleeble ®2000 Thermal Simulation Testing Machine is adopted for thermal-

mechanical physical simulation to produce various types of microstructures within
Heat-Affected-Zones (HAZ) of S690 steels.
• Stress-strain characteristics of various types of microstructures under different

cooling rates are obtained through standard tensile tests, and corresponding
reduction factors for their mechanical properties are determined.
• Images of various types of microstructures are obtained with the use of Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM), and hence, the volumetric fractions of various target
phases of the heat-treated S690 steel coupons are estimated.
• Correlation between microstructures and mechanical properties of the S690 welded

sections is established.
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10/5/22, 1:39 PM Mechanical properties of high strength S690 steel welded sections through tensile tests on heat-treated coupons - ScienceDirect
Abstract
High strength S690 steels achieve their greater strength through heat treatment, the benefits of
which may be to some extent reversed if the steels are subsequently welded. In order to
investigate this, a systematic experimental investigation into the mechanical properties of small
coupons of the S690 steels representing 3 regions within the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the
welded joints produced using temperature-time histories derived from different practical
welding procedures was carried out. By employing specially designed funnel-shaped coupons, it
was possible to generate highly consistent microstructures for the different phases of the
recrystallized S690 steels that are representative of those produced by welding. These
microstructures were identified using scanning electron microscopes to demonstrate an
evolution of microstructure within the HAZ of the welded sections. Using the stress-strain curves
from monotonic tensile tests on these coupons, it has been possible to correlate key features of
various deformation characteristics in the different regions with their corresponding
microstructures. The findings show that the potentially deleterious effects of welding on the
mechanical properties of S690 steel may be substantially reduced through careful control of the
welding process.
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Keywords
High strength steels; Welding; Mechanical properties; Change in microstructures;
Thermal mechanical simulation; Strength and ductility
1. Introduction
High strength steels such as S690 and S960 are modern steel products which possess mechanical
strengths two to three times those of the normal grades such as S355. Because of their excellent
strength-to-self weight ratios they offer a possibility of more effective structural solutions, since
the tonnages needed are potentially only one half or even one third of those of S355 steels. Since
2000, high strength steels have been used in some members of large lifting-equipment,
machinery and offshore structures. However, they have not been widely adopted owing to
potential adverse effects of welding on their microstructures leading to significant reductions in
their mechanical properties [1].
A key difference from the production of normal grade steels, i.e. ferritic or ferritic-pearlitic steels,
is that these enhanced strengths result principally from special treatments used during steel-
making [2], such as Quenching-and-Tempering for QT steels, and Thermal-Mechanically-
Controlled-Process for TM steels, that permit attainment of specific martensitic-ferritic
microstructures which possess more favourable properties in terms of strength, ductility and
toughness. However, subsequent severe heating/cooling cycles during a practical welding process
will trigger phase transition and recrystallization in the heat-affected-zones (HAZ) of welded
joints as illustrated in Fig. 1. Depending on the chemical compositions of the steels, the
maximum temperatures reached during welding, Tmax, and the time for cooling from 800 to
500 °C, t8/5, as shown in Fig. 2, various phases of the QT steels will be formed. Hence, significant
adverse effects on mechanical properties of these welded regions - in particular, at locations
within the HAZ - will result if the heat input energy, q (kJ/mm), during the welding process is not
properly controlled [3].
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Fig. 1. Heat-affected zones in S690 welded sections after a single pass welding.
Fig. 2. Temperature history at various positions of a welded section.
During the past three decades materials scientists and researchers in metallurgy have developed
various methods to conduct microstructure characterization within the HAZ. These methods,
which include dilatometry tests, Vickers hardness measurements, and three dimensional micro-
polycrystal structural analyses using scanning electron microscopes (SEM) and electron
backscattering diffraction color coding (EBSD), can be used to estimate volume fractions of
various phases of recrystallized steels after welding [4,5]. It should be noted that both the
composition and the variety of different phases of the recrystallized steels depend heavily on the
evolution of the microstructures of the steel plates during the continuous heating and cooling
process that is produced by practical welding. Using SEM and EBSD analyses respectively, the
grain size and the orientation of the various phases of the recrystallized steels can be readily
identified. Based on the curves obtained by dilatometry tests, which are widely employed to
measure critical transformation temperatures, the different phases of the recrystallized steels may
be classified using a lever rule [6,7].
In order to determine mechanical properties of the various HAZs present in high strength S690
welded sections, it is important to understand the phase transformation mechanism of these
steels produced by the typical heating and cooling process associated with practical welding.
Reductions in certain mechanical properties of high strength S690 welded sections due to
changes in microstructures [8] have been previously identified by Mayr [9], Ding et al. [10], and
Azhari et al. [11]. Moreover, many materials researchers had carried out systematic experimental
and numerical investigations to correlate mechanical properties of these HAZ using high-fidelity
micro-mechanical models and meso-scale mechanical analyses [12,13].
However, the findings of this materials research are only applicable to certain types of steels with
specific chemical compositions and heat treatments. The mechanical properties of these welded
sections are often expressed in terms of strength and hardness while little information on their
ductility has been reported in the literature.
More recently, a comprehensive experimental and numerical investigation [14] into the welding
effects on the tensile strengths of high strength S690 steel butt joints was reported in which the
temperature history at various positions of the butt joints was measured for calibration of
subsequent thermo-mechanical analyses. While a microstructure evolution was identified at
specific locations of the HAZ of the butt joints through the conventional SEM technique,
hardness was measured systematically to estimate thicknesses of various regions within the HAZ.
A total of five tensile tests on coupons of these butt joints were carried out to provide test data for
calibration of numerical models. Post-heating stress-strain curves of high strength S690 steels
after cooling down from different elevated temperatures were adopted to model structural
responses of these coupons in the tensile tests.
What is currently missing is a direct correlation of reductions in mechanical properties of these

