CHAPTER-2

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter characterization of vegetable oils and biodiesel,

performance and emissions studies carried out by earlier researchers with regards to
the use of various types of vegetable oils as fuel in diesel engines are presented.

2.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

ASHTOSH KUMAR et al [1] carried out experiment on diesel engine. He

conducted experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using
LINSEED OIL is an alternative for diesel engine. Linseed oil it is non edible oil.
The results of the experiment showed that the performance of the engine to that on
diesel fuel. The thermal efficiency of the engine was lower and the brake specific
energy consumption of the engine was higher when the engine was fueled with
Linseed oil compared to diesel fuel. The oxides of nitrogen from during the whole
range of experiment were lower than diesel fuel. The Carbon monoxide, unburned
hydrocarbon from the fuel was found higher than diesel fuel on Linseed oil was
slightly during the whole experimental range. The results from the experiments he
suggest that linseed oil is potentially good substitute fuel for diesel engine and
performance and emissions characteristics were found to be comparable to diesel fuel.

R. PAWAR HARSHAL et al [2] carried out experiment on diesel Engine. He

conducted experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using WASTE
PLASTIC OIL is an alternative for diesel engine. Pyrolysis is a chemical
decomposition of organic substances. Engine was able to run with 100% waste plastic
oil. Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of organic substances by heating. Brake
thermal efficiency of the engine fueled with waste plastic oil with retarded injection
timing is found to be higher. At full load the brake thermal efficiency decreases with
increase in EGR flow rate. At the full load the BSFC is higher WPPO blends show
the specific fuel consumption higher than the diesel. The exhaust gas temperature for

17
plastic oil is higher than diesel. Unburned hydrocarbon emission is higher by about
15% than that of diesel; with the retarded injection timing it can be reduced.

AVINISH KUMAR et al [3] carried out experiment on diesel engine .He conducted
experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using KARANJA OIL is
an alternative for diesel engine. It is non edible oil. He conducted experimental
investigation of performance and emission of Karanja oil, and its blends
10%20%50%75%. BSFC for unheated and heated karanja oil were lower and exhaust
gas temperature was generally higher than diesel for all blends for both set oil. BSFC
was found to increase with increase in blend preparation as compared to diesel fuel in
the entire load range. so he can conclude that the karanja oil can be used as an
alternative for diesel engine.

S.SAVARIRAJ et al [4] carried out experiment on diesel engine. He conducted

experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using MANGO SEED
OIL is an alternative for diesel engine. From the experimental investigation he
concluded that based on the performance and exhaust emission for different
concentration of the fuel additives with biodiesel. He employing blended with
2.5%,5%,7%,10%.of fuel additives blended with biodiesel. The addition of fuel
additive to reduce viscosity up to 0.5% and marginal increased calorific value of
biodiesel. The NOx level reduces by use of additives blended biodiesel with
respective diesel fuel. The 10% fuel additives show maximum reduction of nox
emission. The smoke level slightly increases for all the cases. The thermal efficiency
for all the cases slightly increases than sole fuel.

SHARANAPPA GODIGANUR et al [5] carried out experiment on diesel engine.

He conducted experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using high
viscosity FISH OIL is an alternative for diesel engine. Fish oil extracted from fish
species. He use various blends of fish oil biodiesel with diesel B25, B50, B75, B100.
It was evidently seen that brake specific fuel consumption and brake thermal
efficiency were respectively10.54% and 1.5% higher for (B100) fish-oil biodiesel fuel
than that of diesel at full load condition. The use of hundred percent fish-oil biodiesel
fuel, B100 in the test engine at full load produced 34.95%, 1.65%, 14.6%, and 1.8%
higher smoke, NOx, CO and HC emissions respectively when compared with diesel
fuel.

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M.MARTIN et al [6] carried out experiment on diesel Engine. He conducted
experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using pre heated
COTTONSEED OIL is an alternative for diesel engine. Lower thermal efficiency
(28%) is found in neat CSO compared to diesel (32.3%).He concluded that the
preheating the fuel mixture (40% diesel and 60% CSO) is the effective method to
reduce emission and improving performance of a diesel engine. Exhaust gas
temperature is higher .Thermal efficiency is increased.

F.AKSOY et al [7] carried out experiment on diesel engine. He conducted

experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using OPIUM POPPY
OIL is an alternative for diesel engine. Blends of 50% opium poppy oil and 50%
diesel fuel mixture are used. While density and viscosity of opium poppy oil diesel
fuel mixture is higher than that of diesel fuel lower heating value of it is lower. This
decrease in engine performance is caused by the low heating value. CO and NOx
emissions of opium poppy oil-diesel fuel mixture compared with diesel fuel decreased
by 15.5 % and 5.9 % as the average respectively. He suggests Opium poppy oil-diesel
fuel mixture can be used as alternative fuel for vehicles with diesel engine.

