Exploring MPLS

EXPLORING MPLS
IP CONVERGENCE CURRICULUM
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IP Convergence & IMS
[IPC_103] Welcome to IP Networking (e)........................... 3 hrs
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[IPC_106] Overview of MPLS (e)......................................3.5 hrs
[IPC_107] Overview of IMS (e)..........................................2.5 hrs
[IPC_108] Voice and Video over IP (VoIP) Overview (e)..... 3 hrs
[IPC_109] IP Quality of Service (QoS) (e)............................ 3 hrs
[IPC_110] Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) (e)................... 2 hrs
[IPC_114] IP Basics (e)..........................................................1 hr
[IPC_113] IP Routing (e)........................................................1 hr
[IPC_115] QoS in IP Networks (e).........................................1 hr
[IPC_117] TCP and Transport Layer Protocols (e)................1 hr
[IPC_119] Ethernet Basics (e)...............................................1 hr
[IPC_118] Ethernet VLANs (e)...............................................1 hr
[IPC_116] Ethernet Bridging (e)............................................1 hr
[IPC_122] Ethernet Backhaul Overview (e)........................ 3 hrs
[IPC_120] Interconnecting IP Networks (e)..........................1 hr
[IPC_121] Welcome to IPv6 (e).............................................1 hr

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Prologue 1
Chapter 2: IP Foundation for MPLS 9
Communications Overview 11
IP Routing and Forwarding 13
IP in ATM vs. MPLS Networks 19
Chapter 3: Introduction to MPLS 25
IP Routing and Forwarding 27
MPLS Label Switching 35
Chapter 4: MPLS Networks 49
MPLS Network Components 51
Label Switched Path 56
Chapter 5: MPLS Labels 63
MPLS Label Structure 65
MPLS Label Binding 69
MPLS Label Distribution 81
Label Swapping and Forwarding 89
Chapter 6: MPLS Protocols 97
New MPLS Protocols 99
LDP 101
RSVP 106
BGP and MP-BGP 110
Chapter 7: MPLS and QoS 115
Motivation for QoS 117
DiffServ in MPLS 120
Chapter 8: MPLS and Traffic Engineering 131
Motivation for Traffic Engineering 133
Traffic Engineering 137
Traffic Engineering Process 142
Fast Re-Route 148
Chapter 9: MPLS Virtual Private Networks 155
Virtual Private Networks Overview 157
L2VPN 160
L3VPN 163
Acronyms 173
References 177
IPC_203 Version 4.4

1 | Prologue
Chapter 1:
Prologue
Award Solutions Proprietary
1
1 | Prologue
Objectives
After completing this module you will be able to:
• Identify the issues that MPLS addresses
• Identify the functions of various elements in the
MPLS network
• Distinguish between different methods used to
distribute MPLS labels
• Explain how the Label Switch Path (LSP) is set up
and how packets are forwarded through it
• Describe the key MPLS Applications
• Explain how MPLS is applied to traffic engineering,
QoS, and VPNs
2
1 | Prologue
Evolving Internet
More
Addresses New
Better
Applications
Security
New Routing
Mobility Architectures
Fast Packet Guaranteed

Forwarding QoS
More
Capacity for
Scalability
High Traffic
Manageability
The Internet has evolved from an early 1980s research

network into today’s multi-service, commercial network.
The number of users on the Internet doubles every three
months thereby increasing the bandwidth requirements
exponentially. New applications such as eCommerce,
Internet telephony, video broadcasts, and Virtual Private
Networks (VPN) are provided on the Internet.
Unfortunately, the Internet architecture designed in the
1980s is no longer sufficient to support these new
applications.
The requirements of these applications are shown in the
figure. Enhancements to the Internet architecture and
new technologies were designed throughout the 1990s to
support these applications. Technologies such as IPSec,
IPv6, and Mobile IP are being added to the Internet.
3
1 | Prologue
Role of MPLS
New Routing
Architectures
Fast Packet
Forwarding Guaranteed
QoS
More
Scalability Capacity for
High Traffic
Manageability
Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) belongs to the

group of technologies that supports the new applications.
MPLS is designed to make the Internet fast, scalable,
manageable, able to carry heavy traffic, support QoS and
support new routing architectures. In this course we will
discuss MPLS technology what it provides and how it
supports these requirements.
4
1 | Prologue
Where is MPLS Deployed?

National
Backbone
Regional Regional
Network Network
Enterprise Enterprise
Network Network
Maybe MPLS Maybe
IP
It is a reality that MPLS is not going to be deployed

throughout the Internet. The MPLS solution is suited for
backbone networks. This is where most IP routing issues
exist today. Backbone networks need a scalable, flexible
and easily deployable routing solution. Service providers
want to deploy new services such as VPN, traffic
engineering and QoS rapidly in their networks. MPLS is a
clear choice for deployment in the service provider’s
backbone IP networks.
While MPLS can be deployed in enterprise, cable and
other networks, it does not add much value. In enterprise
networks we still use advanced IP forwarding mechanisms
to forward packets.
Generally speaking, MPLS is deployed on backbone
networks, not on desktops.
5
1 | Prologue
The Big Picture

MPLS
Backbone Network
Swap MPLS Forwarding
MPLS Forwarding
MPLS
MPLS Forwarding
MPLS Regional Network
Regional Network
Pop or Dispose
Push or Impose
Enterprise
Enterprise IP Forwarding
IP Forwarding Award Solutions Proprietary
The picture illustrates how a packet is forwarded using IP

forwarding and MPLS forwarding. MPLS is deployed in the
backbone and regional networks, so MPLS forwarding is
used in these networks. IP forwarding is used in the
enterprise networks.
Typically, as shown in the figure, an IP packet originates
from a desktop PC in the enterprise network and is
forwarded using IP forwarding techniques. Assuming that
the regional network to which the enterprise network is
connected implements MPLS forwarding, the IP packet is
forwarded using MPLS forwarding techniques. In this way
the IP packet is forwarded through the regional network,
the backbone network and through another regional
network, all of which use MPLS forwarding. When the IP
packet enters the destination enterprise network it is once
again forwarded using IP forwarding.
In chapter three we will discuss IP forwarding and MPLS
forwarding.
6
1 | Prologue
MPLS Course In a Nutshell

Basic Tools and Concepts
MPLS Applications • Separate Control and Data Planes
• L2VPN (Pseudowire, VPLS) • Labels
• L3VPN – Label Distribution
• QoS – Label Forwarding Information Base (LFIB)
• Traffic Engineering – Label Switched Paths (LSP)
• Forwarding Equivalency Class (FEC)
• Fault Recovery (BFD)
• Multiprotocol (L2 and L3)
MPLS Network Components Key Protocols
• LER (PE), LSR (P), CE, C • IP Routing (OSPF, BGP, MP-BGP)
• MPLS “Domain” • LDP
• Label-Switched Paths (LSP) • RSVP-TE
MPLS
IP ATM, FR
Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a packet- The term “Multi-Protocol” means that MPLS is a
switching forwarding protocol designed to enhance the single solution that supports many different Layer 2
functionality of existing routing and switching and Layer 3 protocols.
technologies. MPLS does not function as a stand-alone
• MPLS Network Components: An MPLS Domain
protocol, but must couple with some other routing or
describes a network that is distinct from its
switching protocol (e.g., IP or ATM). Although MPLS may be
surrounding networks and has its own set of rules
used in an ATM or Frame Relay network, the primary focus
and nodes. At the edge of the MPLS domain, and
is to describe how MPLS and IP work together to deliver a
connecting to the outside world, are Label Edge
high quality packet switching service. As a result, the
Routers (LERs), also called Provider Edge (PE).
following MPLS topics will be covered:
Customers connect to the LER or PE MPLS routers
• Basic Tools and Concepts: Like most communication from a non-MPLS Customer Edge (CE) router in the
technologies, MPLS is based on separate control and customer domain. Special processes are required to
data planes. The control plane develops the define the communication between the CE and PE
foundation for packet forwarding and the data plane routers. In the core of the MPLS network are Label
simply forwards “labeled” packets. Using the labeling Switched Routers (LSRs), also called Provider (P). A
concepts, incoming traffic is classified into Forwarding Label Switched Path (LSP) is defined from one LER
Equivalency Classes (FECs) and the network across the MPLS P routers in the MPLS network to an
treatment depends upon which FEC the packet is LER on the other side of the MPLS domain. This is
assigned to. used to transport customer-labeled packets across
the MPLS network.
7
1 | Prologue
MPLS Course In a Nutshell (continued)

Basic Tools and Concepts
MPLS Applications • Separate Control and Data Planes
• L2VPN (Pseudowire, VPLS) • Labels FIB
• L3VPN – Label Distribution
• QoS – Label Forwarding Information Base (LFIB)
• Traffic Engineering – Label Switched Paths (LSP)
• Forwarding Equivalency Class (FEC)
• Fault Recovery (BFD) Fault detection
• Multiprotocol (L2 and L3)
MPLS Network Components Key Protocols
• LER (PE), LSR (P), CE, C • IP Routing (OSPF, BGP, MP-BGP)
• MPLS “Domain” • LDP
• Label Switched Paths (LSP) • RSVP-TE
MPLS
IP ATM, FR
• Key Protocols: A number of key protocols are needed One of the primary objectives for MPLS is to provide
to support MPLS services but they are not all new. Quality of Service (QoS) for real time applications such as
MPLS relies on existing and/or modified IP routing VoIP. We will discuss both the QoS techniques as well the
protocols to establish an information base required to ability to manage congestion through the use of Traffic
distribute labels. A protocol that is new for MPLS is Engineering (TE).
the Label Distribution Protocol (LDP). This protocol is
an alternative used to distribute labels within the
MPLS network to define the LSPs. When MPLS is
using Traffic Engineering the label distribution is done
using a Traffic Engineering extension to the Resource
Reservation Protocol (RSVP). The extended protocol is
called RSVP-TE.
• MPLS Applications: MPLS is designed to enhance the
packet switching experience. As a result, MPLS can
provide several special services or applications. For
instance, there are various ways that MPLS can be
used to provide Virtual Private Network (VPN)
services. We will elaborate on Layer 2 VPNs (L2VPN -
supporting Pseudowires), Virtual Private LAN Service
(VPLS) and Layer 3 VPNs (L3VPN).
8
2 | IP Foundation for MPLS
Chapter 2:
IP Foundation for
MPLS
9
Objectives
After completing this module you will be able
to:
• Describe how IP communication is established
• Explain the difference between routing and
forwarding
• Describe the role of the Autonomous System (AS)
in IP routing
• Explain how IP and MPLS interwork
10
Communications
Overview
11
Communication Networks
2. Can we be
3. Who is your
buddies?
plumber?
1. Hello.
It’s about “self-discovery.”

One can begin to understand communication networks by As will be described in more detail later, the exchange of
understanding how a group of people communicate. If you information in the Internet requires that a well-defined set
have ever moved into a new neighborhood, you might of routes be defined in advance. Armed with these routing
recall how you tried to fit in with the group. You may have tables, the router receives packets through an ingress
considered who you wanted to meet first and the port, checks the ultimate destination of the packet,
appropriate way to introduce yourself. In communication matches the destination with information in the routing
networks this is done with protocols. table, and forwards the packet toward that destination.
Routing protocols are used to learn the makeup and In summary, the router has two distinct responsibilities:
connectivity of the network. They generally begin with a routing and forwarding. Routing is a relatively slow process
simple “Hello.” A router sends this simple message to all and must be performed before forwarding can begin.
of its immediate neighbors to find out which ones are When a change occurs to the network, it may take several
willing to talk. minutes before the routing protocols produce a new stable
set of routes. Once routes are in place, they are typically
After learning who the neighbors are, the router
valid for some extended period of time. Forwarding is a
establishes a separate relationship, called a session (“Can
simple process and must be done as quickly as possible.
we be buddies?”), with each neighbor before soliciting any
Barring router congestion the packet is forwarded through
specific assistance from them.
the router in microseconds.
After these sessions are established, it is time find out
how to locate a plumber (“Who is your plumber?”), a yard
man, etc. In router speak, the router publicizes to its
neighbors any network to which it can connect, and asks
the same from each neighbor.
12
IP Routing and
Forwarding
13
IP Communication
2. Can we be
Can we be buddies? (Peer
buddies? TCP Sessions)
Routing
1. Hello 3. Link State
Hello. “Discovery” Advertisement
(LSA) “I’m
connected to
5. Forwarding 10.1.2.x”
IP Network
Award
Router
FIB FIB 10.1.2.x
4. FIB
Routing Table
Hello.
FIB
Hello. Hello. Can we be
Can we be
Can we be buddies?
buddies?
buddies?
If we replace the people with routers and the dialogs with The process used to build the routing tables is called
physical links we have an IP network. As with human “routing.” With the routing tables in place the process to
communication the IP routers must become acquainted by transport packets across the network using information
exchanging a “Hello” message across the links. What they from the routing tables is called “forwarding.”
are really doing is determining which of their directly
connected neighbors speak their routing protocol (e.g.,
OSPF). After this, they establish a working relationship by
creating ongoing TCP sessions with each other. “Can we
be buddies?” They are now ready to exchange routing
advertisements and build routing tables.
The router has two distinct responsibilities: routing and
forwarding. As will be described in more detail later, the
exchange of information on the Internet between remote
routers requires that a well-defined set of routes be
defined in advance. Although each router does not
maintain a local set of all routes, it does maintain tables
(routing tables or Forwarding Information Bases (FIB)) that
tell it how to forward the packet on the next hop along the
desired routes.
14
Intra- vs. Inter-Domain Routing

Customer
Network 1
C
Autonomous
System L
B
IGP (e.g. OSPF)
To route within an AS
EGP (e.g. BGP-4)
Autonomous To route between ASs
System M D
Autonomous
System L
Service Provider’s Customer
IP network Network 2
One characteristic of an IP network is the span of authority Therefore the IGP (OSPF) routing protocol is adequate to
for the network. This is called a domain, more formally establish this connection.
known as an Autonomous System (AS). Globally unique
On the other hand, let’s say host C in customer network 1
identifiers called Autonomous System Numbers (ASN) are
wishes to communicate with host D in customer network
assigned to autonomous systems to distinguish them from
2. This is achieved only by connecting through the service
each other. Routing protocols fall into two classes, those
provider’s network. First, a local path must be found from
that are used for routing strictly within an AS, called
C to a boundary router between customer network 1 and
Interior Gateway routing Protocols (IGP), and those for
the service provider’s network. Next, a jump takes place to
routing between ASs called Exterior Gateway routing
another border router at the boundary between the
Protocols (EGP). Although there are a number of IGPs and
service provider and customer network 2 completing the
EGPs we are most interested in the IGP known as Open
path to D. EGP (BGP) is needed to determine which border
Shortest Path First (OSPF) and the EGP called Border
router to jump to at the border of the service provider and
Gateway Protocol Version 4 (BGP-4 or just BGP).
customer network 2; therefore, paths that include multiple
In our example we demonstrate three different ASs, one ASs require the use of both IGPs and EGPs.
that belongs to a major service provider and two that
belong to a customer of the service provider (although the
customer network can be a single AS). The service
provider and the customers must first run the IGP protocol
to learn of paths internal to their AS. Let’s assume that
host A now wants to communicate with host B.
A path can be defined strictly within the domain of the
service provider establishing this communication.
15
OSPF
LSA LSA
2
1 3
LSA 4
5
Autonomous System (AS)
Probably the most important routing protocol for our It should be noted that the exchange of LSA messages
discussion is Open Shortest Path First (OSPF). OSPF is an consumes network resources at the expense of revenue
Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) operating strictly within the generating traffic, so it is important not to do this too
boundaries of a single Autonomous System. Through the often. At the same time, if a router is down it is eating
use of OSPF Link State Advertisements (LSA) the network away at revenue potential; therefore, it is important to
is able to discover the topology, routes and capabilities for determine how often these messages should be
the entire AS. Each router in the AS exchanges its exchanged to properly balance these two considerations.
capabilities with its immediate neighbor. For example, A complicating factor is the size of the network. While
router 1 tells router 2 about itself in an LSA. Since router 3 convergence should occur rather quickly in our simple
is not an immediate neighbor of router 1, the information five-node network, a network with 1000 nodes might take
about router 1 is not yet known by router 3; however, a very long time to converge. Therefore, OSFP does not
these LSAs are shared periodically, and when the next seem to be “scalable.”
LSAs are sent out, router 2 tells router 3 about router 1
using a process called flooding. Therefore, every router
eventually will know about every other router. When the
network topology changes (e.g., a router goes down) the
whole LSA process begins again.
16
OSPF – Scalability through the

“OSPF Area Model”
R4
R3 FIB
OSPF
OSPF
Area 2
Area 1
FIB ABR
ABR
FIB:
ASBR FIB
FIB
FIB:
FIB
OSPF
Area 0
Another
FIB:
AS FIB
R1 ABR
R2
OSPF
FIB
Area 3 FIB
OSPF has addressed the scalability issues by defining As a result of OSPF routing, each router has a local routing
OSPF “areas.” table telling it how to get to all other routers.
Using this concept, the autonomous system is partitioned Forwarding is then achieved by moving packets from one
into multiple areas. There is a network core called Area 0, point to another using information from these routing
along with multiple other non-zero areas. Based on this tables. In our example Router R1 establishes a session
model traffic that moves from a router in one non-zero with router R2 within OSPF Area 3. Using only Area 3
OSPF area to a different non-zero OSPF area must pass routings tables traffic is forwarded from R1 to R2.
through the core (OSPF Area 0). Routing is now simplified
However, when router R3 in OSPF Area 1 wishes to
since routers share information about themselves only
establish a session with Router R4 in OSPF Area 2 the
with other routers within their area. Each router maintains
path must go through the ABR in Area 1, pass through
a local area routing table. To enable connectivity between
core (Area 0) routers to find the ABR for OSPF Area 2, and
areas, special routers called Area Border Routers (ABR)
then on to router R4. This is achieved by the following
bridge their non-zero area and Area 0. These routers serve
steps:
as area gateways, and maintain routing tables both for
their non-zero area and for Area 0. While normal routers 1. Forwarding the packet from R3 to the ABR in Area 1
exchange detailed information about themselves and the 2. Forwarding across Area 0 to the ABR in Area 2
networks to which they have access, ABRs boil down the
area routing information and forward only summary 3. Forwarding the packet on to R4
information about routes in the adjoining area.
17
OSPF – Scalability through the “OSPF

Area Model” (continued)
R4
R3 FIB
OSPF
OSPF
Area 2
Area 1
FIB ABR
ABR
FIB:
ASBR FIB
FIB
FIB:
FIB
OSPF
Area 0
Another
FIB:
AS FIB
R1 ABR
R2
OSPF
FIB
Area 3 FIB
One advantage of the OSPF area concept is the scalability

mentioned earlier. When a link goes down in Area 3 a new
routing tables must be created; however, only routers in
Area 3 are concerned with this change. The convergence
of routing information therefore is much faster and is
isolated only to one area.
Although the OSPF has divided the region into multiple
areas they jointly represent a single Autonomous System
(AS). This AS communicates with a separate AS through an
Autonomous System Border Router (ASBR). There are
OSPF Link State Advertisements that deal specifically with
routing information introduced through ASBRs for external
Autonomous Systems.
18
IP in ATM vs. MPLS

Networks
19
IP over ATM
IP
Network ATM Network
ATM
ATM ATM
ATM
IP Network ATM Network

Connectionless Connection Oriented
Best Effort QoS and Traffic Engineering
Variable Length Fixed Length
“Low” Overhead “High” Overhead
“Complex” forwarding “Fast” Forwarding
Dynamic Routing “Fixed” Routes
Destination-based Routing Pre-defined Virtual Paths
IP packets must be “adapted” to ATM cell format.