S690 steels with various welding processes. By relating the welding processes to the associated
heating/cooling regime, and thence, to the changes in microstructures, this paper shows how
such a direct process may be established through a systematic scientific investigation on both
material science and structural engineering.
2. Experimental investigations
In order to promote the effective use of high strength S690 steels in construction, it is essential to
examine mechanical properties and structural behaviour of S690 steel members and joints. A
comprehensive research programme of experimental and numerical investigations was
implemented by the authors in 2016 as part of the collaborative research programme of the
Chinese National Research Centre for Steel Construction (Hong Kong Branch). It comprised: i)
mechanical properties of S690 steels after welding and structural behaviour of welded sections
under monotonic and cyclic actions [[15], [16], [17]], ii) cross-sectional resistances of S690 welded
H-sections when used as stocky columns [18], iii) member resistances of S690 welded H-sections
when used as slender columns [[19], [20], [21]], and of S690 welded I-sections when used as
laterally unrestrained beams [22]. From these studies, it became clear that, in many instances,
reductions in key mechanical properties of these S690 welded sections were significantly less
severe than anticipated.
It was also discovered that the current design standards [[23], [24], [25]] contain little guidance on
accounting for the effects of strength reductions caused by the presence of HAZ in high strength
steel welded members and joints, i.e. for steel grades S690 and beyond. Thus, there is a clear need
for soundly based provisions that correctly recognise the magnitude and extent of the reductions
in mechanical properties that result from the practical welding of S690 steels. Ideally, this
guidance should directly link welding procedures to reduced performance. It is believed that the
key to understand this is through knowledge of the microstructural changes.
2.1. Pilot tensile tests on S690 welded sections with various heat input energy
In order to quantify the effects of various levels of heat input energy on the mechanical properties
of S690 steel welded sections, a series of carefully planned and executed standard tensile tests on
cylindrical coupons taken from the welded sections were conducted [16,17]. A robotic welding
system was employed to prepare butt-welded joints between the S690 steel plates with different
heat input energy over 16 mm thick steel plates, and, as shown in Fig. 3, Fig. 12 cylindrical
coupons were then machined from the S690 welded sections, with another 3 reference coupons
being machined from the basic plate while a further 3 reference coupons were machined from
the weld metal for the purpose of providing basic material properties for direct comparison. All
coupons were machined in accordance with BS EN ISO 6892-1:2005 [26] from the same batches of
steel plates; their chemical compositions are listed in Table 1. Consequently, a total of 18
standard cylindrical coupons of the S690 steel plates and welded sections, as shown in Fig. 4, with
four different heat input energy during welding, namely, q = 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 5.0 kJ/mm, were
tested under monotonic tensile actions according to BS EN ISO 6892-1:2005. It was shown that:
a) For those coupons of welded sections with q = 1.0 kJ/mm, two coupons failed with a fracture
located within the HAZ while one coupon failed with a fracture away from the HAZ within the
parallel length; and
b) For those coupons of welded sections with q = 1.5, 2.0 and 5.0 kJ/mm, all fracture occurred
within the HAZ of the welded sections.
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Fig. 3. Preparation of test specimens for a pilot test programme.
Table 1. Chemical compositions of S690 steel plates and welding materials.
Material Chemical composition (%)
C Mn Si S P Cr Ni Mo Cu
S690 steel plate – 0.132 1.38 0.25 0.001 0.010 0.28 0.04 0.24 0.47
Welding material Lincoln 121K3C-H Plus 0.070 1.88 0.29 0.012 0.011 0.07 2.50 0.65 –
Fig. 4. Stress-strain curves of cylindrical coupons of S690 welded sections with different heat
input energy q.
The engineering stress strain curves of these welded sections were plotted onto the same graph
in Fig. 4 for direct comparison. Table 2a) lists key mechanical properties of these coupons, and it
shows how these mechanical properties vary significantly among the coupons in different series.
Reduction factors for various mechanical properties of the S690 welded sections are presented in
Table 2b). It should be noted that.
a) The reduced yield strengths for the welded sections with q = 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 5.0 kJ/mm are
found to be 0.98, 0.90, 0.86 and 0.70 of that of the base plates respectively; and
The reduced tensile strengths for the welded sections with q = 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 5.0 kJ/mm are
b)
found to be 1.00, 0.97, 0.92 and 0.83 of those of the base plates respectively.
Table 2. Summary of tensile test results of welded cylindrical coupons in a pilot study.
a) Mechanical properties
Specimen Heat energy input, q (kJ/mm) E (kN/mm2) fy (N/mm2) fu (N/mm2) fu / fy εL (%)
WS10 series 1.0 208.9 747.8 808.3 1.08 14.2
WS15 series 1.5 210.8 685.9 783.5 1.14 10.0
WS20 series 2.0 207.4 657.2 745.5 1.13 9.4
WS50 series 5.0 203.2 533.2 670.2 1.25 12.5
BP 210.0 760.9 809.5 1.06 18.3
b) Reduction factors for mechanical properties
Specimen Heat energy input, q (kJ/mm) Reduction factors
E fy fu εL
WS10 series 1.0 0.99 0.98 1.00 0.78
WS15 series 1.5 1.00 0.90 0.97 0.55
WS20 series 2.0 0.98 0.86 0.92 0.51
WS50 series 5.0 0.97 0.70 0.83 0.68
Reduction factor for Young modulus=E / E_BP, for yield strength=fy / fy_BP, for tensile strength=fu / fu_BP, for
elongation ratios=εf / εf_BP.
From the information provided in Table 2b), it is evident that reductions in the mechanical
properties of the base plates due to the effect of welding only become significant when q = 5.0
kN/mm. When the values of q are small, these reductions are very modest. In particular, when
q = 1.0 kN/mm, only ductility is reduced. Thus, it is clear that the S690 steels are sensitive to the
heating / cooling cycles during welding, and that, providing the heat input energy is suitably
controlled, then it should be possible to produce welded sections with yield strengths virtually
equal to those of the base plates. It should be noted that although the reduction factors on both
yield and tensile strengths of these welded sections with different heat input energy have been
successfully quantified, this experimental study did not provide a direct scientific explanation in
terms of microstructures for these reductions in mechanical properties.
2.2. Systematic experimental investigations into heat-treated S690 welded sections