AMEYA VILAS MALVADE et al [8] carried out experiment on diesel engine. He

conducted experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using PALM
OIL is an alternative for diesel engine. It is a waste from extraction of palm oil. The
engine performances for various PFAD biodiesel blends at various loads are
comparatively equal to that of diesel fuel. The purification process gives a high
quality palm ethyl ester biodiesel with properties close to ASTM standards. The brake
power obtained through out is same for all blending and diesel fuel. 50% blending of
PFAD biodiesel increases thermal efficiency as compared to other blending of fuel.
As blending increases with respect to load S.F.C. decreases and is same as diesel fuel.
But S.F.C for 50% blending increases as compared to diesel fuel. The acceptable
brake thermal efficiencies and S.F.C were achieved upto 30% blending. Indicated
power of PFAD blends is less compared to diesel fuel. But indicated power increases
with increase in load.

RAJ AND KANDASAMY et al [9] carried out experiment on diesel engine. He

conducted experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using

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TAMANU OIL is an alternative for diesel engine. The brake thermal efficiency of
the VCR engine slightly increases at higher loads when compared with that of
standard engine. The specific fuel consumption is lower at all load Conditions. The
volumetric efficiency increases at higher loads. The exhaust gas temperature is the
same and increases as the load increases. The delay period is consistently low when
load Increases. The peak pressure and the rate of pressure rise are higher and increase
with increase in load. The duration of injection slightly decreases at all loads.
Combustion duration is slightly higher at lower loads and lower at higher loads. There
is not much variation in the HC, CO, CO2, and NOx emissions at all loads.

G.VENKATA SUBBAIAH et al [10] carried out experiment on diesel Engine.

He conducted experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using RICE
BRAN OIL is an alternative for diesel engine. It was observed that the smoke
emission increases with increase in load. Rice bran oil methyl ester produces 10.52%
lesser smoke emission than diesel at maximum load. Also, at minimum and 50% load,
the biodiesel produces 44% and 21.1% lower than diesel. The presence of oxygen in
the biodiesel aids combustion and hence the hydrocarbon emission reduced. The
variation of carbon monoxide (CO) with respect to load is presented The CO emission
gradually increases with increase in load. The CO emission of rice bran oil methyl
ester is lower than diesel for all the load condition. At no load condition, the
20MOME produce 16% lower CO emission than diesel fuel and at maximum load,
the same fuel produce 14.76% lower CO than diesel.

MOHAMMED EL-KASABY et al [11] carried out experiment on diesel engine. He

conducted experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using
PONGAMIA, JATROPHA; NEEM OIL it is an alternative for diesel
engine .Experimental investigation is carried out to examine properties performance
and emissions of different blends of B10, B20, B40 of PME JME, and NEEM in
comparison to diesel. B20 is closer to performance to diesel 100 has lower thermal
efficiency Due to high viscosity. Pongamia mehylester gives better performance
compared to jatropha and neem methyl esters.

P.SRINIVAS et al [12] carried out experiment on diesel engine. He conducted

experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using CASTOR OIL for

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diesel engine. Transesterfication of crude oil with methanol in the presence of NaOH
as catalyst. Crude castor oil was transesterified using NaOH as catalyst and methanol
to form biodiesel .The conversion was 92% at 600c. The fuel properties like viscosity,
density, flash point, fire point and calorific value of the the transesterified product
(biodiesel) compare well with accepted biodiesel standards i .e ASTM and Indian
biodiesel standards. Low viscosity and hence improved injection and atomization
Ceatane no. of esters is greater, reduced emissions, 90% reduction in cancer risk,
Provides domestic, renewable energy

MD. HASAN ALI et al [13] carried out experiment on diesel engine. He conducted
experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using NEEM OIL for
diesel engine. He used methyl esters of Neem oil and blended with diesel fuel at
different ratios. Those different blends B10, B20, B30, B40, B50 were used as in a
diesel engine. Then evaluate the performance parameters like Brake thermal
efficiency, BSFC, exhaust gas temperature and the emissions measured were carbon
monoxide, smoke density, hydrocarbon and oxides of nitrogen. Brake thermal
efficiency decreases as the concentration of neem oil in the blend increases. A
maximum brake thermal efficiency of 30.4%was achieved for B20 while for diesel it
was 30.9%at full load. So he can conclude that the NEEM oil can be used as an
alternative for diesel engine.
K.SRINIVAS et al [14] carried out experiment on diesel engine. He conducted
experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using TOBACCO SEED
OIL BLENDS for diesel engine. The analyzed mechanical properties of tobacco
seed oil based biodiesel are near to the pure diesel. The Brake specific fuel
consumption is increases with the blends when compared to diesel. Brake thermal
efficiency decreased with all blends when compared to the conventional diesel fuel.
CO and HC emissions are decreased significantly with the blends when compared
with diesel. Emission of NOx is increases with the blends when compared to diesel.