One of the problems with IP networks is that they do not ATM is generally more of a core technology where paths
provide any assurance of timely delivery of packets. They are set up in advance and may accommodate various
are subject to congestion which can result in significant needs like load balancing, alternate paths, fault recovery,
delay in packet delivery. One potential answer to the etc. IP operates at Layer 3 and must perform complex
congestion problem is to transport IP packets over an forwarding procedures, including doing a “longest match”
Asynchronous Transport Mode (ATM) network (i.e., IP and of the IP destination address with entries in the routing
ATM working together for end-to-end delivery). In ATM, table before it can determine how to forward the packet.
paths can be manually established in advance and rules ATM operates at Layer 2, and defines end-to-end “fixed
can be applied that enable load sharing across multiple routes” in advance, so forwarding through an ATM switch
paths. is very fast. Unlike IP, ATM does not adapt quickly to
changes in the network.
Each technology is designed to meet specific
requirements. IP and ATM can complement each other or
can be competing transport technologies. This chart
contrasts the use of IP routing with ATM switching as
transport technologies. IP uses destination-based routing.
When a packet is received at the ingress node in the IP
network the routing tables provide only one path to the
destination from that ingress point. Alternative routes in
the case of congestion are not considered. This is where
ATM can help.
20
IP over MPLS
IP
Network MPLS LSR
LER
LER
LSR
MPLS IP Network MPLS ATM Network

Connectionless X Connection Oriented MPLS (“X”)
Best Efforts X QoS and Traffic Engineering
supports best of
both IP and ATM
X Variable Length Fixed Length
X “Low” Overhead “High” Overhead
“Complex” Forwarding X “Fast” Forwarding
X Dynamic Routing “Fixed” Routes
IP Packets stay in “native” format when transported over MPLS

What if ATM is replaced with MPLS?

This chart demonstrates the use of MPLS. Like ATM, the
MPLS network is a separate network inside the IP
network. Unlike ATM, MPLS is actually an extension of IP.
MPLS uses IP routers with extended capabilities that we
will describe later. In MPLS there is no need to maintain a
separate overlay network as is needed for ATM. The table
demonstrates that MPLS actually exploits the best
features of both IP and ATM. Unlike IP, MPLS can enable
QoS supporting such services as Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP), Traffic Engineering and VPNs. Where IP
forwarding is very cumbersome MPLS forwarding is very
simple and fast much like ATM. However, ATM has fixed
length “cells” and requires more that 10 percent
overhead. MPLS accommodates the variable length IP
packets and adds only a 4 byte header (<< 1 percent
overhead for a 1500 byte IP packet).
21
MPLS-labeled Packet Forwarding
23
IP
87 IP Packet
Network MPLS
LER
LER
LSR
23 IP Packet
LSR 19 IP Packet
19 IP Packet
87
MPLS forwarding is much simpler than IP forwarding. At

the incoming edge (ingress) of the MPLS network the
router assigns a label to the packet signifying the path the
packet will take. As the labeled packet works its way
through the MPLS network each router replaces the
incoming label with the router’s outgoing label for the
same path. When the packet reaches the outgoing edge
(egress) of the MPLS network the router removes all labels
and forwards the packet as a normal IP packet. The
“secret sauce” is the prior distribution of appropriate
labels reflecting how the packets are to be treated by the
network.
22
Summary
• IP networks carry two types of IP packets:
― Control Plane: For finding routes through the network – Routing;
and
― User Plane: User-generated IP packets – Forwarding.
• IP is a forwarding protocol while routing is accomplished
using routing protocols such as OSPF and BGP.
• ATM is very good at forwarding while IP networks are very
good at routing.
• MPLS combines IP’s routing strength with ATM-like
forwarding.
23
Review Questions
1. What “planes” describe the separation of
responsibility for IP and MPLS routers?
2. What are the primary roles for each plane?
3. Identify the best of IP and the best of ATM
used in MPLS.
4. Identify the three labeling functions (hint:
ingress PE; P router, egress PE)
24
3 | Introduction to MPLS
Chapter 3:
Introduction to MPLS
25
Objectives
After completing this module, you will be able
to:
• Discriminate between forwarding and routing
• Describe different IP forwarding techniques
• Explain label switching as a forwarding technique
• Differentiate between IP forwarding and MPLS
forwarding
26
IP Routing and
Forwarding
27
IP Routing vs. IP Forwarding

IP Forwarding
?
vs. ?
?
IP Routing
? ?
?
MPLS can solve some issues present in the current IP

networks. However, it is important to understand the
distinction between IP routing and forwarding which are
the two main functions of an IP router. Often these terms
are used interchangeably in the IP world but we will
distinguish between them for the purpose of this course.
28
Bird’s-Eye View of an IP Router

Routing Information
Router Exchange with other
Control Plane routers
IP RIB IP Routing Protocols
Router
IP Routing Table
Incoming IP Outgoing IP
Packet Data Plane Packet
IP Forwarding Table (FIB)
If we could look inside an IP router, we would see that it Routing information is collected in the control plane in the
has two distinct but interrelated functioning planes, the Routing Information Base (RIB) which is later used to
control plane and the data plane. This chart enables us to create the Forwarding Information Base (FIB), also called
better examine those functions of the IP router. It a Routing Table or Forwarding Table, in the data plane.
abstracts the job of the router into the control plane used Once the routing table is defined the router is prepared to
for the routing tasks and the data plane used for packet accept incoming IP packets through the data plane and
forwarding. We will describe various routing protocols forward them toward the proper destination. If the
later, but their responsibility is to discover network network is very stable the routing table might remain
topology and how to get to remote networks. This is done unchanged for a long period of time (i.e., very little
by exchanging information with their immediate neighbors. “routing” work to do), and other than an occasional “keep
While you are telling the immediate neighbor what alive” message the router can focus on the forwarding
networks you have access to and learning the same from activity.
them; the neighbor router is learning from its other
neighbors, too. When information is exchanged with the
immediate neighbors a second time the router is able to
discover networks accessible from the neighbor’s
neighbor. If there are “n” routers in the network it takes no
more than “n-1” exchanges of network information to
learn about the entire network (and to build local routing
tables).
29
IP Routing
www.awardsolutions.com
Forwarding Table 30.0.0.1
30.0.0 R3 Route
Update
20.0.0 R1
Sally NW = 30.0.0
20.0.0.1 NextHop-R3
Compute the
Best route
Award
R2 30.0.0
Futureland IP Backbone
20.0.0 R1 R3
Pastland
R4 40.0.0
The routers exchange route information and

update routing tables periodically.
IP routing refers to the exchange of network reachability

information between adjacent routers and the algorithms
used by the routers to update the forwarding table based
on this information. The exchange and update operations
are performed periodically by routers, unlike the IP
forwarding operations which are performed on a per
packet basis. For example router R3 sends a routing
update message for network 30.0.0 to router R2. Router
R2 determines if router R3 is the best path for 30.0.0 and
then updates the forwarding table.
Routers learn how to reach the nodes in a network
through a route advertisement, called Link State
Advertisements (LSAs) by OSPF. The route advertisement
provides information on the routes the packets can take
to reach their destinations.
30
IP Routing Characteristics
• Function of the IP Control Plane
• Intra-Domain routing differs from Inter-Domain routing
• Uses advertisements between routing peers to build a
“reachability” database for each router (called a Routing
Table)
• Triggered:
– When a new network is discovered
– When changes occur in the network that impact network
connectivity
– Periodically
• Takes time to converge
The major characteristics of IP routing are: aware of the new attached network.
• Routing is an IP control plane function. The results of • Routing advertisements are triggered by the addition
IP routing (i.e., the Forwarding Information Base) are of new networks, but other events can also trigger
provided to the IP data plane and used to forward routing advertisements. Suppose a network is
packets. functioning properly and suddenly a link somewhere
in the network is severed. As soon as the impacted
• There are different requirements and expectations if
routers detect the outage they send out a routing
a route is to be defined totally within a single
update advertisement, informing their immediate
autonomous system vs. between multiple
peers that the link is no longer available for traffic. In
autonomous systems. In a single autonomous system
addition to new networks and network failures routing
the routing peers are generally physically connected
advertisements are sent out on a periodic schedule
neighbors. When routing between multiple
provisioned into the network.
autonomous systems the peers are not physically
connected; in fact, some effort is required to even • When changes occur in the network, new networks
discover the peers. are added or network outages take place, a routing
advertisement session is triggered. In a large network
• Routers directly connected to a network advertise this
it may take some time before all routers in the
fact to their peers along with information on how to
network become aware of the change. Meanwhile,
reach the network. A single advertisement session is
packets at one end of the network might be sent
only able to inform immediate neighbors of the new
toward a link that is known locally to be faulty. This
network. This reachability information is propagated
results in dropped packets and points to the need for
(flooded) in a follow-on advertisement session, but
effective fault recovery processes.
will take some time before all network routers are
31
IP Forwarding
Forwarding Table
www.awardsolutions.com
30.0.0 R3
30.0.0.1
Forwarding 20.0.0 R1
process
Sally Compute the
20.0.0.1 Best route
Futureland Award
20.0.0 30.0.0
IP Packet R2
Src=20.0.0.1 IP Backbone
Dest=30.0.0.1 R1 R3
R4
Pastland
40.0.0
IP forwarding refers to a set of procedures that are used

for determining the next hop when a packet arrives at any
router. For example, router R1 sends an IP packet to
router R2 with the destination address 30.0.0.1. Router
R2 looks up the address in its forwarding table, which was
set up through IP routing protocols, and determines that
the next hop is router R3. Router R2 then forwards the
packet to router R3. IP forwarding can only be done after
IP routing has converged.
32
IP Forwarding Characteristics
• It is based on hop-by-hop forwarding
• Forwarding decisions based on:
− Destination address and
− Type of service
• Paths not predetermined
− Truly a connectionless technology
− Multiple paths between a sender and receiver
− Each router makes independent decisions
The major characteristics of IP forwarding are:

• It is an IP data plane function.
• It is based on hop-by-hop forwarding.
• Fields in the IP header such as the destination
address and Type Of Service (TOS) fields are used to
make forwarding decisions.
• The paths are not predetermined; it is truly a
connectionless technology.
• Multiple paths between a sender and receiver are
possible.
• Each router makes independent decisions.
33
IP Forwarding Example
IP Forwarding Table
Destination Next Hop
20.0.0.1 www.awardsolutions.com
30.0.0 R3 30.0.0.1
Sally 20.0.0 R1
40.0.0 R1
R2
Futureland
Electronics
IP Backbone Award
Network R1 R3 Solutions
20.0.0
Network
R4 30.0.0
IP Forwarding Table
Destination Next Hop IP Forwarding Table
30.0.0 R2 Destination Next Hop
Pastland
20.0.0 Direct 30.0.0 Direct
Electronics
40.0.0 R4 20.0.0 R2
Network
40.0.0 R2
40.0.0
IP networks use hop-by-hop forwarding where each router

makes forwarding decisions based on the forwarding
table. The forwarding table includes the destination
network prefix and the next hop information.
The figure shows a network with routers and forwarding
tables at some of the routers. Let’s take an example
where our friend Sally is using her computer with an
address of 20.0.0.1, to visit www.awardsolutions.com
whose address is 30.0.0.1. As packets arrive at router R1
from Sally’s computer, R1 matches the destination
address in the IP header against the destination network
in its forwarding table entries. It selects the entry with the
longest match and forwards the packets to the router
listed in the next hop field of that table entry.
In our example the first entry in the forwarding table is
chosen and packets are forwarded to the router R2. The
same forwarding process is used at each router until the
packets reach their destination. Please note that this is a
very simplistic view of IP forwarding. In reality there are
many complex issues that might require consideration for
forwarding.
34
MPLS Label Switching
35
What is MPLS?
Multi-Protocol Label Switching
MP LS
Two Aspects
Unlike IP forwarding, MPLS forwarding is a connection-

oriented technique. If you analyze the term MPLS you find
two important concepts. The first concept is the “Multi-
Protocol” aspect, which means that MPLS can be used as
a transport for any protocol. The second concept is the
“Label Switching” aspect, whereby the forwarding of
packets is based on label switching technology. The
combination of these two aspects enables service
providers to deploy a highly efficient, converged network
with a rich set of applications.
MPLS is the result of work done by many different
companies. Each company developed products around
label switching themes. Cisco’s Tag switching, IBM’s ARIS,
Ipsilon’s IP Switching (bought by Nokia) and Toshiba’s Cell
Switching Router are some of the products in the label-
switching area. These companies formed a working group
under IETF to develop a single label-switching protocol to
ensure interoperability among various vendor products.
For lack of a better term they called it Multi-Protocol Label
Switching (MPLS).
36
MPLS “Router”
Routing
MPLS LER Information
Exchange with
Control Plane other routers
MPLS RIB IP Routing Protocols
Router Label Binding
IP Routing Table Exchange with
other MPLS
Routers
LIB MPLS IP Routing Control
Incoming IP
Packet Outgoing IP
Data Plane
Packet
IP Forwarding Table (FIB)
POP + L3 Lookup
Label Forwarding Table (LFIB)
Incoming Outgoing Labeled
Labeled Packet Packet
MPLS uses routers that, from the outside, might resemble • When an unlabeled packet comes in and a labeled
IP routers. The differences are on the inside. This chart packet goes out the router is serving as an ingress
demonstrates how an IP router might morph into an MPLS Label Edge Router (LER). In this case, the router is
router. You will recognize from an earlier chart the IP said to attach, “impose” or “push” a label onto the
control plane and the data plane functions are still in the packet.
MPLS router. In fact, an MPLS router must also be
• When a labeled packet comes in and an unlabeled
capable of performing as a normal IP router.
packet goes out the router is serving as an egress
Let’s examine the additions. In the data plane, in addition Label Edge Router (LER). In this case the router is
to the routing table (Forwarding Information Base (FIB)) said to detach, “dispose” or “pop” a label from the
used for normal routing, the MPLS router has a Label packet.
Forwarding Information Base (LFIB) used to apply and
• When a labeled packet comes in and a labeled
swap MPLS labels. In the Control Plane, while the normal
packet goes out the router is serving as an egress
routing function exchanges routing information with
Label Switch Router (LSR). In this case the router
routing peers, there is a new MPLS IP Routing Control
simply replaces the incoming MPLS label with an
function responsible for creating MPLS label bindings.
outgoing label representing the Label Switched Path’s
Label information exchanged between MPLS peers is
(LSP’s) Forwarding Equivalency Class (FEC). This is
collected in the Label Information Base (LIB) which
called label “swapping.”
becomes a source of input for the LFIB.
• This chart demonstrates the various roles an MPLS
router can play. When an unlabeled packet comes in
and an unlabeled packet goes out the router is acting
like a normal IP router.
37
MPLS: Label Switching

• What is a label?
– Number assigned by MPLS router to represent a Label
Switched Path (LSP)
• What is label switching?
– Forwarding packets is based on this label
– The reservation of resources can also be associated with
this label
– Unlike IP addresses, labels are simple scalar values
– A label does not encode the IP header or upper layer
header information
– Each packet is marked with a short, fixed-length label
We have learned about IP routing and forwarding, and are just a simple lookup. This simplicity provides label
almost ready to discuss MPLS forwarding. First we need to switching with high performance in terms of packets
understand the label switching aspect of MPLS. Obviously, forwarded per second. MPLS also allows other things such
MPLS has label switching at its core but first one might as reserved network resources to be associated with
ask, “What is a label?” For MPLS, a label is a short labels and this allows support for advanced functionality
number that is marked on each packet in the network. It is such as Quality of Service (QoS).
important to keep in mind that the value of a label is not
special. The label has no structure or subfields within it
and is essentially a random number. The value of a label
is not a compression of the destination address or other
information from the packet. The usefulness of the label
comes with forwarding packets based on the label’s value
which is called label switching.
The concept of label switching is very simple. Normally in
IP networks a router examines a packet it receives, reads
the destination address and usually does some complex
processing on it to determine the exit port to which it
should be forwarded to bring it closer to the final
destination. Label switching occurs when a label switch (or
MPLS router) looks at the label value on a packet and
looks up the exit port to which it should be forwarded.
There is no complex processing in making the decision,
38
MPLS Forwarding Characteristics

• MPLS forwarding is a label-switching technology
• Packets are forwarded based on labels
• The path is set up before packets are sent
– A connection-oriented technology
• IP headers are not analyzed when making
forwarding decisions
• MPLS is similar to ATM and Frame Relay protocols
The major characteristics of MPLS forwarding are:

• It is a data plane function.
• It is a label switching technology.
• The packets are forwarded based on labels.
• The path is set up before packets are sent; in this
sense, it is a connection-oriented technology.
• IP headers are not analyzed in making forwarding
decisions.
• It is similar to forwarding used in ATM and Frame
Relay.
39
Example: MPLS Forwarding

LFIB
Incoming Outgoing Incoming Outgoing www.awardsolutions.com
Label Label Interface Interface 30.0.0.1
19 20 MPLS xBackbone
y
Sally 20.0.0.1
x y
R2
b a
Label
a b
IP Header Network B
Network A
R1 Payload R3 30.0.0
20.0.0
Incoming Outgoing Incoming Outgoing Incoming Outgoing Incoming Outgoing

Label Label Interface Interface Label Label Interface Interface
R4
none 19 a b 20 None a b
LFIB LFIB Network C

40.0.0
In MPLS forwarding, the path followed by a packet is set This process is performed at each router until it reaches
up before packets are sent from the source. A label is the exit router where the label is removed and the IP
associated with the path at each router. The label is packet is forwarded to the destination. Note that
attached to the packet at the entry point to the MPLS throughout the forwarding process, contents of the IP
backbone. Inside the MPLS backbone, the forwarding is header are not analyzed except at the entry and exit
based on the attached label. The forwarding table at each points of the network.
router contains a label map rather than IP addresses. A
label map is a table that maps an incoming label to the
outgoing label.
Let’s visit Sally again. How do packets from Sally’s
computer get routed using MPLS? A label has been
associated with the destination network 30.0.0 at each
router and communicated to the adjacent routers. We will
see how the labels are allocated and communicated later
in the course. As packets are sent from network A to
network B, a label is associated with the packet at router
R1. R1 forwards the packet to R2. Next, R2 performs a
table lookup in the label map. It finds the appropriate
outgoing label and replaces the incoming label with the
outgoing label.
40
MPLS Forwarding vs. IP Forwarding

