ALGORITHMS ON VERTEX COVER CHROMATIC NUMBER OF SOME

SPECIAL GRAPHS

MERYLANE N. COBE
JAMES S. BAUTISTA
JAYPEE N. BERNARDO
NORIE GENE C. ALCANTARA

DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

SOUTH LA UNION CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
AGOO, LA UNION

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MATHEMATICS

JUNE 2022
 APPROVAL SHEET

` This thesis proposal, ALGORITHMS ON VERTEX COVER CHROMATIC

NUMBER OF SOME SPECIAL GRAPHS, prepared and submitted by MERYLANE

N. COBE, JAMES S. BAUTISTA, JAYPEE N. BERNARDO, and NORIE GENE C.

ALCANTARA, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the subject Thesis Writing I

was examined and approved on June 3, 2022 by the Thesis Committee composed of:

TJAART JAN B. ESTRADA, Ph.D. RALPH VINCENT E. ALAMBRA

Chair Adviser

MARIA MARINELL C. OLIGO

Member

NIALLE LOUI MAR “NLM” T. ALCANTARA, MS

Member
Accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the subject
Thesis Writing I.

TJAART JAN B. ESTRADA, Ph.D.

Chairperson, Mathematics and Allied Disciplines Department
__________________________
Date Signed

RAQUEL D. QUIAMBAO, Ed.D.

Dean, College of Arts and Sciences
_________________________

Date Signed

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Foremost, the researchers would like to offer this endeavor to our God Almighty

for the wisdom, strength, peace of mind, and good health that He bestowed upon us in

order to complete this research.

The success of this study could not have been possible without the help of Mr.

Ralph Vincent E. Alambra, their research adviser. It was a great privilege and honor to

work on this study under his guidance. The researchers are extremely grateful for what

he has offered us.

The researchers would also like to take this opportunity to show their appreciation

to their thesis professor, Mrs. Karen Abegail B. Oribello for being patient and for giving

them more time to finish this study.

The researchers are also extending their heartfelt gratitude to their friends. They

have been a huge part of this success. The researchers cannot thank you enough for the

encouragement and support you have given to them along this roller coaster journey.

Lastly, the researchers give their countless thanks to their family for the

continuous moral and financial support which made things easier.

This study could not have been possible without all of these people.

MNC, JSB, JNB, NGCA

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………………………….... i

APPROVAL SHEET …………………………………………………………….... ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ………………………………………………………… iii

LIST OF TABLES……...….……………………………………………………… iv

LIST OF FIGURES………………...…………………………………………….. v

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION

Situation Analysis ………………………………………………............ 1

Objectives of the Study ………………………………………………… 5

Definition of Terms ……………………………………………………. 5

Symbols and Notations ………………………………………………… 7

2 METHODOLOGY

Research Design ………………………………………………….......... 8

Sources of Data …………………………………………………............ 8

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 9

LITERATURE CITED……………………………………………………………. 15
LIST OF FIGURES

iv
Figure Page
No

1 Two P3 graphs with different k -coloring. 2

2 A 3-coloring ofC 5, χ ( P )=3 . 2

3 A 3-coloring of a graph with S={ A , C , E }. 3

4 A graph with γ ( G )=2. 4

5 A graph with clique C 3 4

6 3-ary Tree 9

7 A generalized Petersen graph, GP ( 6,2 ) 13

8 A cubical graph (from platonic solid to platonic graph) 15

v
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Situational Analysis

In the late 16th century, the word mathematics appeared. Mathematics has two

categories: pure mathematics and applied mathematics (Oxford language). Mathematics

is something invisible, but it is not just about letters, numbers, equations, and graphs. It is

more about life experiences and comparisons since mathematics is present in our daily

lives. To learn more about mathematics, consider the following branches: number theory,

probability, algebra, calculus, geometry, trigonometry, and one of its most important

subfields, graph theory.