K.HARSHAVARDHAN REDDY1 [15] carried out experiment on diesel engine.

He conducted experimental investigation on compression ignition engine using
ORANGE OIL BLENDS for diesel engine .In this experiment is to be conduct when
the engine fuelled with orange oil and its blends in various proportions 10%, 20%,
30%, 40% and 50% by volume and then investigate the performance and emission

21
characteristics of C.I Engine Thermal efficiency of the tested diesel engine is
improved .Hydro carbon emission is found that less. Exhaust gas temperature of
blends Orange oil 30 is less. Thermal efficiency of the tested diesel engine is
improved when it is fuelled Orange oil. Carbon dioxide emission is increased as the
load variation increased but the concentration is less when compared to the diesel fuel
operation. Oxygen content is reduced from the exhaust gas as the load is increased. If
the high content of oxygen is present in the exhaust it leads to the formation of
Oxygen So, it is preferred to use the 50% Orange oil blends.

ADEILTON FERNANDES et al [16] carried out experiment on diesel Engine.

Type of oil used VEGETABLE oil. With reduced emissions of Co and CO2, and
some increase in NOx emissions, were found. When using biodiesel (B100), an
average reduction of 41% in CO2 emissions can be found as compared to the
emissions of the engine fueled by diesel, taking the average emissions. The reduction
is proportional to the percentage of biodiesel in the blend, with a tendency to form a
peak reduction of CO2 emissions in the range of power between 155 and 200 kW,
coincidentally the same range of maximum effective power that can be drawn from
the engine as described by the manufacturer.

ELTON SOLSENG et al [17]. They were conducted experiments on diesel engine

using with VEGETABLE OIL METHYL ESTER. This paper reviews develop
experience with using biodiesel and determine how an engine will operate with an
alternate fuel. Biodiesel has a lower energy content and the power output of the
engine decreased by almost 9% on pure biodiesel. This would mean that more fuel
would be needed to do the same work as diesel fuel. About 1.1 gallons of biodiesel
would be needed to do the same amount of work as diesel fuel. Two significant
problems exist as to the acceptance of biodiesel by the public. They are the added cost
for the fuel and fuel thickening in cold weather. The thickening problem can be
handled with fuel heaters. The added cost will need to be accepted by the consumer or
a government subsidy will be needed or the price of diesel fuel rises to a similar level.

İLKERSUGOZA AND et al [18]. Conducted experiments on diesel engine using

CANOLA OIL ETHYL ESTER evaluate engine performance and exhaust
emissions were investigated on twin cylinder diesel engine. Results showed that the
engine torque and power were reduced due to lower calorific value of canola oil ethyl

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ester. As well, due to this reason, the specific fuel consumption for biodiesel had been
obtained higher than that of diesel fuel. Carbon oxide emissions were decreased with
the use of biodiesel. The NOx emissions of biodiesel were higher obtained with
respect to diesel fuel. These can be attributed to the more complete combustion of the
biodiesel with presence of more oxygen in the combustion chamber.
PRANIL J. SINGH et al [19], in this investigation COCONUT OIL based hybrid
fuels (coconut oil, aqueous ethanol and a surfactant (butan-1-ol) were used. That
hybrid fuels (53VCO 23E 24B, 67VCO 17E 16B, 85VCO 10E 5B) were tested as a
fuel in a direct injection diesel engine. The viscosity of pure coconut oil can be
reduced to close to that of diesel using the micro-emulsification technique. And then
evaluate the performance parameters like brake thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC),exhaust gas temperature and the emissions measured were
carbon monoxide (CO), smoke density, hydrocarbon (HC), and oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) characteristics of a twin cylinder four stroke, water cooled, direct injection

diesel engine.

1. Anhydrous butan-1-ol can be used as an effective surfactant to prepare a stable

and homogenous micro-emulsion of coconut oil and aqueous ethanol of 95%
purity.
2. The engine efficiency of the hybrid fuels is similar compared to diesel and
improves as the viscosity of the fuel decreases.
3. The specific fuel consumption of the hybrid fuels is higher compared to diesel
due to the lower gross calorific value of the hybrid fuels.
4. The emissions levels (NO, SO2 and CO2) of the hybrid fuels are lower
compared to diesel, but an increase in CO emission levels is observed.