MPLS Forwarding IP Forwarding
Steps 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
7 6 5
Analyze
IP Header No Yes
Processing Not intensive Intensive
Conclusion Faster, more efficient Slower, less efficient
MPLS Forwarding typically includes the following steps: the results of the previous step.
1. Check the Time To Live (TTL) value. 8. Decrement TTL.
2. Index into the incoming interface table. 9. Recompute IP header checksum.
3. Index into the incoming label table. IP forwarding requires more steps than MPLS forwarding.
And also requires more process power than MPLS
4. Replace the incoming label with the outgoing label.
forwarding because each time a match is performed, IP
IP Forwarding typically includes the following steps: needs to iterate through a significantly larger routing table.
1. Compute the IP header Checksum and compare with IP forwarding requires analysis of the entire IP header.
recorded value to test for IP header errors. MPLS simply forwards packets based on labels that are
2. Determine if the packet is to be sent to the local or short. MPLS packets also have fixed length headers (if the
remote network. headers are used at all); therefore, the processing is
limited and the results is faster and more efficient than IP
3. Check the Time To Live (TTL) value. forwarding.
4. Determine whether this packet is unicast, multicast or
broadcast.
5. Perform a basic match based on the routing table to
derive the working set.
6. Perform the longest match on the working set.
7. Choose the most optimal route for the packet from
41
Summary
• IP forwarding is:
– Based on destination IP address,
– Slower, and
– Connectionless.
• MPLS forwarding is:
– Based on the label,
– Very fast, and
– The path is set up before sending packets.
• MPLS routers have all of the capabilities of IP
routers (and more)
42
Review Questions - I
1. Which of the following are characteristic of IP forwarding?
A. Packets are forwarded on a hop-by-hop basis.
B. IP forwarding is connection-oriented.
C. Packets from sender to receiver may take different paths.
D. Each router maintains a forwarding table.
2. Which of the following techniques results in faster and
more efficient forwarding of packets? (Please justify your
answer.)
A. MPLS forwarding
B. IP forwarding
43
Review Questions - II
3. In IP forwarding, each packet knows the complete path
through the network. True or False?
4. Which of the following are characteristic of label switching?
A. Forwarding a received packet using the label table
B. Advertising routing changes to all neighbors
C. Updating the routing table from received advertisements
D. Similar to ATM and Frame Relay protocols
44
Exercise: IP Routing and Forwarding
50.6.8.x
Customer
50.6.9.x
Network
Customer
Network
R2
A C B R3
B
A
R1 A 50.6.7.x
B
B Customer
B A R5
A R4 C Network
This chart represents an MPLS network with three stub

networks (50.6.7.x, 50.6.8.x and 50.6.9.x). There are
three PE routers (R1, R2, and R5), one attached directly to
one of the stub networks. In addition, there are two P
routers (R3 and R4) with no directly connected Stub
networks. The exercise is to define the routing tables for
each of the routers based on the exchange of Router Link
State Advertisements (LSA) between adjacent MPLS
routers. Obviously, a single exchange of LSAs will not do
the job. The exercise is to perform two message
exchanges, increasing the amount of information
exchanged as more information becomes available to the
router.
The next chart demonstrates the beginning of the routing
tables based on the first exchange of advertisements. The
student will then be responsible for describing the second
LSA exchange and the routing table at each router
resulting from this second exchange.
45

Objective:
• Create a routing table for each of the five routers.
• Use the routing tables to demonstrate the IP forwarding.
Guide:
• We will execute two routing update passes.
• The results of the first pass are provided.
• Your task is to find the results of the second pass.
• Hint: In the second pass all five routers will send the contents of their
routing tables to their adjacent routers. Upon receiving the second
update, each router will update its routing table.
• The instructor will then show how a packet is forwarded through this
network.
46
IP Routing and Forwarding Exercise:

Results of FIB after 1st LSA
Dest Port # Hops
50.6.8 A 1 Dest Port # Hops
50.6.8.x
50.6.9 Dir - 50.6.8 Dir -
Customer
50.6.9.x 50.6.9 A 1
Network
Customer Dest Port # Hops
Network 50.6.8: Dir 50.6.7 A 1
50.6.8: Dir
R2 50.6.8 B 1
B R3
50.6.9: Dir A C
B
A
50.6.7: Dir
R1 A Net:50.6.8: Dir 50.6.7.x
B
B B A R5 Customer
A R4 C
Network
50.6.9: Dir
50.6.7: Dir
Dest Port # Hops
50.6.7 C 1 Dest Port # Hops
50.6.8 B 1 50.6.7 Dir -
50.6.9 A 1
Before the exchange of any information Router 1 has

discovered that it is directly connected to stub network
50.6.9.x (Router 2 connected to 50.6.8.x and R5 directly
connected to 50.6.7.x). This fact is expressed in the first
exchange of routing information indicated by the arrows
emanating from routers 1, 2 and 5. Routers 3 and 4 have
no directly connected stub networks and have no
information to share during the first exchange.
The tables associated with each router describe the
beginning of the routing table based on the information
made available as a result of the first routing update. As
an example Router R2 sent to Router R3 an
advertisement for network 50.6.8, while Router R5 was
also sending to Router R3 an advertisement for network
50.6.7. Router 3 notes the received ports for each
advertisement, increments the number of hops (zero for
direct) and prepares an entry in the local routing table. (It
should be noted that the actual routing table creation
process is considerably more sophisticated that the
example being considered).
47

Exercise - 2nd LSA
R1 Dest Port # Hops
R2 Dest Port # Hops
R3
50.6.8.x Dest Port # Hops
50.6.9.x Customer
Network
Customer
Network
R2
B
A C R3
B A
R1 A
50.6.7.x
B
B Customer
A B C A
R4
R5 Network
R4 Dest Port # Hops
Dest Port # Hops
R5
The prior chart demonstrated the first exchange of LSAs.

The challenge is to perform a second exchange of routing
messages. Building on what was learned from the first
exchange – then define interim routing tables from the
second exchange.
1. Sketch arrows between all adjacent routers and
identify the network information that will be sent
during the second LSA exchange (see first LSA as an
example).
2. Complete the forwarding tables provided for each
router. Make sure to include duplicate routes when
applicable.
3. Assume all routers are performing IP forwarding.
Demonstrate how the IP forwarding tables are used in
delivering an IP packet that has a source IP address
of 50.6.9.12 and a destination IP address of
50.6.7.13.
48
4 | MPLS Networks
Chapter 4:
MPLS Networks
49
4 | MPLS Networks
Objectives
to:
• Sketch the MPLS network architecture
• Identify the functions of various MPLS network
elements
• Define the Label Switched Path (LSP) and
Forwarding Equivalence Class (FEC)
• Explain different types of LSPs
50
4 | MPLS Networks
MPLS Network
Components
51
4 | MPLS Networks
MPLS Domain and Components

LER (PE)
MPLS Forwarding
IP Forwarding
LSR
IP Domain
LER
IP Forwarding
LSR
IP Domain
LER
LER
MPLS Domain
IP Forwarding
LSR (P)
LSR
IP Domain Sally
An MPLS domain is a network segment in which all of the

routers understand MPLS. In other words, the
components forward packets based on labels. These
components exchange label information with each other
to set up paths for forwarding packets.
Typically MPLS networks consist of two important
components: Label Edge Routers (LER) and Label
Switched Routers (LSR). The distinction between these
components is made based on their location inside the
MPLS domain. Please note that a typical MPLS network
consists of many more components, such as network
management systems, transmission systems, and
operation support systems. We have only shown the
components that implement the MPLS technology.
52
4 | MPLS Networks
Label Edge Routers (LER)

LER (PE)
MPLS Forwarding
IP Forwarding
IP Domain LER
IP Forwarding
IP Domain
LER LER
MPLS Domain
IP Forwarding LER Functions
1. Map IP Packets to Labels
2. Push or Pop Labels on IP Packets
3. Apply QoS Functions
IP Domain 4. Initiate LSP Setup Process
Sally 5. Existing Functions of Edge Routers
6. Traffic Engineering
MPLS VPN:
LER called Provider Edge Router (PE)
Customer Edge Router (CE) in customer
network
Label Edge Routers (LER), as the name indicates, sit at

the edge of the MPLS network. These devices interface
between the MPLS network and external networks. If the
external network is an IP network, the LERs receive IP
packets from external networks and map them to labels
before forwarding them inside the MPLS domain. As such,
LERs need to implement both IP forwarding and MPLS
forwarding functionality.
LERs generally implement all of the services provided by a
service provider’s network. Services such as QoS
applications, VPNs, and traffic engineering are
implemented in LERs; therefore, LERs are also known as
multi-service devices or service aggregators.
When MPLS is used to define Virtual Private Networks
(VPN) the LER is referred to as the Provider Edge Router
(PE). This term has become common in general MPLS
terminology and may be used even when VPNs are not the
primary topic. The VPN router in the customer network
that is the point of contact for the MPLS VPN is called the
Customer Edge router (CE). For Layer 3 VPNs the CE
router in the customer network will peer with the PE router
in the MPLS network.
53
4 | MPLS Networks
Ingress and Egress LERs

IP Forwarding
MPLS Forwarding
IP Forwarding
IP Domain
LER
Ingress
LER
IP Domain
LER MPLS Domain

IP Forwarding LER
Egress
LER
IP Domain Sally
Each LER plays the role of both ingress and egress LERs.
These concepts are quite easy to understand. An ingress
LER is an entry point into the MPLS network where labels
are assigned and pushed (i.e., added) to the packets. An
egress LER is the exit point of the MPLS network where
labels are popped (i.e., removed) from the packets and
the resulting packet is forwarded. This is the standard
terminology used in the networking industry.
54
4 | MPLS Networks
Label Switched Routers (LSR)

MPLS Forwarding
IP Forwarding
LSR
IP Domain
IP Forwarding
LSR
IP Domain
MPLS Domain
IP Forwarding
LSR
LSR Functions
1.
Swap Labels
2.
Apply QoS Functions
3.
Participate in LSP Setup Process
IP Domain Sally 4.
Only knows Routes within MPLS
Domain
MPLS VPN:
LSR (P) LSR called Provider Router (P)
Label Switched Routers (LSRs) reside inside the MPLS

network. They are intermediate devices that only
understand MPLS forwarding. The LSRs forward packets
by swapping the incoming label with an outgoing label.
LSRs implement limited functionality. They are built for
speed and efficiency.
When MPLS is used to define Virtual Private Networks the
LSR is referred to as the Provider router (P). As with the PE
router, LSR and P are frequently used interchangeably in
general MPLS network discussions.
55
4 | MPLS Networks
Label Switched Path
56
4 | MPLS Networks
What is a Label Switched Path?

Pop
Swap
Futureland
Award Push Pkt 20.0.0
30.0.0 Pkt LSP 1
LSR A
LER 2
Pkt LER 5
Pkt LSP 2
Todayland
50.0.0
LER 1
LSP 3 LER 4
LSR B
LER 3
MPLS Network
Pastland
40.0.0
A Label-Switched Path (LSP) is a path inside the MPLS LERs at the ingress are responsible for assigning the
network traversed by a set of packets with a common packets to different LSPs. For example, LER 1 assigns and
source and destination. Different sets of packets may sends the packets with IP address 20.0.0.1 destined for a
follow different paths and receive different types of host in Futureland network, to LSP 1. LER 1 assigns
treatments (e.g., bandwidth allocated) along these paths. packets with the IP address 40.0.0.1 to LSP 3. LER5
Distributing packets to the proper LSPs is done by LERs. assigns packets with the IP address 30.0.0.1 to LSP 2.
LERs select the appropriate LSP for each IP packet based The LERs also terminate LSPs at the egress point and
on information such as the destination IP address or the perform IP forwarding. In this example LER 2 terminates
type of service. LSP 1 and forwards packets based on the IP addresses.
LER 3 does the same for LSP 3, similarly LER 1
A label-switched path is similar to a virtual channel
terminates LSP 2. The LSRs such as LSR A and LSR B
connection in ATM; however, a LSP is unidirectional,
perform only MPLS forwarding.
unlike an ATM virtual channel connection which is
bidirectional. Therefore, in MPLS the path for LSP from A MPLS actions with respect to the LSP are demonstrated
to B might be different from the path for the LSP in the with the three actions shown. The ingress router in the
opposite direction. LSP “Pushes” a label onto an unlabeled packet and
forwards to the next router in the LSP. The downstream
Consider this example. There are four networks shown:
router “Swaps” one label value for another and forwards
two LSPs are set up between the Award network and the
downstream. The egress router in the LSP “Pops”
Futureland network (with network prefix 20.0.0) for
(removes) the label, forwarding as an unlabeled packet.
bidirectional communication and a single unidirectional
LSP is set up from Award’s network to Pastland’s network
(40.0.0).
57
4 | MPLS Networks
Types of LSPs
Hop-by-Hop
Futureland (Shortest Path)
20.0.0 Award
LFIB 30.0.0
LER 4
LER 2
LFIB LFIB
LER 1
LSP LFIB
Explicit Routed LER 3 MPLS Network
(QoS & TE)
Pastland
• Hop-by-hop routed LSPs 40.0.0
- Based on entries in IP routing table
• Explicit routed LSPs
There are two different types of LSPs in MPLS networks.

These are hop-by-hop routed LSPs and Explicit routed
LSPs. The difference comes in how the LSPs are defined.
The hop-by-hop LSP is defined based on information
available from the routing tables. This generally follows
the shortest path from the ingress PE router to the egress
PE router. The Explicit LSPs are either manually defined
or derived from traffic engineering analysis. While these
terms are not defined by standards bodies they are widely
used in the networking industry. Both of these will be
illustrated later in the course.
58
4 | MPLS Networks
What is an FEC?
Same Path
– Different FECs
Header
Payload
Partition Based on Different Parameters
FEC 1 FEC 2 FEC n
FEC – Forward Equivalence Class

LER – Label Edge Router
LSP – Label Switched Path LSP 1 LSP 2 LSP n
One of the characteristics of sheep is they have a

tendency to follow the leader. This is also a characteristic
of the Forwarding Equivalency Class (FEC) labeled
packets. The ingress PE router identifies the class (FEC)
to which an incoming packet belongs. That completed,
that packet follows all packets that proceeded it to the
ultimate destination (egress PE). Different groups of
packets (illustrated here as black sheep) might be
forwarded along the same LSP but receive different
treatment at each router based on the group with which
they are involved.
A FEC is defined as a group of packets that take the same
path and receive the same hop-by-hop treatment at each
router along that path. That is, all packets in a FEC receive
the same treatment. The FEC is an important concept in
MPLS. It is a determining factor in how many LSPs are
required in a network.
So, what parameters are used to partition packets into
different subsets or FECs? Any arbitrary parameter can be
used to partition packets into different FECs.
59
4 | MPLS Networks
FEC Assignment
E-LSP
FEC1:Plat Policy
FEC2:Gold Policy
FEC3: Silver Futureland
Award
20.0.0
30.0.0 LSR A
FEC 1
LER 2
FEC 2
L-LSP FEC 3
Todayland
MPLS Network 50.0.0
LER 1
FEC 3
LSR B
LER 3
Platinum
Gold Pastland
Silver 40.0.0
The FECs can be selected based on several parameters. These FECs are used to set up the LSPs. We can see the
Let’s assume Futureland requires a higher QoS (Platinum) power of MPLS. The forwarding decisions are not only
that includes higher bandwidth and security which is based on the destination addresses, but also through a
available along LER 1 - LSR A - LER 2. Todayland requires combination of several parameters. This provides
a medium QoS (Gold) which is available along LER 1 - LSR flexibility for network operators that did not exist in pure IP
B - LER 2. The QoS required for a packet is indicated forwarding. To use an industry term, the FECs help identify
through the Type of Service (TOS) field in the IP header. In different “flows” and/or Quality of Service (QoS) in the
this case packets from Award Solutions are partitioned network.
into three FECs, each having distinct LSPs. All three have
the same source and destination. Both the destination
network address and Type of Service field are used to
determine the FECs. We will later identify this procedure
for handling different service classes, Label-Based LSP (L-
LSP).
An alternative solution is to have Platinum, Gold and Silver
traffic all assigned to the LSP LER 1 – LSR A – LER 2. The
different classes are marked in the MPLS header and
policies deployed in each router in the LSP provide
different treatment for each class. Later, this way of
handling the separate classes will be called Experimental
LSPs (E-LSP).
60
4 | MPLS Networks
Summary
• An MPLS network is composed of LERs and LSRs.
• LER functions to:
― Receive non-MPLS packets and push/pop label, and to
― Enforce QoS policy.
• LSR functions to:
― Switch MPLS packets by swapping labels, and to
― Apply QoS.
• FEC is used to classify all packets which require the same
treatment in one group.
• LSPs are set up based on FEC.
• There are hop-by-hop and explicit routed LSPs.
61
4 | MPLS Networks
Review Questions
1. A single LER can play the role of both Ingress as
well as Egress LER. True or False?
2. LER and LSR roles are interchangeable. True or
False?
3. For a particular FEC a Label Switched Path (LSP)
can be bidirectional. True or False?
4. The FEC is mapped to an LSP. True or False?
5. For a given LSP each router in the path may have
a different label value. True or False?
62
5 | MPLS Labels
Chapter 5:
MPLS Labels
63
5 | MPLS Labels
Objectives
to:
• Define an MPLS label
• Identify different methods to distribute and bind
MPLS labels
• Explain how labels are assigned
• Describe label stacking and name some of its
applications
64
5 | MPLS Labels
MPLS Label Structure
65
5 | MPLS Labels
Structure of a Label
• No fixed structure
• Leverage any existing Layer 2 labels
• Or use shim headers
MPLS
PPP
Ethernet
ATM Frame Relay
LABEL in LABEL in LABEL in DLCI

Shem Header VPI/VCI Field Field
MPLS does not mandate a common label format. The

MPLS specifications define a label as a short, fixed length
identifier that is used to forward packets. For this reason,
MPLS can work with a variety of label-switching
techniques. Also, MPLS can work with any layer 2
technology. Some of these layer 2 technologies, such as
ATM and Frame Relay, are label-switching technologies. In
such cases MPLS can leverage the label switching
features provided by ATM and Frame Relay.
For example, when MPLS is implemented in existing ATM
platforms the Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) and the Virtual
Circuit Identifier (VCI) in the ATM cell header are used as
labels. When MPLS is used in Frame Relay platforms the
Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI) in the Frame Relay
cell header is used as a label.
66
5 | MPLS Labels
Shim Headers
Identifies Used to
Used for
User Label Label prevent
QoS
Stacking loops
Label Exp S (BOS) Time to Live Shim

(20 bits) (3 bit) (1 bits) (8 bits) Header
Ethernet MPLS IP IP
Ethernet
Header Shim Header Payload Packet
Header
Some layer 2 technologies such as Ethernet and Point-to-

Point Protocol (PPP) do not have label switching features.
To handle label switching in these networks MPLS has
defined a label structure known as the “shim header.”
Shim headers are placed between the layer 2 header and
the layer 3 payload. It is a 32-bit header of which 20 bits
identify the label. The 3-bit EXP field is used for QoS. It
has been renamed as Traffic Class to indicate that MPLS
supports class-based QoS. The 1-bit S field, also known as
Bottom Of Stack (BOS), indicates whether labels are
stacked. This field has a value of 1 for the bottom label.
All other labels in the stack have a value of zero. We will
explain label stacking later in the course.
The 8-bit Time To Live (TTL) has the same functionality as
in IP networks which is to prevent networking loops.
67
5 | MPLS Labels
MPLS Label Values

Range of Label Values
19 11 9 7 5 3 1
18 10 8 6 4 2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
This Label Value = 204 = 27 + 26 + 23 + 22
Reserved Label Values
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 x x x x
Uses for Reserved Labels:

Label Value Purpose
0 IPV4 Explicit Null
1 Router Alert
2 IPV6 Explicit Null
3 Implicit Null (PHP)
14 OAM Alert
Other Currently Unassigned
With a label field of 20 bits the value of the label can have • Label Value 2 - IPV6 Explicit Null: This functions the
a value of over one million (2 to the 20th power). That said, same way as the Label 0 value except within an IPV6
the first 16 values (0 thru 15) are reserved for special use protocol stack.
as summarized in the lower table on the slide.
• Label Value 3 - Implicit Null: This is assigned by a LSR
• Label Value 0 - IPV4 Explicit Null: This label is only when it wishes the label to be popped prior to
legal at the bottom of the label stack. When used it receiving the packet. Cisco uses this at the last P
indicates that the label stack must be popped and router in the VPN path so the top label in the received
the forwarding of the packet must then be based on packet is the VPN label. This is done so that the
the IPV4 header. router is not able to perform two label lookups at line
speed. This is called “penultimate hop popping” or
• Label Value 1 - Router Alert: This label can be used
PHP.
anywhere in the label stack except as the bottom
label. When the received packet has this as the top • Label 14 - OAM Alert: This is used to identify MPLS
label it is delivered to a local software module for OAM packets and differentiate them from normal
processing. This is used to request the router to user packets.
examine the labeled packet more closely for some
anomaly. Forwarding is then dependent on the label
below the router alert label. If the packet is forwarded
further as a labeled packet then the router alert
packet must be pushed back into the stack before
forwarding.
68
5 | MPLS Labels
MPLS Label Binding
69
5 | MPLS Labels
Label Assignment Schemes