In order to understand the effects of welding on the mechanical properties of the high strength
S690 steels, and to correlate their microstructures with the mechanical properties of some typical
phases of recrystallized S690 steels after welding, a collaborative research programme was
undertaken by a team of academics and researchers in structural engineering and metallurgy led
by the Chinese National Engineering Research Centre for Steel Construction (Hong Kong
Branch) since 2016. A systematic experimental investigation into heat-treated coupons of the S690
steels to BS EN 10025–6:2004 [27] under various critical temperature-time curves related to
practical welding was carried out. The project takes the following forms of experimental
investigation:
• Task A Preparation of heat-treated S690 steel coupons
Based on practical welding processes for structural steelwork, various heat input energy were
specified to establish parameters of temperature-time curves for subsequent correlation with
changes in microstructures. These temperature-time curves were adopted in a thermal
mechanical physical simulation system to produce heat-treated S690 coupons with highly
consistent microstructures of typical phases.
• Task B Monotonic tensile tests
Monotonic tensile tests were conducted on a total of 18 heat-treated and 2 reference coupons,
and full range deformation characteristics were obtained using high precision instruments.
Mechanical properties of these heat-treated specimens were then compared with those of the
reference coupons. Ductility was compared on the basis of elongations at fracture.
• Task C Changes in microstructures and mechanical properties
Images of microstructures of these heat-treated and deformed coupons were obtained using
scanning electronic microscopes, and direct comparisons were made with those of the S690
steel plates. The deformation characteristics of the various phases of the recrystallized S690
steels within typical heat affected zones of the welded sections with different heat input
energy during welding are compared.
Table 3 summarizes the test programme in which a total of 18 specially designed funnel-shaped
coupons of the S690 steel plates were heat-treated according to various temperature-time curves,
and all of these 18 heat-treated coupons and 2 reference coupons were tested to failure under
monotonic tensile loading.
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Table 3. Programme for heat-treatment to S690 steel coupons.
Coupons q Simulated Heating rate Tmax (°C) ttop t8/5 (seconds)

(kJ/mm) HAZ (°C/s) (second)
Required Measured Required Measured
H10- 1.0 HAZ-HT 100 1320 1322 1 5.49 5.0
T1320
1337 4.6
H10-
T1320/1
H10- HAZ-MT 100 1050 1057 1 5.49 5.5
T1050
1068 5.5
H10-
T1050/1
H10- HAZ-LT 100 800 810 1 5.49 5.5
T0800
817 5.5
H10-
T0800/1
H15- 1.5 HAZ-HT 100 1320 1337 1 12.36 12.4
T1320
1327 12.4
H15-
T1320/1
H15- HAZ-MT 100 1050 1065 1 12.36 12.4
T1050
1072 12.4
H15-
T1050/1
H15- HAZ-LT 100 800 805 1 12.36 12.4
T0800
806 12.4
H15-
T0800/1
H20- 2.0 HAZ-HT 100 1320 1327 1 21.97 22.0
T1320
1342 22.0
H20-
T1320/1
Coupons q Simulated Heating rate Tmax (°C) ttop t8/5 (seconds)

