Module 1: Forces

Force – is a push or pull exerted by an object

- It can change the direction of a moving object

- It can change the shape of an object

- Has size and direction

magnitude - refers to the size or strength of the force

- commonly expressed in Newton (N) for Meter-Kilogram-Second (MKS) system, Dyne

(dyn) for Centimeter–Gram–Second (CGS) system and pounds (lbs) for
Foot–Pound–Second (FPS) system.

direction – points to where the object goes

point of application – the location of where the force is applied

line of action – is the straight line passing through the point of application and is parallel to the
direction of force

Contact Forces – forces where objects touch or contact with each other

1) Applied - a force given to a person or object by another person or object

- symbol is F

2) Friction – is the force acting against or opposite an object in contact with

- always opposes the motion of an object

- Its symbol is written as Ff. Air resistance denoted by FAIR

3) Normal - is the force that acts perpendicular to the surface of the object in

contact with. Its symbol is FN

4) Tension – is the force applied to string, rope, chain or cable. Its symbol is T

Non- contact forces - forces where objects do not touch or contact with each other.

These forces act over a zone or area called field.

1) Gravitational (Fg) - is the force of attraction between two objects

- The bigger the masses of the objects are, the bigger is the gravitational force between them.
The closer the objects are, the greater is the gravitational force between them.

2) Magnetic - are forces exerted on a field of attraction or repulsion as in the

case of magnets and other magnetic materials

Balanced Forces – forces that are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction (do not cause a
change in motion)

Unbalanced Forces – forces that cause a change in motion

Net or Resultant Force – is the sum of all forces acting on an object

Same direction = add together

ex: 20N + 25N = 45N

Opposite directions = subtract

ex: 25N – 10N = 15N

Module 2: Laws of Motion

1) Law of Inertia

- states that, “an object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion will continue to move at
constant velocity unless acted upon by a net force.”

- an object will continue to remain at ret or uniform motion unless acted upon by an external
unbalanced force

- The greater the mass of an object, the harder it is to move when it is at rest, or difficult to stop
when in motion.

inertia - the tendency of an object to maintain its state of rest or of uniform velocity in a straight
line

examples:

- body moving forward when riding a bus

- ball rolling on the ground

- riding a horse
- soccer ball sitting at rest

2) Law of Acceleration

- states that “the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it
and is inversely proportional to the object’s mass. The direction of the acceleration is in the
direction of the net force acting on the object.”

- F = ma

- the greater the force, the greater the acceleration

- the greater the mass, the greater the force needed for the same acceleration

examples:

- hitting a baseball

- accelerating or decelerating a car

3) Law of Interaction

- For every action force, there is an equal and opposite reaction force

examples:

- sitting on a chair

- writing

- pool or billiards

- astronauts in space

- a hammer and a nail

- walking

Light

Transparent objects - if light passes through an object

Opaque objects - if light cannot pass through an object
Translucent objects - allows light to pass through them partially

➔ Both a particle and a wave

➔ Is a form of energy made of protons
➔ Light takes 8 minutes to pass through the Earth
 ➔ Is a transverse wave. The movement of the particles is at right angles of perpendicular to
the motion of the energy
➔ Is an electromagnetic wave. It is created by the fusion of electric and magnetic fields.
- Are made up of photons
- Photons have no mass, but are pure energy
➔ Travels away from the light source
➔ Travels in straight line
➔ Travels faster than sound

equilibrium - resting position

crest - highest point of a wave
trough - lowest point of a wave
wavelength - distance between consecutive troughs and consecutive crests in a wave
amplitude - measure of the height of the wave

Hierarchy of Colors

➔ Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, known as the visible light

● White light has different wavelengths

● Colors are arranged using wavelengths

Hertz - unit for frequency

Meters - unit for wavelength

Violet - produces more energy

- the most bent color

Although red has the longest wavelength, it has the lowest energy

frequency and energy - directly proportional

frequency and wavelength - inversely proportional

The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency

1) Reflection

- bounces back from a surface

- smooth, shiny objects

2) Refraction

- bending of light when it travels from one medium to another

- speed of light changes
 3) Dispersion

- separation and splitting of white light

How are rainbows formed?

- The raindrops act as small prisms and break the sun’s while light in to a band of seven
colors
- A rainbow can only be seen when the rain and sun occur at the same time
- As light enters a rainwater droplet, it bends slightly in separate angles forming different
light rays. These bent light rays are seen distinctively by the human eye and that is how
one can see a rainbow.
- Rainbows can be seen not just in rain but also in mist, spray, fog, and dew

Why are sunsets red?

- Scattering of light in the atmosphere

Why does the sky appear blue?

Tyndall Effect

➔ Is a phenomenon in which a beam of light scatters on striking the particles present in its
path, this scattering of light is responsible for the blue color of the sky
➔ When the sunlight strikes particles of dust, smoke, etc. which are bigger than the
wavelength of sunlight, all the colors of sunlight are equally scattered. As a result, the
scattered light appears white.

However, when the sunlight strikes particles of oxygen and nitrogen which are smaller
than the wavelength of sunlight the colors of sunlight having shorter wavelengths that is,
blue and violet are much more scattered than colors having longer wavelengths. But our
eyes are much more sensitive to blue color as compared to violet, hence the sky
appears blue to us.