Data Packets 1. IP forwarding for first n
Data Driven packets
2. LSP is set up
3. MPLS forwarding for
the rest of packets
Label Binding
20.0.0 30.0.0
LER LSR LER
MPLS Forwarding
1. LSP is setup first
2. MPLS forwarding for all
Control Driven packets
Label Binding
20.0.0 30.0.0
LER LSR LER
MPLS Forwarding
In an MPLS network labels need to be distributed and Label distribution can be performed by the MPLS Label
Label Switched Paths (LSP) need to be established. There Distribution Protocol (LDP) or by using an extension of the
needs to be a trigger to initiate these actions. The data- Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) called RSVP-TE
driven approach waits until a packet arrives at the edge of when Traffic Engineering is being used.
the MPLS network.
The Label Edge Router (LER) determines the FEC that the
packet belongs to and then initiates the distribution of
labels to set up the required LSP for that FEC. This
ensures an LSP is established only if needed; however,
the establishment of the LSP and distribution of the
necessary labels takes some time. The first few packets to
arrive must be forwarded using conventional means
(normal IP forwarding) until the LSP is established. This
not only degrades the performance of those packets, but
might also impact other packet flows since interior routers
spend more effort to carry out normal IP forwarding.
For this reason the control-driven approach is preferred in
which labels are distributed ahead of time when IP routing
protocols determine routes through the network.
70
5 | MPLS Labels
What is an LFIB? - I
Award Futureland
LSP 1
30.0.0 LSR A 20.0.0
a LER 2
LER 5
a b LSP 2
LER 1
Todayland
b
c 50.0.0
LSP 3
LER 4
LSR B
MPLS Network LER 3
LFIB for LER 1
Pastland
Pastland
NHLFE Outgoing 40.0.0
40.0.0
FEC In Out Next Hop Interface
20.0.0 None 36 LSR A a
50.0.0 None 42 LER 4 b
40.0.0 none 19 LSR B c
LFIB: Label Forwarding Information Base
Award Solutions Proprietary NHLFE: Next Hop Label Forwarding Entry
To perform MPLS label swapping we need a Label Generally, the ingress LER matches the packet to an FEC
Forwarding Information Base (LFIB). This is somewhat using a traditional IP routing longest match operation. It
analogous to a forwarding table used for IP forwarding. then selects the appropriate LSP to forward the packet.
The LFIB is derived by first creating local bindings in each
The figure shows the LFIB for LER 1. The Next Hop Label
router for the MPLS Forwarding Equivalency Classes, then
Forwarding Entry (NHLFE) column matches the outgoing
distributing those local bindings to routing peers to create
label to the next hop LSR or LER. The outgoing interface is
a Label Information Base (LIB). The next two charts
also specified for each FEC entry.
assume that the LIB has been created and the derived
LFIB has been determined. We will next describe the
various options for LIB creation required by the LFIB.
A LFIB is simply a table that contains label mapping
information for each LSP. We know that IP forwarding
uses IP routing tables within each router to determine the
next hop information for each packet. In MPLS routers use
the LFIB to forward packets. We will see how LFIB is used
as we walk through a packet forwarding example later in
this chapter.
71
5 | MPLS Labels
What is an LFIB? - II
Award Futureland
30.0.0 20.0.0
LSP 1
LSR A
a LER 2
LER 5
a b LSP 2
Todayland
b 50.0.0
LER 1
LSP 3 LER 4
LSR B
MPLS Network LER 3
Pastland
LFIB for LSR A 40.0.0
NHLFE Outgoing
In Out Next Hop Interface
LFIB: Label Forwarding Information Base
36 84 LER 2 a NHLFE: Next Hop Label Forwarding Entry
The figure shows the LFIB for LSR A.

LSR A does not need to match the packet to an FEC since
both incoming and outgoing labels were assigned during
LSP setup. It just looks at the incoming label, 36 in this
case. It then indexes into the LFIB table for the given
incoming interface and discovers the outgoing label entry.
The incoming label 36 is swapped with the outgoing label
84 and the labeled packet is sent out on the outgoing
interface a, which is connected to the next hop LER 2.
72
5 | MPLS Labels
Label Information Base - I
RID A RID B RID C

20.6.7.x 50.6.7.x
LER A LSR B LER C
Remote
Binding
Remote Binding
Local Binding Local Binding

Local Binding
LER A RID A LER C RID C
LSR B RID B
50.6.7:92 50.6.7:86
50.6.7:35
LIB entries for LSR B
FEC: 50.6.7
Local = 35
Remote: RID A = 92
Remote: RID C = 86
The MPLS Label Information Base (LIB) is the router- Also assume that LER C has decided to create a local
specific collection of FEC “Local Bindings” coupled with binding with value 86 for the same FEC. The local binding
the “Local Bindings” advertised by that router’s neighbors. in router C could be expressed as 50.6.7:86. Finally, LER
When the router receives the neighbor’s “Local Bindings” A creates a local binding for the same FEC but assigns a
for the FECs they are considered “Remote Bindings” to value of 92, expressed as 50.6.7:92.
the receiving router; therefore, the LIB can be considered
As stated above, a remote binding is a binding received
the collection of all local bindings plus all remote bindings
from a peer router (where the binding was considered to
at each router. We will see later that policies differ as to
be a local binding to the peer). In our example, LER A and
when a router creates a local binding for a FEC and with
LER C send their local bindings for FEC 50.6.7 to LSR B
whom these local binding are shared. This chart provides
where they become remote bindings to router LSR B. A
a simple example of the creation and sharing of local
Router Identifier (RID) is used by each router to identify
bindings for a single FEC (network 50.6.7). We also focus
from which router the binding was received. Router
only on the LIB for router LSR B.
loopback addresses are typically used as RIDs.
This chart displays two attached networks that can be
The Label Information Base (LIB) is the set of all local
assumed to be Forwarding Equivalency Classes (FECs).
bindings and remote bindings at a given MPLS router. This
Any MPLS router may create a local binding with any FEC
becomes a repository for label values when a Label
by selecting a number to associate with the FEC (which
Switched Path (LSP) is defined and is used in populating
will later be used as an MPLS label value). For example,
the Label Forwarding Information Base (LFIB).
suppose LSR B decided to associate a value of 35 with
FEC 50.6.7. The local binding could then be expressed as
50.6.7:35.
73
5 | MPLS Labels
Label Information Base - II
Label 49 Label 87
20.6.7.x 50.6.7.x
LER A LSR B LER C
LIB (LSR B) LFIB (LSR B)

FEC: 50.6.7
In Out
Local = 49
Remote: RID C = 87 49 87
Before a Label Information Base (LFIB) can be created in FEC 50.6.7. These labels are then used to create an entry
the Data Plane, a Label Information Base (LIB) for each in LSR B’s LFIB for FEC 50.6.7. In the LFIB entry the local
router is created in the Control Plane. The LIB describes binding created by LSR B is entered as the “Incoming
the “bindings” and associates label values that are used Label (IN)” related to the FEC, while the remote binding
to create LSPs. The LIB is the collection of local bindings value received from LER C is entered as the “Outgoing
and remote bindings for the router. Label (OUT).” Later, when MPLS traffic is received for the
associated Label Switched Path to 50.6.7 the MPLS label
This chart demonstrates one option for creation and
value on the packet will be 49. LSR B will remove the
distribution of bindings. Assume that the OSPF has
incoming label and replace it with one having a value of
determined that the shortest path from 20.6.7.x to
87.
50.6.7.x is the path LER A to LSR B to LER C.
We will call this approach to label binding creation
One option for LIB creation is to identify a specific IP
“Ordered LSP Control Mode,” and the approach to the
destination prefix (e.g. 50.6.7.x) from the routing table,
distribution of the local bindings we will call “Downstream
a.k.a. Forwarding Information Base (FIB), and treat this as
On Demand” (DOD). These are neither the only options for
a Forwarding Equivalency Classes (FEC). In this scenario
label binding creation and distribution nor are they the
LER C (the egress LER) defines the first binding by
Cisco preferred solutions as we will see in the following
assigning a value of 87 to the FEC creating the local
charts.
binding 50.5.6:87. This is sent to LSR B. Since LSR B to
LER C is on the shortest path the received binding is
treated by LSR B as a remote binding. LSR B then creates
a local binding for 50.6.7.x (with a value of 49) and sends
it to LER A. While doing this LSR B makes entries in its LIB,
logging both the local binding and the remote binding for
74
5 | MPLS Labels
MPLS Label Modes

Award Futureland
30.0.0 20.0.0
LFIB
Ingress LSP
LSR a
• LSP Control Modes LFIB
– Independent vs. Ordered MPLS Network
LER 2 LFIB Egress
• Label Distribution Modes
– Unsolicited Downstream (UD) LER 3
LER 1
vs. Downstream-on-demand (DOD)
• Label Retention Modes
– Liberal vs. Conservative
Pastland
40.0.0
MPLS requires the creation and distribution of label

bindings in order to establish Label Switched Paths (LSP).
“LSP Control Modes” identify the process by MPLS to
create local bindings. Once local bindings are created they
are exchanged with neighboring MPLS routers where they
are called remote bindings. “Label Distribution Modes“
describe the triggers that cause the local bindings to be
distributed, and to whom. Some alternatives for creation
and distribution of bindings may result with unused labels.
Is there value to retaining these unused labels or should
labels be discarded when they have no immediate need?
The policy that determines this is called the Label
Retention Mode.
75
5 | MPLS Labels
Independent Control and

Unsolicited Downstream
Triggered by
new route
table entries
1. OSPF
Futureland 20.0.0/24 Award
2. Bind 20.0.0/24
20.0.0 30.0.0
to Label 35
LER A LSR B LER C

Tell all 3. OSPF
neighbors 30.0.0/24
4. Bind 30.0.0/24
to Label 67
Cisco:
Independent Independent Control
LSP Control
-Unsolicited Downstream (UD)
MPLS supports two methods of label assignment to an Using a Conservative Label Retention policy extra labels
FEC called label binding. The first is called independent are discarded, minimizing data storage management
control and is shown in this figure. LER A has used OSPF problems. Using a Liberal Label Retention policy the
to advertise address prefix 20.0.0/24 to LSR B. Upon network retains all labels even if there is not a current
receiving this advertisement LSR B independently creates need for the label. This has the effect of speeding up
a local binding for FEC 20.0.0 and assigns a label (e.g., convergence when changes occur in the network. The
35; local binding: 20.0.0:35). Later LSR B receives default Cisco policy is Liberal Label Retention.
another OSPF advertisement for prefix 30.0.0/24. Again,
LSR B independently creates another local binding
assigning a label value of 67 (local binding 30.0.0:67).
The control modes do not indicate the rules for
distributing these local bindings. The independent control
for creation of local bindings is generally coupled with the
Unsolicited Downstream (UD) label distribution mode. The
rules governing how these bindings will be distributed are
called label distribution modes.
The advantage of independent control is that the network
might establish LSPs more quickly, although this can
result in numerous bindings that are not associated with
any LSP. This brings in the question whether these extra
labels should be retained or discarded.
76
5 | MPLS Labels
Ordered Control and Downstream

On Demand Wait for LSP
Tell only one Request
neighbor Award
Futureland
20.0.0 30.0.0
LER A LSR B LER C

1. Bind 30.0.0/24
to Label 45
2. Bind 30.0.0/24
to Label 83
Ordered Control
-Downstream on Demand (DOD)
The second label control mode is ordered control, shown The downside to ordered control/DOD solution is that it
in this figure. It is so named because the label takes more time than independent control to establish the
assignments occur in an ordered manner. In ordered LSP. Some people consider this “latency” a small price to
control the MPLS router only creates a local binding for a pay for the control it gives the network administrator.
FEC if it recognizes that it is the egress LER for the FEC or Others think ordered control is too cumbersome. For
if the MPLS router has received a (remote) label binding MPLS both approaches are supported, but keep in mind
from the next hop in the LSP toward the FEC. The example that ordered control should be implemented at all LSRs if
in this figure shows the operation emanating from the it is going to be effective.
egress LER C. LER C recognizes that it is the egress LER
for FEC 30.0.0 and it creates a local binding with label
value 45 (Local Binding 30.0.0:45). Similarly, LER A
recognizes that it is the egress LER for FEC 20.0.0,
therefore creating a local binding with label value 83
(Local Binding 20.0.0:83)
Again, the label control mode does not define how LER C
distributes the local bindings but the ordered control for
creation of local bindings is generally coupled with the
Downstream On Demand (DOD) label distribution mode.
When coupled with DOD, ordered control ensures that all
LSRs use the same FEC as the initial advertiser. This
alternative also allows a network administrator some
leeway in controlling how LSPs are established.
77
5 | MPLS Labels
Example: LIB Table Creation - I

Step 1: Use the IP Routing Table to LIB for R3
create a local label binding for FEC Local or Router Label
network 50.6.7.0/24 Remote ID
50.6.7 L R3 37
R3
LIB for R1
FEC Local or Router Label 50.6.7.0/24
Remote ID
R1 R5 Customer
50.6.7 L R1 17 Network
LIB for R5
FEC Local or Router Label
Remote ID
50.6.7 L R5 57
Example – only one attached network OSPF LSA’s
This is an example of LIB table creation in a small MPLS

network. Customer network 50.6.7.x/24 is connected to
R5. It is assumed that an IGP (OSPF) has already
converged and that each router has an IP Routing Table
based on information sent from the other routers in the
network.
To create the LIB tables each router uses the IP routing
table to create a local binding by associating (binding) a
FEC (network prefix from the routing table) with a locally
assigned label value.
For this example we arbitrarily assigned labels that have a
value that is 10 times the router number plus the value of
the third field in the network prefix. For router R1 network
prefix 50.6.7 is bound to label 17 (1*10 + 7). Using this
formula R3 uses label 37, and R5 uses label 57 network
prefix 50.6.7. (Note that this label allocation is purely for
illustration purposes and does not reflect any real world
label allocation scheme.)
The FEC, router ID, and label are stored in a LIB entry that
is identified as a local binding.
78
5 | MPLS Labels
Example: LIB Table Creation - II

LIB for R3
Step 2: Distribute the local label FEC Local or Router Label
bindings for 50.6.7.0/24 to the Remote ID
adjacent neighbors. 50.6.7 L R3 37
R R1 17
R R5 57
R3
LIB for R1
FEC Local or Router Label 50.6.7.0/24
Remote ID
50.6.7 L R1 17 R5 Customer
R R3 37 R1 Network
R R5 57
LIB for R5
FEC Local or Router Label
Remote ID
50.6.7 L R5 57
R R1 17
R R3 37

LDP Updates
The next step is to distribute the local label bindings

network 50.6.7.0/24 from each router to each adjacent
router using LDP updates. These updates are received by
the peer routers and stored in their LIB tables as remote
bindings.
79
5 | MPLS Labels
Exercise: LIB Table Creation

LIB for R3
Net Local or Router Label
Exercise: Create the LIB entries Remote ID
for each router for network 50.6.7 L R3 37
prefix 50.6.1.0/24 R R1 17
R R5 57
50.6.1 L R3 31
R R1 11
LIB for R1
R R5 51
Net Local or Router Label R3
Remote ID 50.6.7.0/24
50.6.7 L R1 17
R R3 37 Customer
R1 R5
R R5 57 Network
50.6.1 L R1 11
R3 LIB for R5
R 31 Net Local or Router Label
R R5 51 Remote ID
50.6.7 L R5 57
R R1 17
Customer R R3 37
50.6.1.0/24 Network 50.6.1 L R5 51
R R1 11
R R3 31
Exercise:
Step 1: Create a local binding by associating (binding) a
FEC (network prefix from the routing table) with the label
value. Assume each is assigned a label that has a value
10 times the router number plus the third field entry in the
network IP address (e.g., router R1 uses a label of 11
(1*10 + 1) for the label value for network 50.6.1). R3
uses label 31, and R5 uses label 51 for network prefix
50.6.1.
Step 2: Distribute the local labels from each router to each
of their adjacent routers and update the LIB with the
remote label bindings.
80
5 | MPLS Labels
MPLS Label
Distribution
81
5 | MPLS Labels
Hop-by-Hop Routed LSP Setup

Remote
(Initiation) Award
Bindings FEC = 30.0.0 30.0.0
Label = 54
Futureland LFIB
20.0.0 LSR A LFIB In Out Next Hop
LER 1
54 none none
LFIB
FEC = 30.0.0
LFIB IP Forwarding Table
Label = 54
LER 2 Destination Next Hop
30.0.0 Direct
MPLS Network
LFIB
LER 3
Pastland
40.0.0
Since LER 1 is the egress MPLS LER for any LSP destined
for Award, LER 1 decides to set up LSPs for Award’s
network (with network ID 30.0.0). This process is initiated
manually by network personnel or as a result of LER 1
learning about Award’s network through routing updates.
LER 1 selects a free label (e.g., 54) from its label pool,
binds it to Award’s network (with network ID 30.0.0) and
sends a label-binding message to its adjacent routers. In
our example this message is sent from LER 1 to LER 3
and LSR A. The message contains the network ID 30.0.0
and the label 54. Now any packet that is destined for
Award’s network (30.0.0) is part of the same FEC. In
addition, LER 1 makes an entry in the Label Forwarding
Information Base (LFIB).
82
5 | MPLS Labels

(Actions at LER 3) Award
30.0.0
Futureland
LFIB LFIB
20.0.0 LSR A In Out Next Hop
LFIB 54 none none
LER 1
MPLS Network
LER 2 LFIB IP Forwarding Table
Destination Next
LFIB Hop
LFIB
In Out Next Hop 30.0.0 Direct
none 54 LER 1 LER 3
IP Forwarding Table
Destination Next Pastland
Hop 40.0.0
30.0.0 LER 1
What happens at LER 3 when it receives the label-binding

message from LER 1? It needs to determine if it is
supposed to accept the binding (i.e., add the binding
information to its LFIB). To do this it accesses its IP
forwarding table to verify if LER 1 is the next hop for the
30.0.0 network. In other words, would LER 3 send
packets to LER 1 directly if pure IP forwarding were used?
If yes the label binding is accepted; otherwise it is
rejected. In our example LER 1 is the next hop for Award’s
network; therefore, LER 3 creates a binding in its LFIB.
Now, we have established a LSP for the 30.0.0 network
from LER 3 to LER 1.
83
5 | MPLS Labels

(Actions at LSR A)
FIB
In Out Next Hop
36 54 LER1
Futureland FEC = 30.0.0
IP Forwarding Table
20.0.0 Label = 36 LSR A LFIB Award
Destination Next Hop 30.0.0
30.0.0 LER 1
LFIB FEC = 30.0.0 LFIB

LER 2 Label = 36 • Ignore if
LER 1
DOD
Remote MPLS Network • Keep if UD
Bindings LFIB
LER 3
Pastland
40.0.0
Now let’s take a look at what happens at LSR A when LSR