(kJ/mm) HAZ (°C/s) (second)
Required Measured Required Measured
H20- HAZ-MT 100 1050 1056 1 21.97 22.0
T1050
1070 22.0
H20-
T1050/1
H20- HAZ-LT 100 800 808 1 21.97 22.0
T0800
820 22.0
H20-
T0800/1
H00-BP
– – – – – – – –
H00-BP/1
Note: Two coupons are heat-treated according to each of the specific temperature-time curve.
It should be noted that the areas of interest of the present investigation are:
• Changes in microstructures of the S690 steel plates after exposure to various temperature-
time curves;
• Stress-strain curves of typical phases of the heat-treated S690 steel funnel-shaped coupons
under monotonic tensile forces;
• Comparisons among stress-strain curves for typical phases of the recrystallized S690 steels
within the heat affected zones in welded sections having different heat input energy during
welding; and
• Reductions in the mechanical properties of the S690 steel welded sections.
Fig. 5 gives the dimensions of the funnel-shaped coupons. All coupons are machined in
accordance with ISO 12106:2003 [28] from the same batches of steel plates using a high precision
computer numerical control system. It should be noted that they are designed in such a way that
significant deformation would only take place at the central portions of the coupons where their
cross-sectional areas are the smallest. These coupons have been adopted previously in various
cyclic tests on S690 steels by a number of researchers [[29], [30], [31], [32], [33]]. Both the shape of
the coupons and their gauge lengths taken for data analysis are very different from those of
standard cylindrical coupons. As the critical cross sections of these funnel-shaped coupons are
always at the central portions with the minimum cross-sectional areas, these test data correspond
directly to the typical phases of the recrystallized S690 steels under specific heat treatments.
Fig. 5. Nominal dimensions of a standard funnel-shaped S690 steel coupon.
3. Preparation of heat-treated S690 steel coupons

In the present project, a thermal mechanical physical simulation using a Gleeble® 2000 Thermal
Simulation Testing Machine, as shown in Fig. 6, was performed to produce microstructures of
typical phases of the recrystallized S690 steels which are present within the heat affected zones
(HAZ) of a welded connection. Table 3 presents both the required maximum temperatures, Tmax,
and the required cooling rates t8/5 from 800 to 500 °C used as input to the Simulator. The values
of Tmax are selected after a comprehensive review of the literature [2] to correspond directly to the
representative microstructures of interest in the present investigation.
Fig. 6. Heat treatment to a funnel-shaped S690 steel coupon.
It should be noted that thermal expansion in the coupons was restrained during heating as well
as during cooling. This was the same condition as in practical welding as all steel plates are
restrained for welding. Temperatures at the centerlines of the coupons were measured with
thermocouples for monitoring of the temperature-time curves generated by the Simulator. Fig. 7
plots typical measured temperature-time curves obtained during heat-treatment of the S690 steel
coupons with different values of Tmax and t8/5. All the measured values of Tmax and t8/5 are
presented in Table 3 for direct comparison with the required values, and it is shown that these
values of Tmax and t8/5 have been successfully achieved within very small errors. Fig. 8 illustrates
some of the coupons after heat-treatment.
Fig. 7. Temperature-time curves for heat-treated S690 steel coupons.
Fig. 8. Funnel-shaped S690 steel coupons after heat treatment.
Temperature variations within the coupons were measured with a high precision infra-red
camera. Fig. 9 illustrates thermal images for the coupons with different values of Tmax and t8/5. In
each case, the temperature-time curves at 0, ±2.5 and ± 5.0 mm to the centerline of the coupons
obtained from the infra-red camera are also compared with those obtained from the
thermocouples. It is shown that a good comparison between these two sets of measured
temperatures is obtained. It is also evident that the temperature distribution within the central
portion of the coupon, i.e. from - 2.5 mm to +2.5 mm from its centerline, is highly uniform, and
hence, the microstructure within the central portion of the coupon is correspondingly uniform.
Consequently, the target phases of the microstructures of the S690 steels are readily produced at
the minimum cross sections of the funnel-shaped coupons.
Fig. 9. Measured temperature-time curves of heat-treated S690 steel coupons.
INSTRON 8803 Servo-hydraulic Fatigue Testing System.
4. Monotonic tensile tests on heat-treated S690 steel coupons

After successful production of the heat-treated coupons with different typical phases of the
microstructures of the re-crystallized S690 steels, monotonic tensile tests on all the 18 heat-
treated and 2 reference coupons were conducted to obtain their mechanical properties. The test
procedures are in compliance with a widely adopted testing standard BS EN ISO 6892-1:2005. It
should be noted that the gauge length is taken as twice the diameter of the test coupons, i.e. 2
d = 10 mm. Hence, an extensometer with a gauge length of 10.00 mm and an accuracy of 0.001 mm
was used for engineering strain measurements as well as a straining rate control during the tests.
All the tensile tests were conducted using a high precision testing machine, INSTRON 8803
Servohydraulic Fatigue Testing system, as shown in Fig. 10. All the tensile tests have been
conducted successfully, and details of the experimental results are presented in the following
sections.
Fig. 10. General view of test set-up for monotonic tensile tests.
4.1. Typical failure

Fig. 11 presents a typical failure mode for the heat-treated coupons. It is evident that fracture of
the steel coupons is initiated at their cores, and shear failure takes place in the surrounding steel
materials at large deformations. Thus, the use of the funnel-shaped coupons has been
demonstrated as being effective in achieving deformation characteristics for these different
phases of the recrystallized S690 steels. As all these coupons have deformed over and fractured at
their central portions with the minimum cross-sectional areas under tension, this allows direct
comparison of the measured deformation characteristics between all these coupons. Photos of all
these coupons after fracture are shown in Fig. 12.
Fig. 11. Typical failure mode of heat-treated S690 steel coupons.
Fig. 12. All heat-treated S690 steel coupons after fracture.
4.2. Deformation characteristics of heat-treated coupons