S. JINDAL et al [20]. In this investigation tests were carried on twin cylinder

water cooled variable compression ratio connected to eddy current dynamometer
using JATROPH OIL. He was conduct experiments the effects of variations in
engine operating parameters on the emissions of NOx while operating with pure
biodiesel (Jatropha methyl ester).He was suggested performance of engine is found to
be better with biodiesel concentration up to 20% only. For improvement of
performance with pure biodiesel, engine parameters needs to be At standard operating
parameters, the emissions of NOx are found to be lesser with JME as compared to

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diesel as fuel. It is observed that increase in compression ratio tends to raise the
emission level of NOx whereas increase in injection pressure leads to reduction in
NOx emissions. While using pure JME as fuel, high compression ratio associated with
high injection pressure, results in lower NOx emissions as compared to diesel
emissions. At lower speeds of engine, the emissions increases peaking at 1440 rpm.
The effect of retarding the injection timing is positive emission of NOx tends to
decrease with retardation. Thus NOx emissions can be minimized by increasing
compression ratio, increasing injection pressure, maintaining engine speed and
retarding injection timing from standard values of these parameters.

N.LAKSHMI NARAYANARAO AND et al [21]. They were conducted

experiments on diesel engine by different vegetable oils. Main objective of this
investigation was to estimate the mathematical relationships of biodiesel between
viscosity, density, heating values and flash point among various biodiesel samples.
There is a high regression between various properties of biodiesel and the
relationships between them are observed to be considerably regular.
The transesterification of vegetable oil decreases its viscosity and the
properties of biodiesel depend on feed stock i.e. vegetable oils and process
technologies employed. However, there is a correlation among the properties of
biodiesel. Correlations have been established between flash point, density, and
viscosity and heating value. Viscosity is one of the most important parameters
required in the design of combustion process. Viscosity must be closely correlated
with structural parameters of fuel flow systems. Hence, the neat biodiesel or biodiesel
blends should meet the desired viscosity in order to avoid damage of fuel injectors
and fuel pump. A correlation developed between heating value and density of
biodiesel with viscosity of fuel. These correlations between these properties follow
the linear regression with high coefficient of regression. These physical properties of
fuel are the significant parameters in the design of fuel system for biodiesel engine.

A. GOPINATHAND et al [22]. The objective of this work is to investigate the

influence of FATTY ACID METHYL ester composition on cetane number of
biodiesel fuels .They were concluded that the cetane number of biodiesel fuels is
strongly influenced by the individual fatty esters in the biodiesel. The increasing
number of double bonds causing lower cetane numbers. Cetane number increases with

24
increasing chain length and decreases with increasing instauration. The cetane number
increases with increase in LA uric, meristic, palmitic, and stearic fatty acids content.
Whereas cetane number decreases with increase in allelic, linoleic, and linoleic fatty
acid ester content. It was found from the investigation that the un saturation
percentage can significantly affect the cetane number.

GVNSR RATNAKARARAO et al [23], they were carried out on a twin cylinder

variable compression ratio C.I engine using neat MAHUA OIL as the fuel. Both the
performance and exhaust analysis were carried out to find the best suited compression
ratio finally suggested that 15.7 is the best compression ratio with mahua in the C. I
engines with Thermal efficiency is very high at this compression ratio where as fuel
consumption, smoke number and the exhaust gas temperatures are marginally low at
compression ratio 15.7.

MD. NURUNNABI AND S. M. NAJMULHOQUE et al [24 ], they were conduct

experiments on twin cylinder water cooled, naturally aspirated four stroke diesel
engine using LINSEED OIL and its blends with diesel. In this work they were done
first crude linseed oil is converted to bio diesel and compare the bio diesel with
commercial diesel. Maximum 88% biodiesel production was found at 20% methanol,

0.5% NaOH and 550C reaction temperature. The maximum biodiesel production
measured after 15 hrs reaction time. Thermal efficiency of biodiesel is almost similar
to conventional diesel fuel. Efficiency of biodiesel (B10, B20) is 1% and 2% lower
than diesel fuel due to low volatility, higher viscosity and density CO emissions
reduced with diesel biodiesel blended fuel, while NOx emission increased for the
diesel bio-diesel blended fuel compared with the conventional diesel fuel. Biodiesel
(B10, B20) reduces 9% and 23% emission than diesel fuel. But NOx level is 6% and
13% higher than diesel fuel.

SUNDAY ALBERT LAWALAI AND AHMED BABAKANO et al [25],

They were conducted experiments on conventional diesel
engine with PALM OIL as fuel. They were conclude the performance analysis under
specific fuel consumption showed that fossil diesel had lower values than that of
biodiesel indicating that biodiesel had a slightly higher viscosity compared with the
fossil. Under torque application, the biodiesel had a higher value than the fossil fuel.

25
Also the brake power value of the biodiesel was higher than that of the fossil fuel
indicating a larger brake power for the biodiesel compared with the fossil diesel.
Results obtained in this work show that bio-fuel obtained from palm oil has properties
close to petrol diesel. Therefore, it can be used as a substitute for diesel oil. The palm
oil has the advantage that it is a non-polluting source of energy; hence, it can help in
reducing the emission of greenhouse gases and other emissions that are toxic and
cacogenic. Based on this study, it is believed that a time will be reached in the future
when demand for non-polluting and efficient energy sources will be met by other
sources than fossil fuel globally.

