CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction
1.1 Background
1.1.1 Global perspective
Clay is a very important material in geotechnical engineering because it is often observed in
geotechnical engineering practice. Generally, this soil type has numerous problems due to its low
strength, high compressibility, and high level of volumetric changes. Clay needs to be improved before
it can be used in road construction, dams, slurry walls, airports, and waste landfills. Improved
graduation, a reduction in plasticity and swelling potential, as well as an increase in strength and
workability, generally improve the stability of clay. Clay is a fine-grained soil, but not all fine-grained
soils are the clay. Clay minerals are very electrochemically active; thus, they affect soil microstructures.
Due to these characteristics, many important soil problems related to clay have been observed in the
past, the importance of which is understood. In this chapter, the properties of clay, as well as the use of
clay in geotechnical engineering and geotechnical studies on clay, are examined.

Geotechnical engineering is a broad discipline consisting of soil mechanics and foundation engineering.
Geotechnical engineering is also called technique engineering or geomechanics. Geotechnical
engineering addresses the application of engineering mechanics to soil and rock problems. The
properties, behavior, and performance of soils are addressed by engineering mechanics. Subsequently,
the obtained data are processed and interpreted [1]. Geotechnical engineers consider landslides and
earthquakes when planning and designing structures for buildings, roads, embankments, and landfills.
Geotechnical engineers also examine billions of years of geological history through soils. Therefore,
examinations of the heterogeneous nature of soils require the resolution of complex problems. All types
of engineering structures such as residential buildings, service buildings, bridges, dams, roads, and
airports are located on or in the ground. As Richard said in 1995, “is supported by almost every
construction ground or rocks. Unsupported is either fly or float or fall” [2]. Even when they are well
designed, the safety of an engineering structure cannot be ensured when there is inadequate bearing
capacity, high swelling/shrinking potential, and settlement (compression) of the soil. For this reason,
geotechnical applications in soils have become obligatory. Many studies were carried out in the 1910s
due to a large number of landslides and docks that occurred in Sweden. The recommendations that
resulted from these studies are now being applied as a landslide analysis method known as the Swedish
slice method. With an increasing number of wall demolitions, Skempton presented calculations in 1979
[2]. Today, the latest technologies used in geotechnical soil applications are problematic for
transportation power with the increase in industrialization and different kinds of construction.

Looking at the history of geotechnical engineering, Turkey is an important place. Karl von Terzaghi,
who is the founder of geotechnical engineering and the father of soil mechanics, investigated Haliç clay
in Turkey and laid the foundation of geotechnical science. In his investigations of a clay-rich ground,
which is abundant today, Terzaghi managed to obtain clay samples from the Black Sea coast (Kilyos)
with the assistance of two brave students who endured many difficulties, including bandits, and being 20
km from the nearest motorway. The clays in Terzaghi’s study in 1925 are numbered II and IV in the
book, which is entitled “Erdbau Mechanic.” This book is accepted as the foundational document of
modern soil mechanics. The mathematical formulation of clay consolidation under constant pressure
over time was investigated in this book, and it was discovered that there may be an analogy between
heat conduction and the damping of additional void water pressure. Thus, the “clay consolidation
problem” has been solved in all its aspects. In 1925, the results of Terzaghi’s research in Turkey were
published in the book “Soil Physics Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics” by the Franz Deutick Publishing
House in Vienna. This book is recognized by the World Society of Civil Engineers as the foundational
document for modern ground engineering [3].
 The first building which comes to mind regarding soil problems is the Pisa Tower. Its construction
began in 1173 and took approximately 200 intermittent years to complete. The tower began to lean
during construction and the leaning continued after the construction was completed. In 1982, the hill
was 58.4 m long and deviated by 5.6 m from the plumb (Figure 1). This soil problem is explained by
clay soil settlement of up to 11 m from the surface [2]. The soils of interest in geotechnical engineering
are formed from rock degradation. This process consists of physical and chemical weathering. Clay is
largely composed of chemically altered and different materials of bedrock. The change in contents and
structures due to physical, chemical, and biological processes that occur in rocks is called weathering.
Physical weathering is the mechanical disintegration of rocks by heat exchange and the effects of
glaciers, waves, and wind. Biological weathering results from the activities of plants and animals within
a rock. Chemical weathering is caused by the effects of oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, carbonation,
and organic acids in rocks. As a result of weathering, all kinds of soils are formed. In physical
weathering, blocks of rock, gravel, sand, and silt materials are formed, whereas clay minerals are formed
by chemical weathering [4]. In geotechnical engineering practices, clay is generally seen as problematic
soil. When these soils are seen during the construction of road dams, slurry walls, airports, and waste
landfills, it becomes even more important to address. Clays generally have low strength, high
compressibility, and high volumetric changes. Because of clay’s high plasticity, permeability, bearing
capacity, and settlement characteristics, it is a material that has been studied and is still being studied in
geotechnical engineering. In this study, the characteristics of clay are discussed and its importance in
geotechnical engineering practices is noted. This chapter is composed of five main sections. In the first
section, the importance of clay in geotechnical engineering is presented. In Section 2, clay is defined and
its properties are discussed. Section 3 presents the use of clay in geotechnical engineering practices. In
Section 4, previous, related studies are summarized. Finally, in Section 5, the subject of clay is
summarized and conclusions from this chapter are provided.