Fig. 13 plots the measured stress-strain characteristics for all the coupons, with those having the
same values of Tmax but different values of t8/5, and hence, different heat input energy q, being
plotted onto the same graphs. Each graph also provides the characteristic of the reference
coupons for direct comparison. These show that:
a) All the stress-strain curves of the heat-treated coupons exhibit similar patterns in terms of
strength with the smaller the values of the heat input energy, q, and hence, the values of t8/5,
the higher both the yield and the tensile strengths, i.e. fy and fu.
b) In general, both the yield and the tensile strengths of the heat-treated coupons with
Tmax = 1320 and 1050 °C are shown to be significantly larger than those of the reference
coupons. However, both the yield and the tensile strengths of those heat-treated coupons with
Tmax = 800 °C are found to be lower than those with Tmax = 1320 and 1050 °C. This provides
strong evidence of a change in both the mechanical properties and the deformation
characteristics of these coupons owing to the effect of the heat-treatments.
c) For those heat-treated coupons with Tmax = 800 °C, reductions in their mechanical properties
are evident, and their deformation characteristics exhibit significant softening towards
yielding, when compared with those of the reference coupons. Hence, their yield strengths, fy,
according to the 0.2% proof strengths, are reduced when compared with that of the reference
coupons. Nevertheless, their tensile strengths, fu, are somehow close to that of the reference
coupons with only small reductions.
d) Ductility in all these coupons does not exhibit a definite relationship with the values of t8/5, as
the elongations at fracture, εL, of all these heat-treated coupons are found to range from a
minimum value of 19% to a maximum value of 26%, i.e. εL ≥ 10% in the funnel-shaped
coupons. These strains are measured over a gauge length of 2 d, where d is the minimum
diameter.
Fig. 13. Measured stress-strain curves of the heat-treated S690 steel coupons.
a) Reduction factors for yield strength fy.
b) Reduction factors for heat-treated coupons: tensile strength fu.
c) Reduction factors for heat-treated coupons: elongation at fracture εL.
4.3. Mechanical properties and their reduction factors

Table 4a) summarizes the mechanical properties of all these heat-treated coupons together with
those of the reference coupons. Reduction factors for Young's modulus, both the yield and the
tensile strengths, and the elongations at fracture of the heat-treated coupons, at various heat
input energy, are presented in Table 4b). These reduction factors are plotted in Fig. 14 for easy
comparison. It should be noted that:
a) The reduction factors for the yield strengths, fy, of these heat-treated coupons with
Tmax = 800 °C are found to be 0.78, 0.72 and 0.69 with q = 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 kJ/mm respectively.
This indicates there is a significant softening in each of these recrystallized S690 steels when
they are under tension.
b) However, the reduction factors for the tensile strengths, fu, of these heat-treated coupons with
Tmax = 800 °C are found to be 1.06, 0.99 and 0.96 with q = 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 kJ/mm respectively.
Hence, there is no reduction in the tensile strength fu of the coupons with Tmax = 800 °C and
q = 1.0 kJ/mm while there is only a small reduction, i.e. < 5%, in the tensile strength fu of the
heat-treated coupons with Tmax = 800 °C and q = 1.5 and 2.0 kJ/mm.
c) The reduction factors for the elongations at fracture, εL, of these heat-treated coupons with
various Tmax and q are found to range from 0.86 to 1.14, and this indicates that there are only
limited adverse effects on ductility in these recrystallized S690 steels, when compared with
those on their strengths.
Table 4. Summary of tensile test results of heat-treated S690 coupons.
a) Mechanical properties
Coupons q Tmax t8/5 Simulated E fy fu fu / εL (%)

(kJ/mm) (°C) (s) HAZ (kN/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) fy
H10- 1.0 1320 4.8 HAZ-HT 209 940 1207 1.28 21.0
T1320
H10- 1050 5.5 HAZ-MT 207 904 1232 1.36 22.0