CLEVER KETLOGETSWE, JEREKIASGANDURE et al [26],

This paper presents a re-view of one alternative technological method that can
be used to produce this fuel. Biodiesel from used COOKING OIL was produced by
alkali catalysed transesterification process. With the obtained biodiesel tests were
conducted on diesel engine, the performance of internal combustion engine using this
bio-diesel blended with petroleum diesel in various blending ratios was performed.

They were examined the performance of a twin cylinder variable cooking oil
and petroleum diesel. Fuel mixtures consisting of 100% petroleum-based diesel,
100% bio-diesel, 50/50% (diesel/biodiesel) and 70/30% (diesel/ biodiesel) were
tested. The study revealed that the performance of the engine when powered by
biodiesel and its blends compression ignition engine powered using different fuel
mixtures of biodiesel produced from used

S¸EHMUSALTUN et al [27], In this investigation experiments are conducted

on four stroke, four cylinder, natural aspirated water cooled diesel engine with
WASTE COOKING OIL AND INEDIBLE ANIMAL TALLOW METHYL
ESTERS. In this paper reviews Inedible animal tallow, which is obtained from a
mixture of slaughtered cattle and sheep fats collected from a local slaughterhouse
during meat preparation process, was transesterified using methyl alcohol and an
alkaline catalyst to produce the inedible animal tallow methyl ester. Biodiesel from
waste cooking oil was produced from waste cooking oils and methyl alcohol via a
transesterification reaction, and provided by a commercial biodiesel producer.

26
 In this study, the effects of biodiesel fuels with different feedstock on
performance and exhaust emissions of direct injection diesel engine were
experimentally investigated. The brake torque with diesel fuel was higher than those
with both of the biodiesels, and also the biodiesel from inedible animal tallow showed
slightly lower brake torque than waste cooking oil biodiesel. The BSFCs for both of
the biodiesels were higher than that of diesel fuel, and also the BSFCs for both of the
biodiesels were comparable to each other. Both inedible animal tallow and waste
cooking oil biodiesels produced less CO emissions than diesel fuel. The comparison
of decreases in CO emissions between inedible animal tallow and waste cooking oil
biodiesels indicates that inedible animal tallow is more effective than waste cooking
oil. Nox emissions were higher with waste cooking oil and lower with inedible animal
tallow when compared with those of diesel fuel.

HUSEYINAYDIN, CUMALIILKILIC et al [28],

They were conducted experiments on diesel engine using
BIODIESEL WITH ETHANOL as fuel. In this investigation as an additive to
research the possible use of higher percentages of biodiesel in an unmodified diesel
engine. The effect of test fuels on engine torque, power, and brake specific fuel
consumption, brake thermal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature, and CO, CO2, NOx
and SO2 emissions was investigated. The torque of engine obtained for BE20 was
higher than both those obtained for diesel and B20 fuels.
 The power of BE20 was very close to that of DF while that of B20was slightly
lower. The average brake specific fuel consumption for BE20 fuel was lower than
that of B20 and was almost the same as that of standard diesel fuel. The highest
percent of exhaust temperature during the exhaust were obtained with blend of
BE20.
 The NOx emissions were slightly increased with the use of both biodiesel–ethanol
blend and standard diesel fuel with respect to those of the diesels–diesel blend.
But as for CO2 emissions, that have the vital effect on global warming, a drastic
decrease was obtained for B20 fuel when compared with those of both diesel and
BE20 fuels. For B20 the average CO 2 decrease was about 67% and 67.5% when
compared to diesel and BE20 fuels, respectively.
 The CO and SO2 emissions were reduced with the use of both biodiesel–ethanol
and biodiesel–diesel blends with respect to those of the neat diesel fuel. The main

27
 conclusion derived by this research is that using ethanol with biodiesel can
potentially remove serious problem revealed with the use of high percentages of
biodiesel in operation of unmodified diesel engines. Besides, the exhaust
emissions for BE20 were fairly reduced. Also the new fuel blend is about 90%
renewable.

MUSTAFA BALAT, HAVVABALAT et al [29],

They were use different VEGETABLE OILS and these are converted to biodiesel.
Tense oils are used in diesel engines and finely they were suggested the problems
with substituting triglycerides for diesel fuels are mostly associated with their high
viscosities, low volatilities and poly unsaturated character. The viscosity of vegetable
oils, when used as diesel fuel, can be reduced in at least four different ways :(1)
Dilution with Hydrocarbons (blending), (2) Emulsification, (3) Pyrolysis (thermal
cracking), and (4) transesterification(Alcoholics).