A receives the label binding message from LER 1. Very
simply, it does the same thing as LER 3. It accesses its
forwarding table to verify whether LER 1 is the next hop
for the 30.0.0 network. In our example, the answer is yes,
so it creates a binding in its LFIB for the 30.0.0 network.
The LSRs are not the endpoints of an LSP; therefore, they
need to propagate the LSP further. LSR A allocates a free
label (e.g., 36) from its label pool and sends another
binding message to its adjacent routers, LER 2 and LER 3.
The Label binding distributed by LSRA is received by LER
3. LER 3 will accept a binding sent by LSRA for a specific
route, only if LSRA is the next hop for that route. In this
case, LSRA is not the next hop for the 30.0.0 network.
Therefore, LER 3 rejects the binding.
84
5 | MPLS Labels

(Actions at LER 2)
FEC = 30.0.0
Futureland
Label = 36 Award
20.0.0 LFIB
30.0.0
LSR A
LFIB
LFIB
LER 2
LER 1
FIB
In Out Next Hop MPLS
none 36 LSR A LER 3 LFIB Network
Pastland
40.0.0
LER 2 receives the binding from LSR A. Since LSR A is the

next hop for the 30.0.0 network, LER 2 creates a binding
in its LFIB for the 30.0.0 network. Since LER 2 is an edge
router, the LSP setup does not propagate further.
85
5 | MPLS Labels
Hop-by-Hop Routed LSP Setup (Final

Picture)
IP Forwarding Table-LSR A LFIB for LSR A
Destination Next Hop In Out Next Hop
Futureland
30.0.0 LER 1 36 54 LER 1 Award
20.0.0
30.0.0
LSR A LFIB
LSP
LFIB for LER 2 LFIB for LER 1
In Out Next Hop LFIB In Out Next Hop
LFIB LER 2
none 36 LSR A 54 none none
IP Forwarding Table-LER2 MPLS Network LER 1
Destination Next Hop LFIB
30.0.0 LSR A
LER 3
LFIB for LER 3
In Out Next Hop Pastland
none 54 LER 1 40.0.0
IP Forwarding Table-LER 3
Destination Next Hop
30.0.0 LER 1
At the conclusion of the LSP setup we have two LSPs that

start from LER 1. The first LSP goes through LER 1 - LSR A
- LER 2 links. The second LSP goes through LER 1 - LER 3
links.
Please note that the packets flow from Futureland’s
network to Award’s network through LSP 2 and from
Pastland’s network to Award’s network through LSP 1.
We have shown the LSP setup in only one direction. If we
need LSPs in reverse direction from the Futureland and
Pastland networks to Award’s network both LER 2 and
LER 3 would have to perform the same LSP setup as LER
1 to set up LSPs in the opposite direction.
86
5 | MPLS Labels
Explicit Routed LSP Setup - I

Futureland LSR A LFIB
20.0.0 Award
Label Request 30.0.0
LFIB FEC = 30.0.0

Label Request Explicit Path LFIB Label Request
FEC = 30.0.0 LSR A
LER 2 FEC = 30.0.0
Explicit Path LER 3 LER 1 Explicit Path
LSR A LER 1
LSR A
LER 3
LER 3
LER 1
Label Request LER 1
LER 3
LFIB FEC = 30.0.0
ERO
Explicit Path
LSR A Pastland
Example of DOD and Ordered Control LER 3 40.0.0
LER 1
We will demonstrate the explicit routed example from the

prior chapter using ordered control and Downstream On
Demand (DOD). Note that the process begins with a label
request message (hence “on demand”). Included in the
label request message is an Explicit Route Object (ERO)
which identifies the explicit path to be taken.
Explicit routed LSP setup is initiated by either the ingress
or the egress LER. In our example an LSP setup is initiated
by the ingress router – LER 2. We will assume LER 2
knows the entire path for the LSP (i.e., explicit route). This
is actually done through a network management system
or some automated process that is described later. LER 2
begins by sending a label request message requesting a
label for the LSP from the next LSR. The message includes
the list of LSRs and LERs through which the LSP should be
set up. Each component along the way forwards the
message to the next LER or LSR in the list.
87
5 | MPLS Labels
Explicit Routed LSP Setup - II

LFIB
Futureland In Out Next Hop
20.0.0 LSR A LFIB 36 61 LER 3 Award
30.0.0
LFIB LER 1
LFIB
LFIB
LER 2
In Out Next Hop LFIB
none 36 LSR A In Out Next Hop
LFIB
LER 3 82 none none
LFIB
In Out Next Hop
Pastland
61 82 LER 1 40.0.0
When the label request message reaches the last LER in

the list it starts the label allocation process. The egress
LER (LER 1) allocates a label and sends it to the previous
router along the path. Each router binds a label to the
path, creating an LFIB entry, and sends it back to the
previous router. When it reaches the ingress LER (LER 2),
the LSP setup process is completed and the LSP has been
established.
88
5 | MPLS Labels
Label Swapping and

Forwarding
89
5 | MPLS Labels
Motivation for Label Stacking

Customer 41 52 63 Customer MPLS header = 4 bytes
Net 1 IP Header IP Header IP Header Net 2
Payload Payload Payload
LSR A LSR B
LER 1 LER 2
LER 1 to LER 2 traffic
2nd Customer 41 52 63
2nd Customer
Net a IP Header IP Header IP Header Net b
In this chart the MPLS service provider has a customer But suppose that Net 1 and Net a both have a prefix of
who has two geographically dispersed networks and wants 10.2.3 while Net 2 and Net b both have a prefix of 10.4.5.
to use the MPLS network to “connect” Net 1 to Net 2. When LER 2 receives a packet destined for 10.4.5.8
When we describe Layer 2 VPNs (L2VPN) and Layer 3 should it be sent to the first customer of the second
VPNs (L2VPN) we will elaborate how this might be done. customer?
To accommodate the customer, the service provider has
established a LSP from LER 1 to LER 2. A MPLS label of
41 is attached to the customer’s IP packets received at
LER 1, then forwarded toward LER 2. LER 2 receives the
customer’s IP packets which now have a label of 63,
removes the label and forwards the packet to Net 2.
Suppose now a second customer is added who connects
their Net a through LER 1 and their Net b through LER 2.
The end points are the same and there are plenty of
resources so the service provider applies the same
labeling for the second customer as it did for the first
customer. This may work fine if all of the customer’s
networks have public IP addresses.
90
5 | MPLS Labels
Label Stacking
Customer 1 41 52 63 CE
10.10 CE
65 65 65
Customer 1
IP Header IP Header IP Header 10.20
VPN 65
LSR A LSR B
Customer 1 Tunnel (65)
LER 1 LER 2
Customer 2 Tunnel (20)
41 52 63
Customer 2
Customer 2 20 20 20 10.20
10.10 CE
CE IP Header IP Header
IP Header
VPN 20
To answer the question from the previous chart, label The ingress LER identifies the customer sending packets
stacking in MPLS allows multiple labels to be carried and applies a lower label identifying that customer. It then
simultaneously in a packet. This chart demonstrates a attaches a second label used for label swapping across
scenario where stacked labels are required. Our two the MPLS network. The egress LER pops the top label,
customers may both be using private IP addressing and uses the bottom label to forward the packet to the
(overlapping IP address spaces) to communicate across correct customer’s network.
the MPLS backbone network between their respective
subnets 10.10/16 and 10.20/16 (private IP addresses).
The paths they are taking through the MPLS network are
the same.
This leads to the possibility that Customer 1 sending
packet from its 10.10 subnet to its 10.20 subnet could be
mistakenly sent to the 10.20 subnet of Customer 2. To
eliminate this possibility a VPN label label of 65 is
assigned to all of packets for Customer 1, and a VPN label
of 20 is assigned to all of the packets for Customer 2.
These VPN labels are stacked below the path identifying
labels and used on the egress LER to identify the
customer, and where to forward the packets
91
5 | MPLS Labels
Summary
• MPLS adds a four-byte header to packets which
includes label and QoS bits.
• An MPLS label is an unstructured 20-bit number.
– Some label numbers have special meaning.
– Each router assigns its own label and distributes:
• Independently – Unsolicited Downstream and
• Ordered – Downstream On Demand.
• Routers use a Label Information Base (like a
routing table) to make forwarding decisions.
• Label stacking is used for MPLS tunnels.
92
5 | MPLS Labels
1. A shim header is a must in IP networks. True
or False? (Justify your answer.)
2. Match the fields used to carry a label with
L2 technology:
A. Shim 1. ATM
B. VPI/VCI 2. FR
C. DLCI 3. Ethernet
93
5 | MPLS Labels
3. Label Stacking is restricted to only two labels. True or
False?
4. The LFIB contains an entry for each LSP. True or False?
5. LSRs generally swap labels. True or False?
6. The LSR uses IP forwarding table to forward packets. True
or False?
7. In “Independent Control,” what triggers a label assignment
operation?
A. OSPF routing update message
B. Label-to-FEC binding message
C. Packet without a label
D. Packet with a new label value
94
5 | MPLS Labels
Exercise: Ordered LSP Control Mode: LFIB

Creation and Label Forwarding
A student assumes the role of one of the five IP
routers.
1. Use provided LIB tables and the Explicitly
Defined path from network 50.6.7.x to 50.6.7.x
to create appropriate entries in each LFIB.
2. Use the LFIB tables to demonstrate the
forwarding of a labeled packet from IP address
50.6.9.87 to IP address 50.6.7.12
See the following network diagram.

95
5 | MPLS Labels
Exercise: LFIB Creation with Explicit LSP

LIB- R2
Net: 50.6.7
LIB- R1 Local or Router ID Label
LFIB 1 Net: 50.6.7 Remote
In Out Dest Out Local or Router ID Label L 54.4 27 LIB- R3
Lab Lab (FEC) Port Remote 50.6.8.x R1 54.5 17 Net: 50.6.7
Local or Router ID Label
L 54.5 17 R3 54.3 37
Customer Remote
R2 54.4 27 R4 54.2 47
Network L 54.3 37
R4 54.2 47 LFIB 2 R2 54.4 27
Customer Loopback 0 In Out Dest Out Loopback 0 R5 54.1 3
Lab Lab (FEC) Port
Network 10.2.54.4 10.2.54.3 LFIB 3
50.6.9.x 2 B 3 In Out Dest Out
A C Lab Lab (FEC) Port
B
A
PE1
1 A P1
Loopback 0 50.6.7.x
10.2.54.5 B
B Customer
PE3 A B4 C A 5 Network
LFIB 4
In Out Dest Out LIB- R4 P2 PE2
Lab Lab (FEC) Port Net: 50.6.7 Loopback 0 Loopback 0 LIB- R5
Local or Router ID Label 10.2.54.1 Net: 50.6.7
Remote 10.2.54.2 LFIB 5 Local or Router ID Label
L 54.2 47 In Out Dest Out Remote
R1 54.5 17 Lab Lab (FEC) Port L 54.1 3
R2 54.4 27 R3 54.3 37
R5 54.1 3 R4 54.2 47
This exercise assumes that five students are each

performing the role of an MPLS router. The task is to
define an explicit path from network 50.6.9 to 50.6.7
going through routers; R1, R2, R3, and R5.
Assume that network 50.6.9 initiates the request to
establish the explicit path by sending a PATH message
through the identified explicit path requesting the egress
LER to create an LFIB entry and return the appropriate
label to the prior router in the path using an RESV
message. This RESV message will eventually be
propagated back to network 50.6.9 with LFIB entries
being populated along the way.
a. Work as a team to define LFIB table entries for all
affected routers. Use information from the LIB
tables defined earlier to define labels that will
achieve the delivery of a labeled packet.
b. Use the LFIB tables to demonstrate how the
labeled packet is forwarded using MPLS
forwarding from 50.6.9 to 50.6.7 along the LSP.
96
6 | MPLS Protocols
Chapter 6:
MPLS Protocols
97
6 | MPLS Protocols
Objectives
to:
• Describe how labels are distributed using the
Label Distribution Protocol (LDP)
• Explain how existing protocols such as RSVP and
BGP can be used to distribute labels
98
6 | MPLS Protocols
New MPLS Protocols
99
6 | MPLS Protocols
Landscape of MPLS Protocols
New Protocol Enhancing Pre-MPLS Protocols
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

For Label
Label Distribution Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Distribution Protocol (LDP) Reservation Protocols (RSVP)
Multiprotocol BGP (MP-BGP)
Several protocols have been defined for implementing the The Label Information Base (LIB) is populated by label
label distribution functionality required in MPLS. MPLS bindings received from LDP, RSVP, or MP-BGP, or
standards have also defined a brand new protocol for statically assigned. RSVP distributes labels only for traffic
distributing label information between routers. This is engineering and MP-BGP distributes labels only for BGP
known as the Label Distribution Protocol (LDP). Some of Customers, while LDP distributes labels for interior routes.
the existing routing protocols have also been enhanced to
carry label information. For example routing protocols
such as OSPF and BGP have been enhanced to carry label
information along with routing updates. The Resource
Reservation Protocol (RSVP), which was originally
designed for Quality of Service (QoS) reservations, has
been enhanced to carry label information. The LDP and
RSVP are the two dominant intra-domain label distribution
protocols supported in MPLS routers today.
The protocols discussed so far implement basic label
distribution functionality. RSVP with Traffic Engineering
extensions (RSVP-TE) is the primary protocol for
supporting traffic engineering functionality, while LDP is
used when Traffic Engineering is not involved. RSVP-TE
also supports QoS reservation capabilities.
100
6 | MPLS Protocols
LDP
101
6 | MPLS Protocols
Label Distribution Protocol

• Distributes label binding information
• Uses TCP as the transport
– TCP port 646
– Reliable delivery
• Provides a mechanism for LSR/LER discovery
– Discovery messages run over UDP
• Provides mechanisms to avoid routing loops
MPLS must provide a standard method for the distribution

of label bindings among LSRs and LERs. The Label
Distribution Protocol (LDP) was created by the MPLS
working group to satisfy this requirement.
LDP uses TCP port 646 for reliable delivery of Label
Advertisements. It also provides a discovery mechanism
so that the LSRs and LERs can discover each other;
however, it uses UDP for the transport of Discovery
messages.
LDP uses multicast Hello messages to discover LSRs and
LERs to which it has a direct connection and then
establishes a TCP connection. Eventually an LDP session
is established between the LDP peers. Using LDP the
LSRs and LERs can advertise or request label bindings.
LDP uses information gathered by Layer 3 IP routing
protocols such as RIP and OSPF, therefore, it is
susceptible to routing loops, especially in transient
conditions when the network configuration is changing.
LDP provides built-in mechanisms to avoid routing loops.
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6 | MPLS Protocols
LDP Message Exchanges

Targeted LDP
Logical Exchange
LER R
LER Q
Logical Logical
Exchange Exchange
LDP Messages LDP Messages

LSR A LSR B LSR C
MPLS does not make a forwarding decision with each Shown at the top of the chart is another use of LDP
layer 3 datagram (based on the addressing and Type of generally referred to as Targeted LDP. This is used to
Service contents of the layer 3 header). Instead, a exchange L2VPN label values between LERs (PE routers).
forwarding equivalency is determined for classes of layer Unlike the regular LDP which unicasts the label value to all
3 datagrams and a fixed-length label is negotiated neighbors, Targeted LDP unicasts the label value
between neighboring LSRs along label switched paths independently to each relevant LER separately.
(LSPs) from ingress to egress. Routers with label switching
capabilities must be able to determine which of their
neighbors are capable of MPLS operations. They must
then agree upon the label values to be used for the
transport of user traffic. LDP is used to support this
requirement.
This figure shows the general concepts of LDP. It operates
between LSRs that are directly connected via a link (LSR A
and LSR B as well as LSR B and LSR C). It can also
operate between non-adjacent LSRs: LSR A and LSR C,
shown in the figure with dashed lines. Obviously, the LDP
messages for the label bindings for LSR A and C flow
through LSR B, but LSR B does not take action on them.
LSRs that use LDP to exchange label/FEC mapping
information are called LDP peers and they exchange this
information by forming an LDP session.
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6 | MPLS Protocols
Categories of LDP Messages
Neighbor LSR Neighbor LSR

Discovery Messages
Session Messages
Advertisement Messages
Notification Messages
There are four categories of LDP messages, shown in this

figure.
Discovery messages are used to announce and maintain
the presence of a LSR in a network. Periodically, a LSR
sends a Hello message through a UDP port with the
multicast address of “all routers on this subnet.”
Session messages are used to establish, maintain, and
delete sessions between LDP peers (the LSRs). These
operations entail the sending of Initialization messages
over TCP. After this operation is complete the two LSRs
become LDP peers.
Advertisement messages are used to create, change, and
delete label mappings for FECs. These messages are also
transported over TCP. A LSR can request a label mapping
from a neighboring LSR whenever it chooses (say,
whenever it needs one). It can also advertise label
mappings whenever it wishes a LDP peer to use a label
mapping.
Notification messages are also sent over TCP and are
used to provide status, diagnostic, and error information.
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6 | MPLS Protocols
Multiple Label Spaces
LSR A
LSR B
z
Label space b1, 1-500 Int. b1
Label Space b2, 1-500 Int. b2
LFIB
In Out Interface
19 54 b1
26 54 b2
Interface :
Label spaces in LDP are the same as those defined in which two ATM switches have multiple links connecting
MPLS namely: them and perhaps reuse the labels on each interface.
With this approach, a label space and its LSR is always
• Per Interface: Label space where each interface can
known if the LDP identifier accompanies an LDP message.
reuse the labels. Suppose label 54 is assigned to a
In this example, labels 1-500 are used twice and the LDP
LSP on egress port A. If the router supports per
identifiers keep the label spaces uniquely identified.
interface label spaces the router can assign label 54
to another LSP on egress port B.
• Per Platform: Label space where a label can be used
for one LSP for the router. If label 54 is assigned to a
LSP on egress port A then label 54 can not be
assigned to another LSP on egress port B. A per
platform label space is required if the network needs
to support various path recovery procedures. Why?
A label space is identified with a six octet LDP identifier.
The first four octets identify a LSR and must be a globally
unique value, such as an IP address (a router ID). Often
this is the loopback 0 IP address of the router. The last
two octets identify the label space within the LSR.
If the LSR uses multiple label spaces it associates a
different LDP identifier with each label space. Multiple
label spaces may be encountered in ATM networks in
105
6 | MPLS Protocols
RSVP
106
6 | MPLS Protocols
Label Distribution Scenario

with RSVP - I
PATH PATH
Label_Request Label_Request
(30.0.0) LSR A (30.0.0)
LER 1 LER 2
Futureland Award
20.0.0 30.0.0
Let’s show how label distribution is used for the LSP setup In addition, the PATH message may also carry information
with an example. We will use RSVP for label distribution to regarding required QoS for the LSP. LSR A makes note of
set up the LSP. RSVP was originally defined for supporting the request and forwards the PATH message to LER 2.
QoS reservations in IP networks, it has been extended to LER 2 is the egress point for the LSP. It is connected to
carry label information. the Award network and must start the allocation of labels.
Note that at this point we have not allocated any labels for
Let’s take the same example we used before for the LSP
this path.
setup process. We used generic message names such as
label request and label binding during the LSP setup. We
take the same example and apply RSVP messages to set
up the LSP.
The goal is to set up a LSP from the Futureland network to
the Award network. The LER1 attached to Futureland
decides to set up a LSP to Award with the network prefix
30.0.0. The decision to set up LSPs may be through
manual intervention (network management systems) or as
a result of LER1 learning the route from LSR A. LER1
sends a PATH message with a Label Request Object to
LSR A.
107
6 | MPLS Protocols

with RSVP - II
LSR A
RESV RESV
Label Label
LER 1 LER 2
(42) (37)
Futureland Award
20.0.0 30.0.0
The LER 2 initiates the label distribution process. It