T1050
H10- 800 5.5 HAZ-LT 195 607 887 1.46 26.1

T0800
H15- 1.5 1320 12.4 HAZ-HT 215 902 1101 1.22 19.5
T1320
H15- 1050 12.4 HAZ-MT 211 861 1124 1.30 21.0

T1050
H15- 800 12.4 HAZ-LT 192 563 831 1.48 22.5

T0800
H20- 2.0 1320 22.0 HAZ-HT 208 753 944 1.25 21.9
T1320
H20- 1050 22.0 HAZ-MT 205 776 1010 1.30 21.2

T1050
H20- 800 22.0 HAZ-LT 186 539 804 1.49 23.7

T0800
H00-BP – – – – 210 780 838 1.10 22.8
b) Reduction factors for mechanical properties
Coupons q (kJ/mm) Tmax (°C) t8/5 (s) Simulated HAZ Reduction factors α
E fy fu εL
H10-T1320 1.0 1320 4.8 HAZ-HT 0.995 1.21 1.44 0.92
H10-T1050 1050 5.5 HAZ-MT 0.986 1.16 1.47 0.96
H10-T0800 800 5.5 HAZ-LT 0.928 0.78 1.06 1.14
H15-T1320 1.5 1320 12.4 HAZ-HT 1.024 1.16 1.31 0.86
H15-T1050 1050 12.4 HAZ-MT 1.005 1.10 1.34 0.92
H15-T0800 800 12.4 HAZ-LT 0.914 0.72 0.99 0.99
H20-T1320 2.0 1320 22.0 HAZ-HT 0.990 0.97 1.13 0.96
H20-T1050 1050 22.0 HAZ-MT 0.976 0.99 1.21 0.93
H20-T0800 800 22.0 HAZ-LT 0.886 0.69 0.96 1.04
Note: Each data is an average of two test results of the heat-treated coupons under monotonic tensile tests.
Reduction factor for Young modulus=E / E_BP, for yield strength = fy / fy_BP, for tensile strength = fu / fu_BP, for
elongation ratios = εf / εf_BP.
Fig. 14. Reduction factors for mechanical properties of heat-treated S690 steels.
In simple terms, there is virtually no reduction in both the yield and the tensile strengths of these
heat-treated coupons with Tmax = 1320 and 1050 °C irrespective of the different heat input energy
q during welding. However, reductions in the yield and the tensile strengths of these heat-treated
coupons with Tmax = 800 °C are significant, especially in the yield strengths, for various heat input
energy q during welding.
5. Examination of microstructures of heat-treated S690 steel coupons after

testing
It is important to establish effectiveness of the heat-treatment in generating highly consistent
microstructures of typical phases of the S690 steels which are present within the HAZ of the
welded sections under various values of Tmax and t8/5. Hence, images of the microstructures
obtained with the use of scanning electron microscopes (SEM) for 3 different locations of a
typical heat-treated S690 steel coupon were obtained, and Fig. 15 illustrates typical
microstructures at 0, 2.5 and 5.0 mm from the centerline of the coupon. It is shown that the
microstructures at both locations being 0 and 2.5 mm from the centerline of the coupon are very
similar to each other, but distinctively different from that at 5.0 mm from the centerline of the
coupon. Consequently, it is evident that the proposed heat-treatment is able to generate
consistent microstructures within the central portions of the coupons.
Fig. 15. Variations in microstructures of heat-treated S690 steel coupons.
In order to identify the microstructures in the immediate vicinity of the fractured cross-sections
of the heat-treated and deformed coupons, the fractured cross-sections were machined and
polished carefully. Images of the microstructures of the polished cross-sections of the coupons
were obtained with the use of SEM, and Fig. 16, Fig. 17, Fig. 18 illustrate these SEM images of
various coupons together with that of one of the reference coupons, namely Coupon H00-BP. It
should be noted that the volumetric fractions of various target phases of the heat-treated S690
steels were estimated [34] with reference to a continuous cooling transformation phase diagram
which was drawn according to measured results of typical dilatometry tests. Refer to Reference
[35] for details of a dilatometry test.
Fig. 16. Microstructures of recrystallized S690 steel under different Tmax with q = 1.0 kJ/mm
during welding.
during welding.
during welding.
This reveals that:

• The microstructures of both Coupons H10-T1320 and H10-T1050 provided in Fig. 16 have a
microstructure comprising >96% martensite together with bainite and carbide. Hence, their
mechanical properties, in particular, both their yield and tensile strengths, fy and fu, are
expected to be very high. However, the microstructure of Coupon H10-T800 consists of about
58% martensite together with 42% ferrite. Both its yield and tensile strengths are expected to
be significantly smaller than those of Coupons H10-T1320 and H10-T1050.
• A similar comparison on the martensitic microstructures of both Coupons H15-T1320 and

H15-T1050 with those of Coupon H15-T800 presented in Fig. 17 shows that the
microstructure of Coupon H15-T800 consists of about 54% martensite together with 46%
ferrite, and hence, both its yield and tensile strengths are expected to be significantly smaller
than those of Coupons H15-T1320 and H15-T1050.
• In Fig. 18, comparing the microstructures of Coupons H20-T1320, H20-T1050 and H20-T800
shows that the microstructure of Coupon H20-T800 consists of about 51% martensite
together with 49% ferrite. Hence, both its yield and tensile strengths are expected to be
significantly smaller than those of Coupons H20-T1320 and H20-T1050 for which their
microstructures are predominantly martensite, i.e. 90% martensite together with bainite and
carbide.
In general, the HAZ are composed of various phases of recrystallized steels after heating and
cooling cycles induced by welding:
a) Martensite is a very strong lath-shaped microstructure crystallized under high cooling rates,
i.e. when t8/5 ranges from 5 to 30 s. In general, its tensile strength is at least equal to
1200 N/mm2, while its ductility is rather low, i.e. the elongation at fracture εL ranges from 5 to
10%.
b) Bainite is a strong plate-like microstructure crystallized under moderate cooling rates, i.e.
when t8/5 ranges from 25 to 180 s. This microstructure is analogous in appearance to tempered
martensite, which has a reduced strength but an improved ductility.
c) Carbides are formed with various arrangements of free carbon atoms among the iron crystals
as either Pearlite or Bainite. Under low cooling rates, i.e. when t8/5 ≥ 180 s, the carbon atoms
diffuse out from the parent crystal, and then precipitate around the crystal boundaries to
form ferrite, and this process is known as tempering. In general, the tensile strength of ferrite
ranges from 120 to 280 N/mm2, depending on the Carbon and the Manganese contents, and
their ductility is very high, i.e. εL ≥ 120%.
Therefore, the mechanical properties of the HAZ depend on the volumetric fractions of various
phases of recrystallized steel under different cooling rates t8/5. This study demonstrates a typical
microstructure evolution taken place in the HAZ along the direction of heat transfer with details
on both microstructure compositions and mechanical properties.
5.1. Microstructures and mechanical properties of welded sections