Transesterification is the most common method and leads tomato alkyl esters
of vegetable oils and fats, now called bio-diesel when used for fuel purposes. The
main factors affecting transesterification are molar ratio of glycerides to alcohol,
catalyst, reaction temperature and pressure, reaction time and the contents of free fatty
`acids and water in oils. The commonly accepted molar ratio so alcohol to
glycerides are 6:1–30:1.Bio-diesel is a cleaner-burning diesel replacement fuel made
from natural, renewable sources such as new and used vegetable oils and animal fats.
Just like petroleum diesel, bio-diesel operates in compression-ignition engines or
Diesel engines. Viscosity is the most important property of bio-diesel since it affects
the operation of the fuel injection equipment, particularly at low temperatures when
the increase in viscosity affects the fluidity of the fuel. The major economic factor to
consider for input costs of biodiesel production is the feedstock, which is about 80%
of the total operating cost. Other important costs are lab or, methanol and catalyst,
which must be added to the feedstock.
DILIP KUMAR BORA et al [30],
This paper presents performance of twin cylinder diesel engine using blends of
KARABISEEDOIL. Potassium hydroxide was used as catalyst to facilitate
esterification process. It has been observed that karabi seed biodiesel can effectively

28
be used as diesel fuel substitute in existing diesel engine without any engine
modification.
Fuel properties of karabi biodiesel were within limits specified by ASTM D
6751-02 standard. BSFC increased and BTE decreased with increase in proportion of
biodiesel in blends. Smoke level, UBHC and CO in exhaust emissions reduced,
whereas NOx increased with increase in percentage of karabi biodiesel in blends.
Karabi seed biodiesel can effectively be used as diesel fuel substitute in existing
diesel engine without any engine modification.

A.VEERESHBABU et al [31],

In this investigation is totally based on conversion of biodiesel from

transesterification process using PONGAMIA PINNATA OIL. Biodiesel was pre
pared from the non-edible oil of Pongamia pinnata. by transesterification of the crude-
oil with methanol in the presence of NaOH as catalyst. Vegetable oils can be
transesterified by heating them with a large excess of an hydrous methanol and an
acidic or basic re agent as catalyst. Both the acid as well as alkaline esterifications
were subsequently per formed to get the final product.
A catalyst is usually used to improve the reaction rate and yield. NaOH was
found to be a better catalyst than KOH in terms of yield. In a transesterification
reaction, a larger amount of methanol was used to shift the reaction equilibrium to the
right side and produce more methyl esters as the proposed product. Several aspects
including the type of catalyst (alkaline, acid, or enzyme), alcohol/vegetable oil molar
ratio, temperature, purity of the reactants (mainly water content) and free fatty acid
content have an influence on the course of the transesterification. A maximum
conversion of 94% (oil to ester) was achieved using a 1:10 molar ratio of oil to
methanol at 60 to 65 °C. Important fuel properties of methyl esters of Pongamia oil
(biodiesel) com pare well with ASTM standards.

S. JINDAL et al [32],
The main aim of this paper is to evaluation of effect of injection timing on the
combustion, performance and emissions of a small power diesel engine, commonly
used for agriculture purpose, running on pure biodiesel, prepared from JATROPHA
VEGETABLE OIL. The effect of varying injection timing was evaluated in terms of
thermal efficiency, specific fuel consumption, power and mean effective pressure,

29
exhaust temperature, cylinder pressure, rate of pressure rise and the heat release rate.
The fuel properties of biodiesel are comparable with that of diesel and lower
blends with diesel are found suitable even for long term uses. Higher blends are still
away from acceptance due to poor performance, mainly due to the reason that, the
present age engines are the result of extensive research keeping petro diesel only as
fuel in mind. Biodiesel being a fuel of different origin and quality, the engine design
needs revision and different settings for optimum performance.

As the combustion advances with biodiesel due to early entry, retarding the
injection timing by 3o is found to increase the thermal efficiency by 8% and reduce
the specific fuel consumption by 9% when jatropha methyl ester is used as fuel.
Highest exhaust temperature and indicated power are obtained on 3o retarded
injection. By retarding the injection, the fuel delivery is also reduced resulting in
slightly lower pressure rise with peak shifting towards outward stroke reducing the
negative work.

S SRAGIT et al [33],

They were conducted experiments using NEEM OIL METHYL ESTER

(NOME) was tested in 4-stroke twin cylinder water cooled diesel engine. Brake
thermal efficiency of NO100 has been found 63.11% higher than that of diesel at part
load whereas it reduces 11.2% with diesel fuel at full load. As NOME is concerned,
HC is reduced at all load condition, whereas smoke is also reduced at full load
condition. NOx has reduced slightly at all load condition, and EGT showed
increasing trend at full load condition. Other emissions (CO, CO 2 and O2) do not
contribute bad effect on engine. Thus, NOME can be a substitute for diesel fuel in
diesel engine.