Graph theory studies the discrete structures known as graphs to model pairwise

relations between objects from a certain collection. A graph is a collection of vertices or

nodes and a collection of edges that connect pairs of vertices (Konstantinova, 2012). The

concept of graphs in graph theory stands up on some basic terms such as point, line,

vertex, edge, degree of vertices, properties of graphs, etc.

Graph coloring theory is one of the major areas within graph theory which have

been extensively studied. Graph coloring deals with the fundamental problem of

partitioning set objects into classes according to certain rules. Time tabling, sequencing

and scheduling problems in their many terms are basically of this nature. A coloring of a

graph G is an assignment of colors to its vertices so that no two adjacent vertices have the
 2

same color. The set of all vertices with any one color is independent and is called a color

class. An k -coloring of a graph G uses k -colors (Chaluvaraju, 2011). Figure 1 is a P3

Graph. The graph composed of three vertices and two edges. The first graph is called “ 2-

coloring” since it used 2-colors, and the second graph is also called “ 3-coloring” since it

used 3-colors.

Figure 1. Two P3 graphs with different k -coloring.

The chromatic number χ (G) of a graph G is the smallest number of colors for

V ( G )so that adjacent vertices are colored differently (White, 2001). A graph G with

chromatic number χ ( G )=k is called k -chromatic. Figure 2 is a Cycle Graph, C 5. It is

known to be 3-colorable, and since 3-colors is the minimum number of possible colors, it

is also known to be minimum colorable.

Figure 2. A 3-coloring of C 5, χ ( P )=3 .

 3

In 2011, Chaluvaraju, Kumar and Rusagara published a paper entitled “The vertex

cover chromatic number of a graph” to introduce the new concept called vertex cover

chromatic number denoted by χ α ( G ). A vertex cover coloring set of a graph G is simply a

set S such that every edge of G is incident with at least one member of S. In addition, the

minimum possible vertex cover of graph G is known as a minimum vertex cover. Figure

3 is a model of 3-coloring of a graph and its vertex cover chromatic number is 3. The set S

, such as S= A ,C , E , covers all edges.

Figure 3. A 3-coloring of a graph with S={ A , C , E }.

The theory of domination in graph has been the subject of over one hundred

papers in recent years (Cockayne, Gamble & Shepherd, 1986). A set D ⊆ V (G) is a

dominating set if every vertex of V (G)−D is adjacent to at least one member of D .

Furthermore, the smallest cardinality of a dominating set in G is known as a dominating

number γ (G). The graph below is composed of 5-vertices and 6-edges, and the graph has

the green-colored vertices as a dominating set.

 4

Figure 4. A graph with γ ( G )=2.

Cliques arise in a number of areas of graph theory and combinatorics (Weisstein,

2010). A clique is a complete subgraph of a graph G . The clique number of a graph G ,

denoted ω ( G ) , is the number of vertices in a maximum clique of G . Equivalently, it is the

size of a largest clique or maximal clique of G (Wolfram Math World, 2022). Figure 5 is a

graph with ω ( G ) =3, since C 3 is its largest clique.

Figure 5. A graph with clique C 3

This research aims to find the vertex cover chromatic number (VCCN) of some

special graphs. The researchers’ goal is to develop algorithms to determine a minimal

vertex cover coloring set (VCCS) of a graph, prove theorem on the vertex cover

chromatic number and relate the vertex cover chromatic number to some graph theoretic
 5

parameters. These aims of the research are parallel to the output by Bautista et al. (2019),

“On the vertex cover chromatic number of some special graphs”, where they focused on

finding the VCCN of tadpole, complete tripartite and star graph and provided an

algorithm of the three special graphs. In this research, the researchers particularly wants

to find the VCCN of full, complete and perfect m-ary trees, generalized Petersen graph

and platonic graph, then relate the results to some theoretic parameter such as clique and

dominating set.

Statement of the Objectives

This study focuses on finding the VCCN of some special graphs. Specifically, it

aims to:

1. Develop algorithms to find a minimal vertex cover coloring set (VCCS) of some

special graphs namely:

a. m-ary trees

b. Generalized Petersen Graphs

c. Platonic Graphs

2. Discuss and prove theorems on the VCCN of these special graphs, and relate the

VCCN to some graph theoretic parameters.