By arranging the images of the microstructures of various typical phases of the heat-treated S690
steel coupons according to the heat input energy q during welding with decreasing maximum
temperatures Tmax in Fig. 19, a schematic illustration on evolution of the microstructures in
various regions of the HAZ in the S690 steel welded sections is generated. For ease of illustration,
only three distinctive regions with decreasing maximum temperatures during welding are
identified, namely regions HAZ-HT, HAZ-MT and HAZ-LT. It should be noted that:
• For the regions of HAZ-HT and HAZ-MT, the microstructures in the vicinity of the fusion
lines of the welded sections are predominantly martensite under different heat input energy q
during welding. Hence, these two regions are shown to be significantly stronger than the base
plates.
• However, for the regions of HAZ-LT, they consist of martensite as well as a significant
proportion of ferrite in the HAZ away from the fusion lines of the welded sections. Hence,
this region is expected to be the weakest within the HAZ of the welded sections, and fracture
may take place depending on the value of the heat input energy, q, during welding.

Fig. 19. Evolution of microstructures in different HAZ of S690 steel welded sections.
In order to correlate the microstructures and the corresponding mechanical properties within
the HAZ of a S690 steel welded section, the stress-strain curves for those coupons with the same
heat input energy, and hence, the same cooling rates t8/5, but with different maximum
temperatures, Tmax, are plotted onto the same graphs in Fig. 20, i.e. Fig. 20a), 20b) and 20c) for
t8/5 = 5.5, 12.4 and 22.0 s respectively. In each of these graphs, these curves represent the
deformation characteristics of various typical phases of the recrystallized S690 steels generated at
various locations within the HAZ of the welded sections, i.e. regions HAZ-HT, −MT and -LT. It
should be noted that:
• In all these three graphs, the deformation characteristics of these typical phases of the
recrystallized S690 steels with Tmax = 1320 and 1050 °C, i.e. Coupons H10-T1320 and -T1050,
Coupons H15-T1320 and -T1050, and Coupons H20-T1320 and -T1050, are found to be
superior to those of the reference coupon, i.e. Coupon H00-BP, because of significant changes
in their microstructures into high volumetric fraction martensitic steels at these
temperatures.
• By comparing the deformation characteristics of these typical phases of the recrystallized S690
steels with Tmax = 800 °C, i.e. Coupons H10-T800, H15-T800 and H20-T800, with that of the
reference coupon, i.e. Coupon H00-BP, it is found that they tend to have reduced yield and
tensile strengths because of significant changes in their microstructures into martensitic-
ferritic steels at that temperature.
Fig. 20. Stress-strain curves of S690 steel welded sections with different heat input energy q.
Hence, the mechanical properties of three typical locations within the HAZ of the S690 welded
sections after various welding processes have been obtained in this study so that a correlation
between the microstructures and their mechanical properties has been established. These
deformation characteristics may be adopted as typical (or minimum) data to give modified
mechanical properties of typical phases of the recrystallized steels located within the HAZ of the
S690 steel welded sections.
It will be highly desirable to acquire similar correlations at more locations within the HAZ
according to specific microstructure evolution. These data will facilitate development of a
detailed constitutive material model to describe the structural behavior of these welded sections
formed with various welding processes.
6. Conclusions
Unlike conventional normal grade steels, i.e. ferritic or ferritic-pearlitic steels, the microstructure
of high strength S690 steels will change from martensitic steels into martensitic-ferritic steels
with different volume fractions of various phases depending on the maximum temperature, Tmax,
and cooling rate t8/5 under different heat input energy during practical welding processes. This
study provides scientific evidence on such an evolution in the microstructures of these S690
steels under different heat input energy during welding. Moreover, the corresponding modified
deformation characteristics of typical phases of recrystallized steels located within the heat-
affected zones of the S690 steel welded sections, in particular, both yield and tensile strengths as
well as ductility, are fully presented. It should be noted that:
a) In the S690 steel welded sections, martensitic steels with high strengths are formed in the
vicinity of the fusion line of welding, i.e. the region HAZ-HT of high temperatures (typical of
1320 °C), and the region HAZ-MT of medium temperatures (typical of 1050 °C) within the HAZ
during practical welding processes. However, martensitic-ferritic steels with reduced
mechanical properties are also formed in the region HAZ-LT of low temperatures (typical of
800 °C) which are far away from the fusion line of welding. Hence, a weak zone always exists
within the HAZ of the welded sections which controls the overall mechanical properties of the
welded sections.
b) The deformation characteristics of specially devised funnel-shaped coupons of the S690 steels
heat-treated under various maximum temperatures Tmax and cooling rates t8/5 have been
obtained through tensile tests. These deformation characteristics may be adopted as typical
(or minimum) data to give modified mechanical properties of typical phases of the
recrystallized steels located within the HAZ of the S690 steel welded sections. Reduction
factors for both yield and tensile strengths, and elongation limits are provided in a tabulated
format.
c) The use of the heat-treated funnel-shaped coupons is considered to be highly effective in

achieving i) specific and consistent microstructures, and ii) distinctive deformation
characteristics of typical phases of the recrystallized steels located within the HAZ of the S690
steel welded sections. Both their microstructures and the corresponding deformation
characteristics are readily applicable for both scientific analyses and engineering applications.
Many scientific research and investigations into the mechanical properties of HAZ and different
phases of martensitic steel have been conducted in the past few decades to provide scientific
understanding and technical data on the relationship between microstructures of high strength
steels and their corresponding mechanical properties. This paper reports such an attempt made
on the S690-QT steels as part of a collaborative research programme led by the CNERC to
promote effective use of high strength steels in construction. Key results of the paper will be
adopted to develop numerical tools to assess structural behavior as well as to design for structural
adequacy of the S690 steel welded sections.
Declaration of Competing Interest