ALIREZA SHIRNESHAN et al [34],

In this paper, experiments were conducted on a 4-cylinder direct-injection

diesel engine using biodiesel as an alternative fuel and their blends to investigate the
emission characteristics of the engine under four engine loads at an engine speed of
1800 rev/min. A test was applied in which an engine was fueled with diesel and four
different blends of diesel/biodiesel (B20, B40, B60 and B80) made from WASTE

30
FRYING OIL and the results were analyzed. The use of biodiesel resulted in lower
emissions of hydrocarbon (HC) and CO and increased emissions of CO 2 and NOx.
This study showed that the exhaust emissions of diesel/biodiesel blends were lower
than those of the diesel fuels. Experiments have been conducted on a diesel engine
using diesel, diesel-biodiesel blended fuels. Biodiesel used in the present study was
manufactured from waste frying oil. Blended fuels containing 20%, 40%, 60% and
80% by volume of biodiesel, were used in the tests. The effect of engine load and fuel
mix on emissions was investigated. The use of diesel blended with biodiesel,
compared with diesel on the emissions; in general, HC and CO emissions are higher
at low engine loads and lower at high engine loads while NOx increase with engine
loads. Also the CO2 emission increases with increases in load, as expected. The lower
percentage of biodiesel blends emits very low amount of CO2 in comparison with
diesel.

CENK SAYIN et al [35],

This work investigates the influence of compression ratio (CR) and injection
parameters such injection timing (IT) and injection pressure (IP) on the performance
and emissions of a DI diesel engine using biodiesel (%5, 20%, 50%, and 100%)
blended-diesel fuel. Tests were carried out using three different CRs(17, 18, and
19/1), ITs (15_, 20_, and 25_ CA BTDC) and IPs (18, 20 and 22 MPa) at 20 N m
engine load and2200 rpm. The results showed that brake specific fuel consumption
(BSFC), brake specific energy consumption (BSEC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
emissions increased while brake thermal efficiency(BTE), smoke opacity (OP),
carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) decreased with the increase in the
amount of biodiesel in the fuel mixture. The best results for BSFC, BSEC and BTE
were observed at increased the CR, IP, and original IT. For the all tested fuels, an
increase in IP, IT and CR leaded to decrease in the OP, CO and HC emissions while
NOx emissions increase.

OCTAVIO ARMAS et al [36],

Two alternative fuels, a gas to liquid (GTL) fuel from a low temperature
Fischer–Tropsch process and a biodiesel produced from animal fats, have been tested

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using a light duty diesel engine with road load simulation (RLS) under the New
European Driving Cycle (NEDC). The engine used has a variable geometry
turbocharger (VGT), exhaust gas recirculation with cooling (EGR), common rail with
split fuel injection and diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC). Regulated emissions have
been evaluated and noticeable reductions in THC and CO were observed with both
alternative fuels whereas only slight decrease was obtained in NOx emissions with
biodiesel. With respect to results on particle matter, important reductions in both
particle number and particle mass were obtained with both alternative fuels. From the
analysis of these results, the following conclusions can be enounced:
(a) Test conditions (setting values) were achieved for all tested fuels, so the
differences found in emissions among them are mainly due to their properties and
composition.
(b) THC and CO were reduced with alternative fuels, especially during the first urban
cycle, where these emissions are very high for all tested fuels (lower temperatures at
the combustion chamber and in the DOC). These trends suggest that the composition
of alternative fuels favors a cleaner combustion.
(c) In the case of NOx emissions, similar results were observed between diesel and
GTL and a slight decrease was obtained with biodiesel during most of NEDC, except
in the last part of the cycle.

A.M. LIAQUAT et al [37],

The present work investigates the engine performance parameters and

emissions characteristics for direct injection diesel engine using coconut biodiesel
blends without any engine modifications. A total of three fuel samples, such as DF
(100% diesel fuel), CB5 (5% coconut biodiesel and 95% DF), and CB15 (15% CB
and85%DF)respectively are used.Engine performance test has been carried out at
100% load, keeping throttle 100%wideopenwithvariable speeds of 1500 to 2400 rpm
at an interval of 100 rpm. Whereas, engine emission tests have been carried out at
2200 rpm at 100% and 80% throttle position.As results of investigations, there has
been a decrease in torque and brake power, while increase in specific fuel
consumption has been observed for biodiesel blended fuels over the entire speed
range compared to net diesel fuel. In case of engine exhaust gas emissions, lower HC,

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CO and, higher CO2 and NOx emissions have been found for biodiesel blended fuels
compared to diesel fuel. Moreover, reduction in sound level for both biodiesel
blended fuels has been observed when compared to diesel fuel. Therefore, it can be
concluded that CB5 and CB15 can be used in diesel engines without any engine
modifications and have beneficial effects both in terms of emission reductions and
alternative petroleum diesel fuel. The experimental results of this research work can
be summarized as follows.