Definition of Terms

Algorithm is a set of instructions for solving a problem or accomplishing a task

(Downey, 2021).
 6

Chromatic number of graph is the minimum number of colors that can be used to

color the vertices of G so that any two adjacent vertices have different colors (Caay &

Arugay, 2016).

Clique is a subset of vertices of a graph G such that each two distinct vertices

within the clique are adjacent; that's, it’s induced subgraph is complete (Vishwas, 2018).

Clique number is the number of vertices in a maximum clique in G (Vishwas,

2018).

Dominating set is a set of vertices D such that each vertex is either in D or has a

neighbour in D (Shukla & Thakur, 2020).

Domination number is the minimum cardinality of the dominating set in G

( Sugumaran & Jayachandran, 2018).

Edge is the connection between the vertices of the graph (Nykamp, n.d).

Graph is an ordered pair G=(V , E) consisting of a nonempty set V (called

vertices) and a set E (called the edges) of two-element subsets of V (Levin, 2017).

Vertex is a point of a graph.

Vertex coloring is an assignment of labels or colors to each vertex of a graph such

that no edge connects two identically colored vertices (Weisstein, 2008).

Vertex cover is a subset of the nodes that together touch all the edges (Ahmadi,

2016).

Vertex cover coloring set is a vertex covering set containing at least one vertex

from each color class (Chaluvaraju, 2011).

Vertex cover coloring number is a minimum cardinality taken over all vertex

covering sets of G (Chaluvaraju, 2011).

 7

Symbols and Notations

D Dominating Set

d ( v) Degree of a vertex

E(G) Set of edges graph

V (G) Set of vertex graph

χ (G) Chromatic number G

e Edge

G Graph

v Number of vertices

Δ (G) Maximum degree of graph

γ (G) Domination number

ω (G) Clique number

Chapter 2

METHODOLOGY
 8

Research Design

This study follows the pure basic research design. It deals with the fundamental

concepts of vertex cover chromatic number (VCCN) of some special graphs. The

researchers aim to develop algorithms to find a minimal vertex cover coloring set

(VCCS) and discuss and prove theorems on the VCCN of some special graphs,

particularly m-ary trees, generalized Petersen graphs, and platonic graphs. Moreover,

Geogebra® will be used by the researchers to create graphs in a convenient manner.

Source of Data

The researchers will gather numerous readings from published papers, the

internet, the related literature and libraries to strengthen the knowledge of researchers

about the vertex cover chromatic number of graphs. The researchers will also approach

some teachers who specialized in graph theory to clarify the results that will be found.

Chapter 3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

 9

This chapter presents the algorithms in finding the vertex cover coloring set

(VCCS) of some special graphs, namely, the m-ary trees, the generalized Petersen graphs

and the platonic graphs. This includes the discussion of the steps and procedures, with the

corresponding illustration.

On m-ary Tree

A m-ary tree is composed of three types: a full m-ary tree, a complete m-

ary tree, and a perfect m-ary tree. It is a connected graph and does not contain any

circuits. If v is the vertex of a rooted tree other than the root, and the parent of v is the

unique vertex u such that there is an edge from u to v , then v is called the child of u. The

vertex v is known as m children and the vertex u is known as i internal vertices. The

graph in Figure 6 is an example of a m-ary Tree.

Figure 6. 3-ary Tree

Case 1. (To label and color the vertices of full m-ary tree and determine a VCCS where
m=3 . Furthermore, the numbers 1 and 2 correspond to the colors red and blue,
respectively)
Steps 1. Let v1 be the upper vertex in full m-

ary tree graph, label of adjacent vertices of

 10

vertex v1 as v 2 , v 3 , ... v m.Let

v m+1 , v m+2 , ... v m+n represent adjacent

vertices of vertex v2 and

v m+n +1 , v m +n+2 , ... v m+n + p represent adjacent

vertices of vertex v3 . Then, for level 3

label, let v m+n + p+1 , v m+ n+ p+2 , … , v m +n+ p +q

represent adjacent vertices of vertex v 6.