allocates a label (37) and binds it to 30.0.0 in its LFIB.
This is a local binding for LER 2 related to FEC 30.0.0 In
addition to creating a binding, LER 2 reserves the
resources required to provide the desired QoS, if
requested. This local binding is sent in the Reservation
message (RESV) as a label object to LSR A where it is
considered a remote binding to LSR A. LSR A creates a
local binding for FEC 30.0.0 by allocating a label value
(42) and binding it to the 30.0.0 FEC.
A labeled packet arriving at LSR A for FEC 30.0.0 will then
have an incoming label of 42 and an outgoing label of 37.
LSR A reserves resources as appropriate then forwards its
local binding (30.0.0: 30) to LER 1. LER 1 receives
binding from LSR A and records it as a remote binding for
FEC 30.0.0. At this time the LSP setup process is
completed and the LSP has the desired QoS
characteristics, if it was requested.
108
6 | MPLS Protocols

with RSVP - III
LSR A
LFIB
LER 2
LER 1
LFIB LFIB
LFIB
Futureland In Out Next Award
20.0.0 Hop 30.0.0
LFIB 42 37 LER 2
In Out Next Hop LFIB
In Out Next
none 42 LSR A Hop
37 none Direct
This is the final picture of our Label Distribution Scenario

with RSVP. The LFIBs of the three LERs involved in the
process are shown with the appropriate labels that were
exchanged to setup the LSP from the Futureland (20.0.0)
network to the Award (30.0.0) network.
109
6 | MPLS Protocols
BGP and MP-BGP
110
6 | MPLS Protocols
Use of BGP
iBGP
LSR A
eBGP eBGP
CE
LER 1 LER 2
Futureland CE Award
20.0.0 30.0.0
• When BGP is used to distribute a particular route, it

can distribute a MPLS label for the route
• Piggybacked in the same BGP update message
• Label distribution uses Multi Protocol extensions
attribute [see RFC 2283]
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an Exterior Gateway The BGP operations are quite similar to the conventional
Protocol (EGP) used to perform inter-domain routing. The MPLS label stacking operations. For example if LER 1
BGP session between two BGP peers is said to be an needs to send a packet to destination Award (30.0.0) and
external BGP (eBGP) session if the BGP peers are in LER 1’s BGP next hop for Award is LER 2, and LER 2 has
different Autonomous Systems (AS) and is said to be an mapped label L to Award, then LER 1 first pushes L onto
internal BGP (iBGP) session if the BGP peers are in the the packet's label stack. LER1 then consults its Internal
same autonomous systems. In the chart, LER 1 and LER 2 Gateway Protocol (IGP) to find the next hop to LER2, call it
are peers in the same (MPLS) AS; iBGP is used here as a LSRA. If LSRA has distributed to LER1 a MPLS label for
routing protocol. Futureland and Award are both separate the route to LER 2, LER 1 can push this label on the
autonomous systems from the backbone MPLS network; packet's label stack and then send the packet to LSR A.
therefore exchanging of routing information between the
If a set of BGP speakers are exchanging routes via a route
LER 1 and a Customer Edge (CE) Futureland and between
reflector then by piggybacking the label distribution on the
LER 2 and the CE router in Award Solution involves the
route distribution, one is able to use the route reflector to
use of eBGP.
distribute the labels as well. This improves scalability
BGP has also been enhanced to support label distribution. significantly.
When BGP is used to distribute a particular route it can
also be used to distribute a MPLS label that is mapped to
that route. The label mapping information for a particular
route is piggybacked in the same BGP Update message
that is used to distribute the route itself.
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6 | MPLS Protocols
Use of BGP (Continued)

iBGP
LSR A
eBGP eBGP
CE
LER 1 LER 2
Futureland CE Award
20.0.0 30.0.0
• When BGP is used to distribute a particular route, it

can distribute a MPLS label for the route
• Piggybacked in the same BGP update message
• Label distribution uses Multi Protocol extensions
attribute [see RFC 2283]
Label distribution can be piggybacked in the BGP Update

message by using the BGP-4 Multi-Protocol extensions
attribute [see RFC 2283]. The label is encoded into the
Network Layer Reachability Information (NLRI) field of the
attribute and the Subsequent Address Family Identifier
(SAFI) field is used to indicate that the NLRI contains a
label. A BGP speaker may not use BGP to send labels to a
particular BGP peer unless that peer indicates, through
BGP capability negotiation, that it can process update
messages with the specified SAFI field.
112
6 | MPLS Protocols
Summary
• MPLS may use LDP (created for MPLS), RSVP and
BGP to distribute labels.
• LDP is used for distribution of hop-by-hop labels; it
establishes a neighbor relationship between
routers; and it distributes and withdraws labels .
• RSVP is used for explicit path LSPs.
113
6 | MPLS Protocols
Review Questions
1. Which of the following protocols support label distribution
functionality?
A. Label Distribution Protocol (LDP)
B. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
C. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
D. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
2. When RSVP is used to distribute labels the actual label
bindings are carried in which of the following?
A. The label object
B. The explicit route object
C. The RESV message
D. None of the above
114
7 | MPLS and QoS
Chapter 7:
MPLS and QoS
115
7 | MPLS and QoS
Objectives
to:
• Describe why QoS is important for today’s
network services
• Explain the application of MPLS-to-QoS
mechanisms:
― Integrated Services
― Differentiated Services
116
7 | MPLS and QoS
Motivation for QoS
117
7 | MPLS and QoS
Why is QoS Needed?

• IP networks are not naturally “I need 128 kbps with a maximum
suited to deliver time-sensitive 90 ms delay.”
data
– No guaranteed transfer rate
IP
– No bounded delay
– No guaranteed packet loss rate
• QoS allows hosts to request
network resources that support
certain traffic characteristics
Enables real-time sensitive voice and multimedia services

Main benefits Allows user to pay for and receive premium service
One user cannot hog large amount of resources

Secondary benefits Better overall utilization of network
We know that IP delivers packets in a connectionless There are obvious benefits to adding QoS capabilities to
manner. The packets may follow different routes before the network. Real-time sensitive services can request and
reaching the destination. The delay is not the same for all obtain the necessary network resources to enable their
packets. Some packets may reach the destination earlier smooth delivery. This changes the network into a multi-
than others. Because they might arrive out of order at the service network that can handle both data applications as
destination the packets must be placed in the proper well as voice and multimedia services. In addition, service
order before the message can be interpreted. All of these providers who build QoS capabilities into their network can
factors make IP unsuitable for sending time sensitive demand that users pay extra for real-time or other
data. In other words, Quality of Service (QoS) cannot be premium services, such as high bandwidth, that require
guaranteed by IP. extra network resources.
Therefore, proper QoS mechanisms must be put in place Changing from a best-effort based network to one
to handle time-sensitive data. The QoS mechanisms allow providing different qualities of service can also have
hosts to request allocation of network resources that beneficial secondary effects. One is that a single
support certain traffic characteristics. For example, a aggressive user cannot seize a disproportionately large
specific host may request an allocation of 128 kbps data amount of network resources to the possible exclusion of
rate with a maximum acceptable delay of 90ms. The other users. This kind of restraint may lead to a more
network, on its part, can either dedicate resources for the balanced and better overall utilization of the network.
host or prioritize network traffic to meet the QoS
requirements of the host.
118
7 | MPLS and QoS
QoS-enabled LSP with RSVP

PATH Msg
Tspec
Label_Req Obj Sender requests ingress LER to set up an LSP
Sender Receiver
LSR
LSR
LER
LER LSR
LSR LER
RESV Msg
Rspec
Label Obj Labels are distributed upstream to establish
an LSP with guaranteed QoS resources.
The Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) was designed upstream from the egress LER. The Rspec indicates the
to signal Quality of Service (QoS) requests across an IP type of integrated services required and the filter
network. In a MPLS network simple extensions to RSVP specification (filter spec) that characterizes the packets
allow it to establish a Label Switched Path (LSP) with QoS for which the reservation is being made. In this way, the
requirements. Using these extensions it is straightforward LSP is established and each LSR/LER reserves resources
to employ QoS in a MPLS network. As shown in the figure, according to the QoS parameters carried in the RESV
the sender initiates a RSVP PATH message with a Traffic message for that LSP.
Specification (Tspec) object and a Label Request object.
The Tspec object identifies the characteristics of the
traffic the path is expected to support. There can be lower
and upper requirements for bandwidth as well as delay
and jitter tolerances. The label request is notifying the
routers along the path that a label-switched path is being
planned to go through this router. In a MPLS network each
LSR/LER processes the PATH message in the same way
as regular IP routers.
An RESV message is returned from the egress router to
the head end router along the same path carrying a Label
Object and a Request Specification (Rspec) object.
The label object carried in the RSVP RESV message
communicates the label information to create a new LSP
119
7 | MPLS and QoS
DiffServ in MPLS
120
7 | MPLS and QoS
Differentiated Services
Router at edge of network
Network A assigns class of service;
sets Type of Service field
Network B
Voice
Network allocates Video on demand
resources to classes of
service rather than WWW data
individual flows
The traditional integrated services approach to reserving For example, they may reserve percentages of bandwidth
resources on a packet data network presented several for specific classes or assign relative priorities to packets
problems. Because resource reservation was typically within the service classes.
done on a per-data flow basis, the architecture did not
It is important to realize that traffic is not prioritized within
scale as well as the number of flows grew larger. The
a given service class. As such, the differentiated services
Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) also required that
approach cannot strictly promise quantifiable service for a
applications periodically re-register their resources. This
single user. In order to provide any assurance of service
was to protect against instances where applications did
quality the service provider must carefully monitor
not correctly release their resources when they
network traffic.
terminated. Additionally, the need to prioritize individual
data flows greatly complicated the jobs of routers in the One example of a differentiated services protocol is
network. DiffServ. DiffServ redefines the Type of Service field of the
IP header. It uses the first six bits of the field as a service
The differentiated services approach to providing assured
designator enabling 64 possible grades of service, the
Quality of Service (QoS) avoids many of these issues.
remaining two bits are reserved for future use. DiffServ is
Instead of reserving resources for individual data flows,
mostly intended to be used at the network boundary to
packets are assigned to a class of service. The set of
implement some service level agreement between two
service classes is relatively small and static. Routers can
service providers.
use the packet’s class designation as an index into a table
that defines appropriate behaviors for each class. Exactly
how routers treat the various service classes is open.
121
7 | MPLS and QoS
DiffServ Domain
Award
SLA
Network
DiffServ Domain Policy

Manager
Transit
Transit Router
Router
Pastland
Network
Edge Edge
Router Router
Transit
Futureland Router Todayland
Network Network
A DiffServ domain is a network of routers where every The policy manager is a central repository of all Service
router implements the QoS mechanisms based on the Level Agreements (SLAs) between the user and the
DiffServ model. Every router in the domain implements a DiffServ domain service provider. The policy manager (or
consistent set of service levels (or per-hop behavior QoS manager) defines and distributes policies for
definitions – PHBs). Each service level is treated the same different customers to the routers. The policy information
way at every router. For example, the packets belonging to distributed to edge routers and transit routers are
an Expedited Forwarding PHB are provided the same different. The policy information distributed to the edge
bandwidth and delay constraints at each router. routers includes classification, marking and enforcement
rules. However, transit routers require only PHB
The edge router is the entry point to the DiffServ Domain.
configuration information. In other words, what are the
As packets enter the DiffServ domain the edge router has
associated characteristics of a PHB? These include
to classify the packets to different PHBs supported by the
bandwidth definition, delay requirements, packet loss and
domain. Once the classification is done each packet has
many other QoS parameters.
to be marked to indicate the service level (or PHB) it will
receive in the network. Finally, it must enforce policies set
for the customer by the policy manager. We will elaborate
on each of these aspects later.
The transit routers do not have either classification or
traffic enforcement responsibility. It simply has to provide
the appropriate QoS associated with each PHB. How does
it know the PHB associated with each packet? Somehow,
the edge router has to mark that information in each
packet. We will see later how it is done.
122
7 | MPLS and QoS
DiffServ QoS Behavior

• Best-effort forwarding
• Assured Forwarding (AF)
– Four different AF classes
– Three levels of drop precedence
– Total of 12 QoS levels
• Expedited Forwarding
– Used for real-time services
Of 64 possible Diff-Serv PHB values, 14

have been standardized.
The IETF defines Differentiated Services as having

different classes of service corresponding to code points.
Specifically, the 13 DiffServ Code Points (DSCPs) that
describe Per-Hop Behaviors (PHB) may be supported. In
addition to Best-Effort these code points include one
expedited class, and a class for each of four assured
forwarding priorities with three drop precedence each.
123
7 | MPLS and QoS
Marking with DiffServ Code Points
8 bits
DSCP
Header Type of Service
6 bits
Payload
Marking is the process of stamping PHBs on classified

packets. Once the packets are stamped with their
associated PHBs the transit routers simply treat them
according to their PHBs. The Type Of Service (TOS) field in
the IP header is used for marking PHBs. The TOS field was
originally defined to support QoS in IP networks; however,
it is rarely supported in the routers. DiffServ reuses six bits
of the TOS field to define DiffServ Code Points (or DSCP).
Each DSCP identifies one PHB; therefore, a total of 64
DSCPs can be used to identify 64 different service levels
(or PHBs).
124
7 | MPLS and QoS
Edge Router Architecture for DiffServ
Policy Output
Configuration Queues
Input
Schedulers
Packet
Classification
Traffic
and Metering
Enforcement
Marking
Edge Router
The edge router is the entry point to the DiffServ Domain.

It is responsible for aggregation of packets into different
service levels and enforcing the traffic polices for the
customers. What are the actions executed on the packet?
First and foremost the packets have to be classified so
that they can be mapped to different service levels. The
packets have to be marked with the appropriate PHB
values corresponding to the service levels. Before the
traffic is put on the aggregated queues traffic
enforcement policies must be applied to ensure SLA
compliance. The output scheduler schedules packets for
transmission according to the characteristics of the PHB.
125
7 | MPLS and QoS
Transit Router Architecture
EF
AF 1
Classification
Schedulers
Packet
and
Marking AF 2
Operator
Defined
Simply look BE
at DSCP
After the edge router performs all the operations the

packets are transmitted into the DiffServ domain. At each
hop a transit router treats the packet according to its PHB.
By the time the packet reaches a transit router all the
hard work has been done by the edge router, which
minimizes the transit router operation. It needs to classify
packets into different PHBs which can be done by simply
looking at the DiffServ Code Point (DSCP) in the IP header.
There is one queue per PHB. The packet scheduler is
similar to the one we discussed in the edge router.
126
7 | MPLS and QoS
MPLS and DiffServ

DiffServ’s
DSCP Forwarding
Forwarding may be
may be
based on based on
examined
MPLS label DSCP
User User
Ingress Transit Egress
LER LSR LER
L2 Header L2 Header L2 Header

IP Header MPLS Label IP Header
Payload IP Header Payload
Payload
Considerable work is going on in the Internet working

groups to define the relationships between MPLS and
DiffServ. Recall that DiffServ redefines the IPv4 Type of
Service (TOS) field and names it the DS codepoint. This
field does not have to be processed by the MPLS transit
routers but it must be “visible” to the ingress and egress
LERs.
As shown in this figure, the ingress LER may use the DSCP
to make decisions about how to code the MPLS label. The
label selection can determine how the traffic is treated in
the network if the DSCP is used to determine the label.
127
7 | MPLS and QoS
Summary
• MPLS core network supports applications
with varying QoS needs for IP Convergence.
• RSVP is used to setup QoS enables explicit
paths.
• DiffServ codes point from IP packets are
mapped onto MPLS EXP bits.
– LER does this mapping and polices the traffic.
– LSR prioritizes the packets based on EXP bits.
128
7 | MPLS and QoS
1. RSVP carries the QoS requirements for a label-
switched path by defining a per-hop behavior. True or
False? (Justify your answer.)
2. The interior nodes in a DiffServ region are responsible
for:
A. Traffic policing
B. Traffic shaping
C. Per-hop behavior
D. Service level agreements
129
7 | MPLS and QoS
3. How many Diff-Serv PHBs have been standardized?
A. 64
B. 8
C. 14
D. None
4. How many QoS values are supported by MPLS?
A. 14
B. 8
C. 4
D. QoS is not supported by MPLS.
130
8 | MPLS and Traffic Engineering
Chapter 8:
MPLS and Traffic
Engineering
131
Objectives
to:
• Define Traffic Engineering (TE)
• List the application of MPLS to traffic
engineering
• Describe how MPLS supports traffic engineering
― Constrained routing
• Explain link and node failure protection in MPLS
― Fast Re-Route (FRR)
132
Motivation for
Traffic Engineering
133
Two Congestion Scenarios

• Insufficient resources:
Solution: Build more resources
• Inefficient use of available resources:

Solution: Traffic Engineering
Minimizing congestion is one of the most important traffic- The major problem with the “more bandwidth” philosophy
and resource-oriented performance objectives. is that it leads to very poor utilization of very expensive
Congestion can be described in two scenarios. The first is network resources, during periods when there is less
straightforward: there are insufficient resources to traffic (say during the early morning hours). It is akin to
accommodate the user’s traffic. The second is building a freeway system that accepts all rush hour
considerably more complex: there are sufficient resources traffic, and at 2:00 am the twenty lanes of asphalt are
in the network to support the user’s QoS needs but the almost empty.
traffic streams are not mapped properly onto the available
The second type of problem, inefficient resource
network resources (principally, the communications links
allocation can usually be addressed through traffic
between nodes). Therefore, some parts of the network
engineering. After all, the resources are available in the
become under-utilized and others are saturated with user
network. It is a matter of finding them and diverting user
traffic.
traffic to them. In general, congestion resulting from
The first problem is solved by building networks with more inefficient resource allocation can be reduced by adopting
bandwidth (say, in a freeway analogy, putting in more load balancing policies; that is diverting traffic to available
freeways). We also can help matters by applying links and nodes.
congestion control techniques, such as window control
operations with “receive not ready” and “congestion
notification” (in the freeway analogy, placing traffic lights
at the entrance ramps to the freeway).
134
What is Traffic Engineering?

an Analogy - I
Downtown
Dallas
Plano
Let’s try to understand traffic engineering with an

example. Consider the highway system shown in the
figure. For residents of the suburb of Plano there are two
ways to get into downtown. One is to travel on Highway 75
and the other is to travel on highways 190 and 85.
Obviously, the shortest way is using Highway 75. If every
Plano resident uses 75 it gets congested; and the capacity
on 190 and 85 is wasted. One possibility is to expand 75
to allow for the additional traffic which would result in
higher capital expenditure and wasted resources.
135

an Analogy - II
Highway 85
Downtown
Dallas
Plano
There are other possibilities. If the traffic is engineered,

part of the Plano traffic can be routed on 190 and 85. The
other possibility is to convert 190 and 85. This might be
achieved by changing the more desirable route – highway
75 into a toll road. This will cause some of the traffic to
take the less desirable route onto 190 then 85, while
those willing to pay still travel on highway 75.
This will have the effect of generating new revenues as
well as improving utilization of the existing highway
system. In effect, this is equivalent to providing higher QoS
by discriminating between different types of travelers.
The chart shows how this can be achieved. Using a toll
system for some lanes has the effect of “engineering”
traffic so certain lanes offer higher quality of service (i.e.,
low congestion) for a cost. Travelers willing to pay the cost
can avail themselves of this higher QoS.
136
Traffic Engineering
137

• Increase the network utilization efficiency
• Set up predetermined paths to provide
predictable performance for different
services
• Minimize the possibility of congestion
• Avoid over-provisioning the network
• Control traffic to meet customers’ QoS
requirements
Traffic Engineering (TE) is a systematic method of TE can be performed to optimize the level of traffic
mapping traffic flows on to physical links in the network. performance in a network or alternatively, optimize the
When the amount of traffic in a network begins to grow, total usage of network resources. The former case allows
the network experiences congestion at some point. If the the provider to make guarantees to his customers but the
reason for the congestion is a simple lack of network later case might allow the provider to maximize his
resources then the solution is to increase resources; revenue by fully utilizing all of his network equipment.
however, the reason for the congestion might be an
imbalance in the use of network resources. That is, some
paths in the network may be experiencing overutilization
while alternate paths remain underutilized. In the latter
case, network providers can resort to TE to balance the
resource usage in their networks. Furthermore, TE allows
a network provider to map out the expected flows of traffic
in his network and what resources will be allocated to
those flows ahead of time.
TE consists of setting up predetermined (explicit) paths
through the network with a particular amount of
resources. Predominantly, the resource tracked is
bandwidth and this allows the network provider to predict
and guarantee the level of performance to his customers.
138
Does IP Provide Traffic Engineering?