The project leading to publication of this paper is partially funded by the Research Grants
Council of the Government of Hong Kong SAR and the Research Committee of the Hong Kong
Polytechnic University. Both technical and financial supports from the Chinese National
Engineering Research Centre for Steel Construction (Hong Kong Branch) of the Hong Kong
Polytechnic University are also gratefully acknowledged.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the financial support provided by the Research Grants Council of the
Government of Hong Kong SAR (Project Nos. 152194/15E, 152687/16E, and 152231/17E). The
author leading to the publication of this paper was also partially funded by the Chinese National
Engineering Research Centre for Steel Construction (Hong Kong Branch) (Project Nos. 1-BBY3 &
BBY6) of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The research studentship of the third author
provided by the Research Committee of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University is acknowledged
(Project No. RTK3).
Special thanks go to the Nanjing Iron and Steel Company Ltd. in Nanjing in supplying the S690-
QT steels. It is highly appreciated that all thermal mechanical physical simulations were
conducted at the State Key Laboratory of Rolling and Automation of the Northeastern University
in Shenyang, and the Shougang Research Institute of Technology in Beijing, whilst TEM were
conducted at the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Hong Kong.
All structural tests on high strength S690 steels were conducted at the Structural Engineering
Research Laboratory of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, and supports from the technicians are gratefully acknowledged.
Recommended articles
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10/5/22, 1:39 PM Mechanical properties of high strength S690 steel welded sections through tensile tests on heat-treated coupons

Journal of Constructional Steel Research

Mechanical properties of high strength S690 steel welded

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2019.105922 Get rights and content

• Gleeble ®2000 Thermal Simulation Testing Machine is adopted for thermal-

• Stress-strain characteristics of various types of microstructures under different

• Correlation between microstructures and mechanical properties of the S690 welded

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Fig. 2. Temperature history at various positions of a welded section.

What is currently missing is a direct correlation of reductions in mechanical properties of these

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Fig. 3. Preparation of test specimens for a pilot test programme.

Table 1. Chemical compositions of S690 steel plates and welding materials.

Material Chemical composition (%)

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Specimen Heat energy input, q (kJ/mm) E (kN/mm2) fy (N/mm2) fu (N/mm2) fu / fy εL (%)

WS10 series 1.0 208.9 747.8 808.3 1.08 14.2

WS15 series 1.5 210.8 685.9 783.5 1.14 10.0

WS20 series 2.0 207.4 657.2 745.5 1.13 9.4

WS50 series 5.0 203.2 533.2 670.2 1.25 12.5

BP 210.0 760.9 809.5 1.06 18.3

b) Reduction factors for mechanical properties

Specimen Heat energy input, q (kJ/mm) Reduction factors

WS10 series 1.0 0.99 0.98 1.00 0.78

WS15 series 1.5 1.00 0.90 0.97 0.55

WS20 series 2.0 0.98 0.86 0.92 0.51

WS50 series 5.0 0.97 0.70 0.83 0.68

2.2. Systematic experimental investigations into heat-treated S690 welded sections

• Task B Monotonic tensile tests

• Task C Changes in microstructures and mechanical properties

Table 3. Programme for heat-treatment to S690 steel coupons.

Coupons q Simulated Heating rate Tmax (°C) ttop t8/5 (seconds)

H10- 1.0 HAZ-HT 100 1320 1322 1 5.49 5.0

H10- HAZ-MT 100 1050 1057 1 5.49 5.5

H10- HAZ-LT 100 800 810 1 5.49 5.5

H15- 1.5 HAZ-HT 100 1320 1337 1 12.36 12.4

H15- HAZ-MT 100 1050 1065 1 12.36 12.4

H15- HAZ-LT 100 800 805 1 12.36 12.4

H20- 2.0 HAZ-HT 100 1320 1327 1 21.97 22.0

Coupons q Simulated Heating rate Tmax (°C) ttop t8/5 (seconds)

H20- HAZ-MT 100 1050 1056 1 21.97 22.0

H20- HAZ-LT 100 800 808 1 21.97 22.0

• Reductions in the mechanical properties of the S690 steel welded sections.

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Fig. 5. Nominal dimensions of a standard funnel-shaped S690 steel coupon.

3. Preparation of heat-treated S690 steel coupons

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Fig. 6. Heat treatment to a funnel-shaped S690 steel coupon.

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Fig. 7. Temperature-time curves for heat-treated S690 steel coupons.

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Fig. 8. Funnel-shaped S690 steel coupons after heat treatment.

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Fig. 9. Measured temperature-time curves of heat-treated S690 steel coupons.

INSTRON 8803 Servo-hydraulic Fatigue Testing System.

4. Monotonic tensile tests on heat-treated S690 steel coupons

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4.1. Typical failure

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Fig. 11. Typical failure mode of heat-treated S690 steel coupons.

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