Illustration

2. Color the vertices as follows: 3 vertices as 1. Color the 3 lower vertices

Color the upper vertex as 1. as 2.

Color the 3 vertices below the upper The vertices v1 , v 5 , v 6 , v 7 , v 8 , v 9 and v10 are

vertex as 2. Color the 6 vertices below the colored red and v 2 , v 3 , v 4 , v 11 , v 12 and v13

are colored blue.

3. Let S to be the set of VCCS.

The set S= { v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , v6 }
 11

Case 2. (To label and color the vertices of full m-ary tree and determine a VCCS where
m=3 . Furthermore, the numbers 1 and 2 correspond to the colors red and blue,
respectively)

Steps

1. Let v1 be the upper vertex in full m-ary

tree graph, label of adjacent vertices of

vertex v1 as v 2 , v 3 , ... v m.Let

v m+1 , v m+2 , ... v m+n represent adjacent

vertices of vertex v2 and

v m+n +1 , v m +n+2 , ... v m+n + p represent

adjacent vertices of vertex v3 .

Illustration

2. Color the vertices as follows:

Color the upper vertex as 1.

Color the 3 vertices below the upper

vertex as 2. Color the lower vertices as 1.

 12

3. Let Sto be the set of VCCS.

The set S= {v 1 , v 2 , v 3 }

The vertices v1 , v 5 , v 6 , v 7 , v 8 , v 9 and v10 are

colored red and v 2 , v 3 , v 4 are colored blue.

 13

Theorem 1. If graph G is m-ary, the vertex cover chromatic number for any m-ary tree is
n−1
given by χ α ( G )= such that n is number of vertices and m is number of children.
m

Proof.

Example 1. Consider a binary tree with m=2 , which is a full m-ary tree having v=7 and e=6 .
The illustration is in Figure 7.

Figure 7. A binary tree with m=2

The minimum number of colors to properly color a binary tree is 2. Thus χ ( G )=2.The set
{ v 1 , v 2 , v 5 } is the minimum VCCS of the binary tree. Therefore χ α ( G )=3. This agree with
 14

the formula in theorem 1, that is,

7−1 6
χ α ( G )= = =3
2 2
 15

On Generalized Petersen Graphs

A Generalized Petersen graph GP (n , k ) is a connected cubic graph consisting of

an outer regular polygon {n} (cycle graph C n), and an inner star polygon (n , k ) (circulant

graph Ci n(k )) with corresponding vertices in the outer and inner polygons connected with

edges. The graph in Figure 7 is an example of a generalized Petersen graph.

Figure 7. A generalized Petersen graph, GP ( 6,2 )

Case 3. (To label and color the vertices of Generalized Petersen Graph GP (n , k ) and

determine a VCCS where n is even. Furthermore, the numbers 1 and 2 correspond to the

colors red and blue, respectively)

 16

Steps Illustration

1. Starting with the upper left vertex of

degree 3, label the vertices of a c n as Let v1 be the upper left vertex of degree 3

v1 , v 2 ,... v n in counterclockwise direction. and let V ( C 6 )={ v 1 , v2 , v 3 , v 4 , v 5 , v 6 } be the

Next label the vertices of C ¿ ( k )as vertex set of the cycle and other vertices

v n+1 , v n+2 ,... v n+k beginning with the labeled start to the inner left vertex of

adjacent inner vertex of degree 3 label in degree 3 in a counterclockwise.

a counterclockwise direction.