Requires
225 Mbps
Futureland
IP Backbone
R4 Award
30.0.0
R1 R5
550 Mbps
R2 R3
Pastland
Requires
500 Mbps
Let’s suppose that we have a pure IP network that IP routing protocols in the transit network are used to
consists of IP routers. Such a network can benefit from calculate the best paths for data to take. Some metrics
Traffic Engineering (TE) but the question is how can TE be must be applied to the links to enable this. The limitation
implemented? Let’s again consider three networks, with IP routing protocols is that the “best” or “shortest”
Award, Futureland and Pastland connected to a service path will be selected. When data enters the transit
provider’s IP network. network with Award’s network as the destination either
the upper or lower path will always be selected as the best
Suppose that the network needs to support two kinds of
path depending upon the link metrics.
customer flows. The first flow is from Futureland’s network
to Award’s network with a maximum bandwidth of 225 Since IP routing works on destination alone there is no
Mbps. The second flow from Pastland’s network to way to separate one traffic flow from the other. So no
Award’s network has a maximum of 500 Mbps. The transit matter how the link metrics are manipulated by the
network has two parallel paths that connect networks network provider, the traffic flows cannot be engineered in
Futureland and Pastland to Award’s network. The lower this network. The result is a sub-optimal condition where
path has more bandwidth than the upper path but neither one path is over utilized while the other path is
one can support both traffic flows. Ideally, the goal of TE is underutilized.
to use the upper path for traffic between Futureland’s
network and Award’s network while using the lower path
for traffic between Pastland’s network and Award’s
network.
139
What are the Current Solutions?

Requires
225 Mbps
Futureland PVC (Futureland –

Award)
ATM4
ATM Award
Router 30.0.0
ATM1 ATM5
ATM
Requires Router
550 Mbps
500 Mbps
ATM2 ATM3
PVC (Pastland –
Pastland
Award)
ATM
Router
The current solution for providing traffic engineering is to

implement the IP over ATM solution. One of the premier
applications of ATM is to allow Traffic Engineering (TE).
ATM makes it possible to implement TE since the
forwarding is not based on IP addresses, but on virtual
circuit identifiers.
To support the required bandwidths for flows from
Futureland to Award and Pastland to Award, two different
Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC) can be configured. ATM
switch 1 is configured to send packets from Futureland’s
network on the PVC along the upper path to Award’s
network. At the same time, ATM switch 1 sends packets
from Pastland’s network on the higher bandwidth PVC
along the lower path to Award’s network. Thanks to TE,
traffic flows are balanced among the available network
resources increasing the overall throughput of the transit
network.
However, this solution has all the drawbacks of the IP over
ATM solution described earlier. An ideal solution would be
to integrate TE into the IP protocol suite.
140
Why MPLS is Better

• Integrates TE with IP
– Explicitly routed label-switched paths
– Associating resources to these paths
– Efficient forwarding of packets over paths
• Efficient mapping of IP-over-ATM switching
fabric
• Can plan QoS along with TE
• Potential to automate the Traffic Engineering
process
The introduction of MPLS technology into an IP network MPLS protocols working in conjunction with IP routing
provides a more superior tool for Traffic Engineering (TE) protocols form a single logical network which is far easier
than the direct use of an ATM or Frame Relay network. to maintain than the two separate IP and ATM networks
There are several reasons for this with the primary one traditionally required. Additional benefits from MPLS
being the capability of MPLS to integrate TE directly with include the integration of Quality of Service (QoS)
the IP network. Unlike a pure IP network that does not mechanisms into MPLS as well as the possibility of
possess any TE capabilities MPLS offers explicitly routed automating the TE process. Not all parts of the TE process
Label Switched Paths (LSP), the ability to associate can be fully automated but MPLS protocols support
network resources with these paths, and an efficient automation of several steps of the process and new
mechanism for packet forwarding. The ability to establish mechanisms are currently being developed.
explicitly routed paths is a prerequisite to TE as the
network provider must be able to set up arbitrary paths
through the network without regard for the “shortest”
path. Furthermore, the network provider must be able to
pre-allocate network resources such as bandwidth to
these paths so that traffic flows can be carried
successfully.
Another significant benefit to MPLS technology is its ability
to efficiently map an IP network over ATM hardware. Since
the MPLS control layer can directly control the ATM
switching hardware there is no need for the network
provider to operate a logical ATM network.
141
Traffic Engineering
Process
142
MPLS TE Process
1. Understand traffic required Define traffic trunks in terms of:
to traverse the network BW, hops, policy, etc.
2. Gather link attributes Use routing protocols

from across the network with extensions: flood
link state attributes
Combine traffic trunk 3. Determine explicit paths

and link state attributes across the network
and run CSPF
Run 4. Establish MPLS LSPs

RSVP-TE for explicit paths
The figure illustrates the four major steps in the Traffic This can be readily accomplished by adding
Engineering (TE) process when using MPLS in IP networks. extensions to the IGP of choice to carry the new
The steps are described below: attributes. For example, OSPF can be used to flood
link attributes to all nodes. Traditional routing
1. The first step is to understand the traffic that is
information using link metrics must also be collected
required to traverse the network. This might be a
and distributed.
strict requirement set by a customer for a predictable
traffic pattern or it may be an estimate by the
network provider of typical traffic conditions. This
traffic pattern is called a traffic trunk. A traffic trunk is
defined in terms of bandwidth, the amount of delay
(which may be described in network hops), and other
traffic characteristics as well as policy information.
Policy includes things such as traversing desirable or
forbidden network links or keeping certain customer’s
traffic separate from other traffic. Thus, policy may
affect the decision on how to route the traffic trunk.
2. The link attributes that describe the network
resources associated with each link need to be
collected and disseminated across the whole
network. Typically, the resource is available
bandwidth on each link.
143
Understand the Traffic

Futureland
LSR E LSR D
LSR F
Award
LER1 30.0.0
MPLS Backbone LER2
LSR C
LSR A
Pastland
LSR B
Futureland  Award Traffic Trunk Requirement

• At least 225 Mbps
• Avoid LSR B – LSR C link
• Must traverse LER1 – LSR A link
1. The first step in the MPLS traffic engineering process

is understanding the traffic requirements. We must
identify the requirements of the customer. MPLS
defines the traffic requirements as “traffic trunks” – a
terminology borrowed from the circuit-switched world.
Traffic trunk defines the traffic flow between two end
points. We need to define the bandwidth required for
the traffic trunk.
In addition, the traffic trunk definition specifies the
undesirable links and the desirable links. Finally, we
must define the priority of the traffic trunk with
respect to other traffic trunks. This determines
whether the traffic trunk is preempted or not.
In the example, we need a traffic trunk from
Futureland’s network to Award’s network. It requires
a bandwidth of 225 Mbps. The link LSR B- LSR C
must be avoided. The LER1-LSRA must be included in
the path. Given these constraints, let’s see how MPLS
traffic engineering works to set up this path.
144
Gather Link Attributes
Futureland
LSR E LSR D
LSR F
What is the Award

bandwidth? LER2 30.0.0
LER1
LSR A LSR C
Pastland
LSR B
Bandwidth on links is flooded
through routing protocols
2. One of the goals of traffic engineering is to maximize

network utilization so that all links are utilized;
therefore, any solution must provide the ability to
collect current network utilization on various links. In
MPLS networks the routing protocols such as OSPF
(see note) are enhanced to carry available link
bandwidth along with the routing update. This
information is propagated to all routers in the
network.
OSPF and IS-IS are two of the important protocols
enhanced to carry link state attributes such as
bandwidth.
Note: OSPF is one of the routing protocols used by the
Internet; its purpose is to exchange network reachability
information between routers. It is primarily used inside
domains.
145
Finding the Best Path
Futureland LSR D
LSR E
LSR F
225 Mbps
Award
LER2 30.0.0
LER1
LSR C
LSR A
Pastland
LSR B Avoid
Required
Run “Constrained Shortest Path First” algorithm

3. We now have the “traffic trunk” that defines the

constraints. We understand current network
utilization of various links in the network. We have to
determine the best path that meets these
constraints. We run an algorithm known as
Constrained Shortest Path First (C-SPF) that
determines the best path for the traffic trunk that
meets all the constraints. That is why traffic-
engineering paths are also known as “constraint
routed paths.” The constrained shortest path
algorithm may be run on LERs or a network
management system attached to the network.
In this example, the constraint routed path is LER1-
LSRA- LSRB-LSRD-LER2.
Note: C-SPF (a.k.a. PCALC or Path Calculation) appears
like a highly technical term. In fact, it is a variation of
Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm. The SPF calculates the
shortest path through the network when distance between
each pair of links in the network is given. The CSPF
extends it by computing shortest route through the
network with distance as well as other constraints such as
bandwidth, priority, etc.
146
Overview of RSVP-TE
1. Ingress LER initiates set 2. Labels are distributed upstream to establish
up an constrained LSP an LSP with QoS resources allocated
RSVP RESV
Rspec
Futureland
LSR D
…
LSR E
LSR F
RSVP PATH
Award
Explicit Route LER2 30.0.0
LER1
Tspec
…
LSR A LSR C
Pastland
LSR B
4. The final step is to define the LSP for the explicit path The LSP is established as the RESV message is
determined through C-SPF. We have determined the processed in the upstream direction. The Rspec value
path required to satisfy the customer traffic trunk helps the LSRs reserve the proper resources to
requirements. The next step is to set up an LSP along support the LSP’s QoS.
the path. This is where the explicit routed LSP setup
process is used. The LDP and RSVP protocols have
been enhanced to set up explicit LSPs. The RSVP
Traffic Engineering extension is called RSVP-TE, and
has the ability to carry an explicit path definition as
one of the parameters. This is an example of the use
of RSVP-TE.
In the example, the ingress LER initiates the LSP by
sending a PATH message. The PATH message
contains an extension to carry the explicit route. In
the forward direction, RSVP-TE operates very similarly
to a standard RSVP PATH message (except for the
explicit route). Once the egress LER determines the
reservation requirements, it generates and adds the
Rspec and label information in the RESV message.
147
Fast Re-Route
148
What is Fast Re-Route?
Futureland LSR A Award

20.0.0 LFIB 30.0.0
LER 2
LFIB
LFIB
LER 1
MPLS Network LFIB
Established LSP
LER 3
Routing packets through alternate path Pastland

when established LSP breaks up 40.0.0
Consider a scenario where an LSP is established from the The breakdown may happen due to transient routing
Futureland network to the Award network and the users conditions in the network, such as when routing
are happily communicating from one end to another. information across the network is changing or when there
Suddenly there is a break in the LSP and communication is a link or node failure.
stops.
It is also referred to as Protection Switching, a mechanism
What are the options at this point when every minute to protect the established LSPs. It introduces an element
counts in millions of dollars worth of lost business? The of robustness to the LSPs with the ultimate objective of
poor service provider frantically begins to set up a new provisioning a fault tolerant MPLS network.
LSP so that communication can be restored. However, it
might take several hours before normal operation is
resumed.
To avoid such scenarios the service provider may keep
stand-by LSPs at critical points in the network and reroute
user traffic in case of such an eventuality. The re-route
must take place transparently so that the users never
realize what happened in the background. This is called
Fast Re-Route - routing packets through alternate paths
whenever established LSPs breakdown.
149
Protection Switching and Backup Routes
(a) Primary Route

67
LSR D
LSR B
44
27 67
LSR A LSR F
LSR C 13 LSR E
MPLS supports the concept of protection switching and

backup routes. An MPLS network can be set up to assure
that a link for node failure will not create a situation where
the user traffic is not delivered. This figure shows the
operations needed to recover from a link failure.
In Figure (a) the traffic is forwarded across the primary
LSP from LSR A to LSR F through LSRs B and D. Labels 44
and 67 are used for this LSP, and at LSR D a label pop
terminates the MPLS tunnel. The other labels shown in
Figure (a) are the labels for the backup path, and are
explained shortly.
150
Protection Switching and Backup Routes
(b) Label Use on Secondary Route

67
X LSR D
LSR B
44
27
67
67
LSR A LSR F
LSR C 13 LSR E
67
In Figure (b) the link between LSR B and D fails. LSR B

detects this failure (by not receiving an acknowledgment
to its Hello messages from LSR D). By prior arrangement,
LSR B knows the backup path for this tunnel is to LSR C
and that the label for this part of the tunnel is 27. LSR B is
configured to push label 27 on top of label 67. Recall that
label 67 was to be used at LSR D.
A label swap occurs at LSR C (27 for 13). Label 67 is not
examined since it is not at the top of the stack. At LSR E,
label 13 is popped, leaving label 67 as the only label that
arrives at LSR D. LSR D is configured to know that this
label is associated with the same tunnel as the one with
the same label number emanating from LSR B.
151
Summary
• Traffic Engineering (TE) is about efficiently
using the network to support traffic needs.
• The MPLS TE process:
– Identifies the traffic needs (burst, QoS);
– Gathers link conditions and network routes;
– Identifies end-to-end path through the network
to meet the traffic needs; and
– Establishes LSP on that path with RSVP-TE.
• The Fast Re-Route feature of MPLS deals
with link or node failure.
152
Review Questions
1. Which of the following are possible with Traffic
Engineering?
A. Increase the total bandwidth of network equipment.
B. Increase the total revenue from network equipment.
C. Control the allocation of network resources for different services.
D. Compensate for link or node failures.
2. Name the steps in MPLS Traffic Engineering process in the
right order:
A. Gather link attributes from across the network.
B. Understand traffic required to traverse the network.
C. Establish an LSP across the network.
D. Determine explicit paths across the network.
3. Link attributes for a network can be collected by running
the OSPF protocol. True or False? Justify your answer.
153
154
9 | MPLS Virtual Private Networks
Chapter 9:
MPLS Virtual Private
Networks
155
Objectives
to:
• Describe the various VPN alternatives
• Explain L2VPN architecture
• Explain L3VPN architecture
• Describe routing and forwarding in a L3VPN
network using an example
156
Virtual Private
Networks Overview
157
What are VPNs?

North America
Firewall Corporate
Firewall Intranet
(Headquarters)
Corporate
Intranet
(Branch Office)
Japan
Internet
Supplier’s
Extranet
VPN Tunnel
South America Firewall
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) are private connections

through non-private networks. Let’s consider a fictitious
multi-national company, Tunici Automobiles, that has
offices, employees, suppliers and customers in every part
of the world; therefore, Tunici’s network spans multiple
continents. For efficiency and ease of use, Tunici wants
one network that connects its offices in all parts of the
world. Through VPN solutions, Tunici can connect all its
offices, customers and suppliers in one network. For
example, the head office in Japan and the branch office in
the USA may be connected. In addition, a supplier in Brazil
who supplies crucial components for Tunici may be
connected through a VPN.
158
VPN Taxonomy
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
L1VPN L2VPN L3VPN

• Leased Lines • MPLS Core
• Customer Peers
with Service
VPWS (P2P) VPLS (MP2MP) Provider Router
• MPLS Core
• Ethernet MPLS-based
L2TPV3 - IP Pseudowires
VPNs
• IP Core • MPLS Core
• Various L2s • Various L2s and L1s
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) can be defined as physical Finally, the P2P VPWS can be realized as an IP network
layer networks (OSI layer 1 – L1VPN), data link layer called L2TPv3 (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol Version 3) or a
networks (OSI layer 2) – L2VPN) or network layer networks MPLS service known as Pseudowire Emulation End-to-End
(OSI layer 3 – L3VPN)). or PWE3 (L2 or L1 traffic over a MPLS backbone).
• L1VPN: A L1VPN may take the form an a T1 leased L1VPN and L2TPv3 are not a MPLS services and will not
line network which physically separates one be discussed further in this class.
customer’s traffic from another. Early VPNs were
VPLS is a multipoint L2 VPN technology that allows
L1VPNs but these can be very expensive and difficult
multiple sites to be connected over a simulated Ethernet
to set up and manage.
broadcast domain that is supported across a provider
• L2VPN: With a L2VPN the customer effectively leases provisioned IP/MPLS network. In other words VPLS
a logical leased line from the service provider. The delivers multipoint Layer 2 connectivity over a Layer 3
service provider uses a shared network infrastructure network architecture. VPLS evolved as a logical extension
but provides a logical separation between the traffic of Ethernet over MPLS (EoMPLS) which was developed to
of the customers. Customer routers in one geographic enable point-to-point Ethernet-based L2 VPN services.
area peer with customer routers on another
• L3VPN: This will be discussed later.
geographic area and the network gives the
appearance of a Layer 2 switch between the two
customer routers. The L2VPN can be further
classified into Point to Point (P2P) services referred to
as “Virtual Private Wire Service” or VPWS, and
MultiPoint to MultiPoint (MP2MP) services referred to
as Virtual Private LAN Services or VPLS.
159
L2VPN
160
Layer 2 VPNs
Attachment Pseudowire
Circuit (AC) (PW)
MPLS LSP
CE CE
Site 1 Site 2
VPN 1 VPN 1
P P
PE1 PE2
ATM ATM
cells P P cells
CE CE
Site 1 Service Provider network Site 2
VPN 2 VPN 2
Overlay Model – L2VPN

• Service Provider Network acts like a giant Layer 2 switch for customer
• Service Provider does no L3 routing on behalf of the customer
A Layer 2 Virtual Private Network (L2VPN) connects a The PE router receives Layer 2 frames from the CE
number of disparate customers networks enabling them through the Attachment Circuit (AC). These frames are
to function as a single network. As the name implies, the encapsulated using MPLS labels to be transported across
networks are connected at the data link layer (OSI Layer the Packet Switched Network (PSN). The architecture is
2) rather than at the network layer (OSI Layer 3). What based on pseudowires as described in many IETF RFCs.
does this mean to the customer? Suppose the L2 VPN As a result the operations and characteristics of the
customer currently runs a layer 2 network such as ATM, original Layer 2 technology are emulated across the PSN.
Frame Relay or Ethernet which is disconnected. L2LPNs
Tunnel labels will define the path from PE1 to PE2. To
enable the customer to connect the remote locations
multiplex more than one pseudowire onto the same tunnel
without first converting to some other protocol.
a second Virtual Circuit (VC) or Pseudowire (PW) label is
In other words, the customer does not need to make any added below the tunnel label.
changes in their current network. To the customer, the
L2 frames received by PE1 across the ACs are assigned
Service Provider (SP) Network appears as a giant layer 2
VC label (e.g., the Ethernet VC may be assigned 48 while
switch (ATM, FR, or Ethernet). A networking protocol, such
the ATM VC may be assigned 92). On top of these labels
as IP, may be run on top of the layer 2 network but the
will be the tunnel labels for transporting the frame across
customer manages this aspect. Unlike a Layer 3 VPN
the PSN. The egress router (PE2) will recognize from the
(L3VPN) the SP network is not involved in any network
VC label the destination of the frame and forward
level routing for the customers.
accordingly.
MPLS is one of the alternatives for the SP supporting
Targeted LDP is used to signal the pseudowires.
L2VPNs. The SP network can carry any layer 2 data, or a
Below the two labels, control words are added to enable
mixture of different layer 2s for different customers, over
the egress PE router to provide proper treatment for the
the same MPLS Label-Switched Path (LSP).
received packets.
161
MPLS and Layer 2 VPNs