 Compared to diesel fuel, engine torque and brake power for biodiesel blends
were decreased, mainly due to their respective lower heating values. The bsfc
values for biodiesel blends were higher when compared to diesel fuel due to
lower heating values and higher densities.In case of engine exhaust gas
emissions, HC and CO emissions were reduced whereas, CO 2 and NOx
emissions were increased for CB5 and CB15 when compared to diesel fuel at
both engine operating conditions.
 In comparison with the diesel fuel, biodiesel blends produced lower sound
levels due to many factors including increase in oxygen content, reduction in
the ignition delay, higher viscosity, lubricity etc.

T.T. AL-SHEMMERI et al [38],

This paper presents an algorithm which correlates nitrogen oxides emitted and
the combustion flame temperature during the combustion of biodiesel. An iterative
process is used to determine the flame temperature taking into account the
phenomenon of dissociation. The results of the algorithm are presented for different
blends and air-to-fuel ratios. These predicted results are compared with laboratory
tests conducted in the present study on a stationary diesel engine run on different
blends of biodiesel. Within the range of tests carried out, the NOx emissions from
biodiesel and its blends proved to be higher than those of petro-diesel fuel.
Furthermore, in this study a strong correlation was found relating the NOx emissions
and the flame temperature. The main conclusions from the current study can be
summarized as follows.

33
NOx for each test varied linearly with blend. The same behavior was observed for all
5 loads.
In an attempt to correlate the variation of flame temperature and its corresponding
NOx emission it was found that a linear relationship existed, although it has been
suspected, these results was a pleasant finding.

YIMIN LIU et al [39],

This paper has examined the results of the corporate average fuel economy
(CAFE) incentive program under the Alternative Motor Fuels Act, with a focus on the
effects of Alternative Motor Fuels Act (AMFA) on automakers. In some situations,
the incentive program may lead to reduced production of AFVs, and it may increase
GHG emissions, as environmentalists feared. Since the production of conventional
vehicles increases in response to the incentive program,AMFA is unlikely to reduce
gasoline consumption. Moreover, the CAFE incentive program cannot achieve a
specific GHG emission level as precisely as a GHG standard; indeed, GHG emissions
may actually increase after AMFA, since the auto maker may increase production of
both types of vehicles. If the government has a goal of increasing the number of
AFVs, a cap on GHG emissions is not enough, since production of AFVs decreases
with tightening of the GHG standard. Increasing the fuel economy standard is likely
to decrease GHG emissions. On the other hand, in this model with an infinitely elastic
demand curve, improving the fuel economy of conventional vehicles will lead to
increased production of conventional vehicles, and may increase GHG emissions due
to that increased production.

K. PRAMANIK et al [40],

The main aim of the present investigation was to reduce the viscosity of
jatropha curcas oil close to that of conventional fuel to make it suitable for use in a
C.I. engine and to evaluate the performance of the engine with the modified oils.
Significant reduction in viscosity was achieved by dilution of vegetable oil with diesel
in varying proportions. Among the various blends, the blends containing up to 30%
(v/v) jatropha oil have viscosity values close to that of diesel fuel. The blend
containing40% (v/v) vegetable oil has a viscosity slightly higher than that of diesel.
34
The viscosity was further reduced by heating the blends. The viscosity of the blends
containing 70 and 60% vegetable oil became close to that of diesel in the temperature
ranges of 70–75 and 60–65 °C, respectively. The corresponding temperatures were
found to be 55–60 and 45 °C for 50 and 40% blends, whereas only at 35–40 °C did
the viscosity of the 30:70 J/D blend become close to the specification range.
Acceptable brake thermal efficiencies and SFCs were achieved with the blends
containing up to 50% jatropha oil.

2.3 SUMMARY

From the above literature it was clearly found that many of the researchers
used different alternative fuels for diesel engine and have given the optimum blends
of that alternative fuel to be mixed with diesel for different operating conditions of the
engine .they also suggested the some alternative fuels which are friendly to
atmosphere.

2.4 SCOPE OF PRESENT WORK

The present work deals with the preparation of refined waste transformer oil
methyl ester (RWTO) from crude waste transformer oil through transesterification
Process which has been identified as a good source for bio –fuel. For this purpose
different properties of the WTO were determined. The different properties include
density, kinematic viscosity, flash and fire points. The investigation includes two
parts. In the first part of investigation different properties and engine performance
were conducted. In the next part waste transformer oil is refined by transesterification
process and again different fuel properties and engine performance were conducted.
Further experimental investigations are carried out on the same engine same
operating parameters by using the RWTO blends with diesel in different ratios such
as T10 ,T20,T30,T40 to find out the performance parameters and emissions. Finally
the performance parameters obtained by above tests are to be compared with the base
line data obtained earlier by using diesel fuel.
After finding the optimum blend in the third stage the test to be conducted
again on the engine to find out the performance parameters by adding ISOPROPYL
ALCOHOL to the optimum blend. The main purpose of adding the IPA is to improve
the ignition process and brake thermal efficiency .Finally the performance parameters
obtained by the above tests are compared with the optimum blend and diesel.

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