2. Color the vertices as follows

 Color the vertices v1 , v 3 , ... v n−1 as 1. The set of vertices { v 1 , v 3 , v 5 , v 8 , v 10 , v 12}

 Color the vertices v 2 , v 4 , ... v n as 2 are colored as red and the set of vertices

 Color the vertices of C ¿ ( k ) as 1 and 2 { v 2 , v 4 , v 6 , v 7 , v 9 , v 11}are colored as blue.

alternating fashion vertex.
 17

3. Choose S to be the set of vertices, such The set S= {v 1 , v 3 , v 5 , v 8 , v10 , v 12 }

that if k is odd S= { v 1 , v 3 ,... v i−1 } ∪

{ v i , vi +1 , ... v i+ m−1 } and if k is even, the

process is similar.

n−1
Theorem 2. For any Generalized Petersen graph GP (n , k ) with n ≥ 3 and 1 ≤ k ≤ , the
2

vertex cover chromatic number is given by,

{
χ ∝ ( GP n , k )= n+1 ,if n is odd number
n , if n is even number

Proof.

Example 2.
 18

On Platonic Graphs

A platonic graph is a set of five platonic solids: the tetrahedron, octahedron,

cube, dodecahedron, and icosahedron. Each of the platonic solids is projected onto a

plane to create a platonic graph. The nodes and edges of the graph are the same as the

nodes and edges of the solid. Figure 8 is an example of one of the types of platonic

graphs.

Figure 8. A cubical graph (from platonic solid to platonic graph)

Case 4. (To label and color the vertices of a type of Platonic Graph and determine the

VCCS. Furthermore, the numbers 1, 2, and 3 correspond to the colors red, blue, and

yellow, respectively)

Steps Illustration
 19

1. Let v1 be the upper vertex in graph G, the cycle and other vertices labelled in a

label the vertices of a cycle C n as clockwise direction.

v1 , v 2 ,... vi in a clockwise direction. Next

the vertices of inner vertex of a graph G as

vi +1 , v i+2 ,... v i +n in a clockwise direction.

The vertex v1 , v 6 are colored as red, v 2 , v 4

2. Color the vertices as follows are colored as blue and v3 , v 5 are colored

 Color the upper vertex as 1 as yellow.

 Color the right outer vertex as 2

 Color the left outer vertex as 3

 Color the upper to the right inner

vertex as 3

 Color the upper to the left inner

vertex as 2

 Color the inner vertex as 1

Let v1 be the upper vertex of degree 3 and 3. Let S to be set of vertices

let V ( C3 ) ={ v 1 , v 2 , v 3 } be the vertex set of

 20

The set S= {v 1 , v 2 , v 4 , v 6 }
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Overview. Retrieved on June 15, 2020 from http://ijmaa.in/v5n4-f/845-849.pdf

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the Ottomar Graph. Retrieved on June 14, 2022 from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322697033_On_Chromatic_Number_an

d_Edge-Chromatic_Number_of_the_Ottomar_Graph.

Chaluvaraju B., Nandeesh Kumar C., Rusagara I. (2011). The Vertex Cover Chromatic

Number of a Graph. Canadian Journal on Computing in Mathematics, Natural

Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, Vol. 2, No. 1.

Cockayne, E.J., Gamble, B., & Shepherd, B. (1986). DOMINATION PARAMETERS

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://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0012365X86901391/pdf?md5=0ee8

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https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/algorithm.asp

Konstantinova, E. (2012). Lecture notes on some problems on Cayley graphs. Retrieved

on April 22, 2022 from

https://www.famnit.upr.si/sl/resources/files/knjiznica/studijskogradivo/lecturenote

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Levin, O. (2017). An Open Introduction. Retrieved on April 28, 2021 Discrete

Mathematics. From http://discrete.openmathbooks.org/dmoi2/sec_gt-intro.html

Nykamp. (n.d). Edge definition. Retrieved on May 5, 2021 From Math Insight.

http://mathinsight.org/definition/network_edge

Shukla, S., & Thakur, V.S. (2020). DOMINATION AND IT’S TYPE IN GRAPH

THEORY. Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research

(JETIR), Volume 7, Issue 3.

Sugumaran, A., & Jayachandran, E. (2018). Domination number of some graphs.

International Journal of Scientific Development and Research (IJSDR). Volume

3, Issue 11.

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https://iq.opengenus.org/clique-in-graphs/ .

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