Ethernet
Ethernet Site 2
Site 1 MPLS Network VPN 1
VPN 1
33 14 27 CE
CE LSP
VPN Ethernet
Ethernet 21 P 21 P 21
Frame
Frame
Ctrl Word Ctrl Word Ctrl Word
Eth-Fr Eth Fr Eth Fr
PE1 PE2
ATM Cell 33 27
14 ATM Cell
CE 40 40
P P CE
Ctrl Word 40 Ctrl Word
ATM Network
Site 1 ATM Cell Ctrl Word ATM cell ATM Network
VPN 2 ATM Cell Site 2
VPN 2
This chart demonstrates the forwarding of packets in a • Control Word: A 32-bit control word is added that can
L2VPN with a MPLS core network. MPLS can carry packets be used by the egress PE router to determine how to
belonging to many different Layer 2 protocols. It can carry treat this packet. Information contained in the control
ATM or Frame Relay cells just as easily as IP packets. word includes protocol control information, sequence
number, length, etc.
Why would we want to carry ATM cells in the MPLS
network? ATM is one of the more dominant services • VC Header: On top of the Control Word is the Virtual
offered to customers by the service provider today. Circuit (or pseudowire) label that identifies the VPN.
Service providers want to move to the MPLS domain so
• Tunnel Header: The top label is the tunnel label used
that they can support new IP services. A move to MPLS
by MPLS to find its way through the MPLS network.
risks losing the current ATM customers. To mitigate the
problem the service provider can offer a L2VPN service The PE routers that provide this separation management
that enables the customer to continue current service function are called “mediation devices.” These routers
offerings while the service provider’s MPLS PE routers have all of the intelligence in an L2VPN while the
take care of all required translations. customer networks and the MPLS P routers are totally
unaware of the existence of the VPN.
In the example the L2VPN is transporting traffic for both
an Ethernet network and an ATM network. Each Site 1
network sends Layer 2 frames for their respective
technology to PE1. PE1 attaches three different 32-bit
headers: a Control Word, a VPN Header, and a Tunnel
Header.
162
L3VPN
163
MPLS Layer 3 VPN

Peer-to-Peer model – L3VPN
• New devices (CE, PE, P)
• Customer and service provider share routing responsibilities – most to
the service provider
• Challenge to service provider to keep customer’s traffic separate
• Customers lose some end-to-end network control
CE
PE
CE
PE MPLS Network PE CE
PE CE
In the Peer-to-Peer L3VPN model designated customer this problem is solved.

routers called Customer Edge routers (CE) peer at Layer 3
One thing that the customer does give up is the end-to-
with service provider edge routers called Provider Edge
end control of their network (which they had with the
routers (PEs). Inside the MPLS network the PE routers
L2VPN).
connect to Provider routers (P routers). The PE router is
what we called before a LER while the P router is what we
called a LSR.
In this model the routing responsibilities which the
customer assumed in the L2VPN model are largely
assumed by the service provider. The CE router exchanges
routing information with the PE router then the service
provider’s MPLS network assumes the responsibility of
defining routes. Also bandwidth provisioning from the
customer’s perspective is limited to specifying the
inbound and outbound bandwidth in the CE to PE link.
Since the service provider assumes the bulk of the
responsibility for routing, it becomes a simple task for a
customer to add a new site.
Since the customer does not control the PE routers, there
is a challenge on the part of the service provider to make
sure that traffic from one customer does not mix with
traffic from other customers. We will describe later how
164
L3VPN Routing Protocols

Multiple Domains call for BGP
eBGP
Cust 2 CE
CE
MPLS Core
P1
PE 1
CE PE 2
P2
Cust 1
MP-iBGP
ASN : nn (64 bits) + IP Network Address (32 bits) (VPNV4)
(Route Distinguisher - RD)
One thing to note when considering Layer 3 VPNs is that The RD combined with the VPN prefix (also called the
multiple routing domains are involved. The CE router in VPNV4 route) is what must be advertised across the MPLS
the customer’s network peers at the network level with a network. To meet the need to advertise the 96-bit VPNV4
PE router in the MPLS core network. This calls for the use route across the MPLS network, an extended version of
of an Exterior Gateway Protocol (i.e., BGP). BGP called Multi Protocol BGP (MP-iBGP) is used.
To advertise CE routes to the MPLS network we will use
exterior BGP (eBGP) and to advertise the customer routes
across the MPLS domain we will use MP-iBGP.
BGP is used to advertise routes between customer
domains; however BGP is limited to advertising 32-bit
IPV4 network addresses. Since VPN customers may have
overlapping IP addresses, normal IP addressing is not a
sufficient means of discriminating between them. L3VPN
solution to this is to define a label called a Route
Distinguisher (RD). This is a 64-bit parameter generally
made up of the Autonomous System Number (ASN) as
assigned by IANA – the internet numbering authority,
along with an added number (nn) assigned by the service
provider.
165
L3VPN VRFs
PE: One VRF Instance (VRF Routing Table) for each
L3VPN represented
VPN A CE VPN A
Site 1 Site 2
P1
PE 2
PE 1
P2
VPN B
Site 2
VRF Routing Table – VPN A
VPN B
Site 1 VRF Routing Table – VPN B
Global IP Routing Table

The Virtual Routing and Forwarding (VRF) is a structure Like the RD, the RT is a 64-bit number. The RT indicates
maintained in the Provider Edge (PE) router to manage which routes should be imported into the VRF at PE2.
L3VPN information. The VRF is a combination of: Before the VPNV4 parameter is sent across the MPLS
core by MP-BGP, an RT is appended then the combined
• A VPN-specific logical routing table,
parameter is advertised by MP-BGP to PE2. The objective
• A set of interfaces to use VPN routing table, is for the network prefixed identified in VPNV4 to be
• A set of rules controlling the importing and exporting imported into PE2’s VRF. To achieve this, PE2 will remove
of routes (Route Targets, or RTs), and the RT and examine it to determine to which VRF the route
should be imported. The RD will be removed and the
• A set of routing peers. network prefix will be installed in the appropriate VPN
A Route Target (RT) is like a VPN identifier. In the practical routing table in PE2.
world there are needs for information/access to be If we could look inside the PE 1 router we could see a
shared between different VPNs. For example, VPN B site 2 separate VRF for VPN A and VPN B as well as a global
may need to have access to part of VPN A site 1. In this routing table.
case the VPN site 2 needs to know the router access
information for VPN A site 1. The Route Target (RT)
permits a route to be established from VPN B site 2 to
VPN A site 1 even though they represent different Virtual
Private Networks (VPNs).
166
L3VPN Routing: Putting it all Together

4. MP-iBGP
3. IPV4 address advertises VPNV4
redistributed route with MPLS
into MP-BGP label and RTs
RD added  CE
Customer 1 CE VPNV4
10.10 5. RTs indicate to which VRFs
RTs added
the route will be imported Customer 1
RD removed from VPNV4 10.20
P1 7. eBGP
1. eBGP Advertise
Advertise IPV4
IPV4 route address
PE 1 PE 2
2. IPV4 P2
addresses
added to VRF
6. IPV4 address added
to VRF routing table
To support VPNs the MPLS network must be capable of advertised between the PE routers.
keeping various customer traffic streams separate in the
Standard BGP supports only the distribution of IPV4
MPLS network. This requires a procedure to make sure
routing information, so it is incapable of distributing these
that traffic entering the MPLS network from one traffic
VPNV4 addresses. Therefore, an extended version of BGP
source is identified in some manner, so that it is distinct
called Multi-Protocol BGP (MP-BGP) was created to
from other traffic sources when it is returned to the
accommodate these addresses. When MP-BGP is limited
customer at the egress PE router. There must be some
to advertisements between PE routers within the same
globally unique traffic source identifier. If all traffic
domain it is referred to as MP-iBGP. MP-iBGP has the
received by the egress PE has a public IP address, this is
ability to identify and propagate non-IPV4 routing
sufficient.
information such as the VPNV4 addresses as well as VPN
However, one of the primary purposes for VPNs is for the labels.
customer to be able to exchange private network data
In addition to the RD a Route Target (RT) is required,
(e.g., 10.x.x.x IP addresses) between remote customer
describing the rules on which VRF of the receiving side is
locations. To ensure globally unique identifiers the
allowed to “import” an advertised VPNV4 address into its
concept of a Route Distinguisher (RD) has been
VRF.
developed. The RD is a 64-bit identifier assigned by the
MPLS service provider to ensure the anonymity of the
various traffic sources.
This RD is prepended to the IP destination address to
produce a 96-bit globally unique VPN identifier called the
VPN-IPV4 address (or more compactly the VPNV4
address). It is this 96-bit VPNV4 address that must be
167
L3VPN Routing: Putting it all Together

(continued)
4. MP-iBGP
3. IPV4 address advertises VPNV4
redistributed route with MPLS
into MP-BGP label and RTs
RD added  CE
Customer 1 CE VPNV4
10.10 5. RTs indicate to which VRFs
RTs added
the route will be imported Customer 1
RD removed from VPNV4 10.20
P1 7. eBGP
1. eBGP Advertise
Advertise IPV4
IPV4 route address
PE 1 PE 2
2. IPV4 P2
addresses
added to VRF
6. IPV4 address added
to VRF routing table
Our example steps through the entire process of route 6. The IPV4 route is added to the VRF, subject to the RT
advertisement from CE router to CE router. rules.
1. The ingress CE router used external BGP (eBGP) to 7. eBGP is used to advertise the IPV4 address to the
advertise its network to the MPLS PE router. egress CE router.
2. The ingress PE router must log in the advertised
address before advertising it its peer PE router. It first
inserts the IPV4 address into its VRF table identifying
the customer associated with this network.
3. Before advertising the network the ingress PE router
must add a Routing Distinguisher (RD) to the IPV4
address, creating a 96-bit VPNV4 route. The Routing
Target (RT) is added to the peer PE router, describing
what rules it should use in importing the VPNV4
route.
4. MP-iBGP advertises the VPNV4 route with MPLS label
and RTs to its peer PE routers.
5. The PE peers receive the advertisement and use the
RT to determine the rules for importing the VPNV4s
into the VRFs. The RD is removed, leaving the IPV4
address.
168
L3VPN Forwarding: Putting it all

Together
Customer 1 CE CE
10.10
Customer 1
10.20
P1
IPV4 Packet
VRF VRF IPV4 Packet
PE 1 PE 2
VPN
Tunnel VPN P2 Label
IPV4 Packet
Label Label
IPV4 Packet
With VPN LSPs established, this chart demonstrates how

packets are forwarded through the L3VPN network.
1. Beginning with the customer, it sends an unlabeled
packet to PE1.
2. PE1 references the VRF to determine how to label the
packet. Two labels are attached: the bottom is to
identify the VPN and the top is used for label
swapping.
3. The labeled packet is forwarded to the P2 router
where the top label would typically be swapped.
However, since this is the last P router in the LSP, the
Cisco typically uses Penultimate Hop Popping (PHP),
the top label is removed before forwarding the packet
to the egress PE router.
4. PE router 2 removes the VPN header and consults
the VRF to confirm the destination of then packet.
The unlabeled packet is then forwarded to the target
customer network.
169
Summary
• MPLS supports L2 and L3 VPNs.
• MPLS pseudowires may be used to tunnel
T1/E1, Frame Relay, Ethernet, IP and other
L1/L2/L3 protocols.
• In L2 VPNs, there is no IP routing relationship
between customer and provider.
• In L3 VPNs, customer and service provider
routers have a routing relationship.
• Label stacking is used to realize VPN services.
170
Review Questions
1. What protocol is used to distribute labels between PEs for
L2VPNs?
2. What is another name for a point-to-point L2VPN?
3. How many labels are required when using an L2VPN?
4. What is the role of the “control word?”
5. Which routing protocols are used to establish a L3VPN?
6. Describe which labels are required for a L3VPN.
7. What is a VRF used for?
8. What is advertised by MP-BGP?
171
172
Acronyms
3G Third Generation Wireless Systems

ABR Available Bit Rate
ABR Area Border Router
AF Assured Forwarding
AS Autonomous System
ASBR Autonomous System Border Router
ASN Access Service Network
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AToM Any Transport over MPLS
BE Best Effort
BGP Border Gateway Protocol
BW Bandwidth
BOS Bottom Of Stack
CE Customer Edge
CLP Cell Loss Priority
CPE Customer Premises Equipment
CSPF Constrained Shortest Path First
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DLCI Data Link Connection Identifier
DOD Downstream On Demand
DSCP Differentiated Services Code Point
E-LSP Experimental bits (inferred QoS) LSP
eBGP exterior Border Gateway Protocol
EF Expedited Forwarding
EGP External Gateway Protocol
EoMPLS Ethernet over MPLS
ERO Explicit Route Object
EXP Experimental
FEC Forwarding Equivalency Classes
FIB Forwarding Information Base
FR Frame Relay
HDLC High-level Data Link Control
IANA Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
iBGP interior Border Gateway Protocol
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IGP Internal Gateway Protocol
IN Intelligent Networks
IP Internet Protocol
IPv4 Internet Protocol version 4
IPv6 Internet Protocol version 6
kbps kilo-bits per second
173
Acronyms
L-LSP Label only (inferred QoS) LSP

L1 Layer 1 (physical layer)
L1VPN Layer 1 Virtual Private Network
L2 Layer 2 (data link layer)
L3 Layer 3 (network layer)
LAN Local Area Network
LDP Label Distribution Protocol
LER Label Edge Router
LFIB Label Forwarding Information Base
LIB Label Information Base
LLR Log Likelihood Ratio
LR Location Register
LS Location Server
LSA Link State Advertisements
LSP Label Switched Path
LSR Label Switched Router
Mbps Megabits per second
MP-BGP Multi Protocol Border Gateway Protocol
MP2MP Multi Point to Multi Point
MPLS Multi Protocol Label Switching
ms millisecond (1/1000 second)
NHLFE Next Hop Label Forwarding Entry
NLRI Network Layer Reachability Information
NOC National Operations Centers
OAM Operations, Administration, and Maintenance
OSPF Open Shortest Path First
P Provider
P2P Point-to-Point
PCALC Path Calculation
PE Provider Edge
PHB Per-Hop Behavior
PHP Penultimate Hop Popping
POP Point of Presence
PPP Point-to-Point Protocol
PSN Packet Switched Network
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
PVC Permanent Virtual Circuit
PW Pseudowire
PWE3 Pseudowire Emulation End to End
174
Acronyms
QoS Quality of Service

RAN Radio Access Network
RD Route Distinguisher
RFC Request For Comment
RIB Routing Information Base
RID Router Identifier
RIP Routing Information Protocol
RSVP Resource Reservation Protocol
RSVP-TE RSVP Traffic Engineering extension
RT Random Time
SAFI Subsequent Address Family Identifier
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SLA Service Level Agreement
SP Service Provider
SPF Shortest Path First
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
TDM Time Division Multiplex(ing)
TE Traffic Engineering
TOS Type Of Service
TTL Time to Live
UD Unsolicited Downstream
UDP User Datagram Protocol
VC Virtual Connection
VCI Virtual Channel Identifier
VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol
VPI Virtual Path Identifier
VPLS Virtual Private LAN Service
VPN Virtual Private Network
VPWS Virtual Private Wire Service
VRF Virtual Routing and Forwarding
WAN Wide Area Network
WWW World Wide Web
175
176
References
Contributions and Standards

1. IEEE 802.11n Draft 1.10.
2. IEEE 802.11 1999, Reaffirmed 2003.
3. IEEE 802.11g
4. IEEE “802.16e amendment for Physical and Medium Access Control (MAC) Layers for Combined Fixed and
Mobile Operation in Licensed Bands”, IEEE, 2005
5. “WiMAX End-to-End Network Systems Architecture”, stage 2, WiMAX Forum, 2006.
6. 3GPP 23.882 – 3GPP System Architecture Evolution: Report on Technical Options and Conclusions
7. 3GPP 25.813 – Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA) and E-UTRAN; Radio interface protocol aspects
8. 3GPP 25.814 – Physical layer aspects for UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA)
9. 3GPP 36.300 – E-UTRA and E-UTRAN Overall Description (Stage 2)
10. 3GPP 36.211-36.214: Physical Layer related documents
11. 3GPP TS 25.814 : “Physical layer aspects for Evolved UTRA (Release 7)”
12. 3GPP TS 36.211 : “Physical channels and modulation (Release 8)”
13. 3GPP TS 36.300 : “E-UTRA and E-UTRAN overall description - Stage 2 (Release 8)”
14. 3GPP2 C30-20060731-40R4_HKLLMNQRSUZ_PP2Phase2_FDD_Proposal_Latest_LBC_FDD_ July2006.doc
15. 3GPP2 C30-20060911-072_QCOM_MIMO Design.pdf
16. 3GPP2 C30-20060731-040_HKLLMNQRSUZ_PP2Phase2_FDD_Proposal.
MPLS RFCs
1. RFC 2547, BGP/MPLS VPNs
2. RFC 2702, Requirements for Traffic Engineering Over MPLS
3. RFC 2858, Multiprotocol Extensions for BGP-4
4. RFC 3031, Multiprotocol Label Switching Architecture
5. RFC 3032, MPLS Label Stack Encoding
6. RFC 3063, MPLS Loop Prevention Mechanism
7. RFC 3140, Per Hop Behavior Identification Codes
8. RFC 3270, Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) Support of Differentiated Services (E-LSPs only)
9. RFC 3443, Time To Live (TTL) Processing in Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) Networks
10. RFC 3469, Framework for Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)-based Recovery
11. RFC 3564, Requirements for Support of Differentiated Services-aware MPLS Traffic Engineering
12. RFC 4124, Protocol Extensions for Support of Diffserv-aware MPLS Traffic Engineering
13. RFC 4125, Maximum Allocation Bandwidth Constraints Model for Diffserv-aware MPLS Traffic Engineering
14. RFC 4127, Russian Dolls Bandwidth Constraints Model for Diffserv-aware MPLS Traffic Engineering
15. RFC 4379, Detecting Multi-Protocol Label Switched (MPLS) Data Plane Failures.
16. RFC 3815, Definitions of Managed Objects for the Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS), Label Distribution
Protocol (LDP)
17. RFC 4448, Encapsulation Methods for Transport of Ethernet over MPLS Networks
177
References
18. RFC 5462, Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) Label Stack Entry: "EXP" Field Renamed to "Traffic Class" Field.
Books
1. Black, Uyless. IP Routing Protocols, Prentice Hall, 2000.
2. Black, Uyless. MPLS and Label Switching Networks, Prentice Hall, 2001.
3. Cicso IOS 12.0 Quality of Service, Cisco Press, 1999.
4. Cisco Advanced MPLS Design and Implementation, Cisco Press, Sept. 2001.
5. Davie, Bruce S. MPLS : technology and applications/ Bruce Davie, Yakov Rekhter, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers,
2000.
Web Sites
1. The MPL Resource Center - http://www.mplsrc.com
2. MPLS World News - http://www.mplsworld.com
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