Figure 1.
Pisa tower [2].

1.1.2 National perspective

Generally, soil characteristics have a significant influence on landslide occurrence. This issue has,
however, not yet been adequately analyzed in the Kigezi highlands of South Western Uganda. In this
study, soil properties such as dispersion, grain size distribution, Atterberg limits, shear strength, and clay
mineralogy were analyzed to establish their contribution to the spatial distribution of landslides in the
Kigezi highlands. The results demonstrate that deep soil profiles ranging between 2.5 and 7 meters were
 dominatedclay panspans at a depth between 0.75 and 3 meters. Although the uppermost surface horizons
of the soil profile are loamy sand, the clay content is more than 35% especially in the sub soil. This
suggests that the soil materials are Vertic in nature. In addition, the upper soil layers predominantly
contain quartz, while subsurface horizons have considerable amounts of illite as the dominant clay
minerals, ranging from 43–47%. The average liquid limit and plasticity index was 58.43% and 33.3%
respectively. Besides, high average computed weighted plasticity index (28.4%) and expansiveness
(38.6%) were obtained. These soil characteristics have great implication on the timing and nature of
landslide processes in the study area. A change in soil material due to varying moisture content is
thought to be a major trigger of landslides in Kigezi highlands of South Western Uganda. This
understanding of soil characteristics is a key step in mitigating landslide hazards in the area.

1.1.3 Local perspective

The study was carried out in Rukiga uplands located within Kigezi highlands of South Western Uganda.
The study area is situated between 01°21′25″ and 0°58′08″ South, and 29°43′30″ and 30°05′51″ East
(Figure 1). Rukiga uplands an area covering 427 km2 [20], span the attitudinally heterogeneous
landscapes of Rwamucucu, Maziba, Kashambya, Bubaare, Bukinda, Kamwezi and Kaharo [21] was
selected for this study on the basis of its unique topography which is synonymous with reported high
incidences of landslides, with visible scars unlike other parts of the highlands where landslide scars have
been concealed owing to rapid regeneration [22]. The topography is very rugged, with narrow steep
convex slopes and high valleys between hills. Most of these valleys have drainage lines connecting to
the main valley [23]. The topography has substantial flat-topped ridges and hills, with short, steep-sided
deep valleys fragmented by fluted spurs [24]. Landslide scars were, therefore, identified following an
inventory with the help of local communities (Figure 2). The landslide scar zones provided soil sampling
sites for analysis of soil characteristics and their influence on landslides (Figure 3).

Figure 1.
Location of the study area and soil sampling sites.
1.2 Problem statement
Foundation movements can result when clay soils shrinkage occurs. A home-buyer transferring into the
Huntsville metropolitan area once asked me, “What is the most common residential foundation problem
that you see in your engineering and inspection business?” I answered, “Differential foundation settlements
(movements) due to expansive clay soils.” “Not so much expansion,” I explained, “but the opposite
actually-or what we commonly call ‘shrinkage.’”
The residential foundation problems are related to volume changes in the clay soils which underlie the
house. These particular clay soils have what engineers call a ” high plasticity”. This is a term that is used to
describe a clayey soil which remains “plastic” (or in a “moldable” state), neither turning liquid nor
crumbling apart, over a wide range of moisture contents. This is unlike other fine-grained soils (mixtures
of sands, silts and clays) which either liquify or crumble apart at the extreme ends of a fairly small range of
plasticity (moisture contents.) Liquifying or fluid flow occurs at the wet end of the moisture scale, whereas
crumbling occurs at the dry end. Many of you might compare a highly plastic clay soil to the popular
child’s toy, “Playdough®” in that highly plastic clays can be molded into various shapes or, when worked
in between the thumb and index finger, one can form a long, thin “ribbon” of clay.
The reason why these soils remain plastic over such a wide range of moisture contents, is because they
have an “affinity” or attraction for water. Actually, they have an attraction for the H2O water molecule. In
order to understand this, you must understand that unlike silts or sands, clay particles are microscopic in
size. We cannot see them with our naked eye. Walk along the beach and grab a handful of sand and you
can easily sort out individual sand particles. You can’t do this with clay. The clay particles (actually
platelets) are microscopic in size. They are, in essence, ions or molecules and they bond together (to one
another). Most clay ions also chemically react or interact with the H20 water molecule. They usually want
to bring in (attach) water molecules to their crystalline lattice (or molecular structure/chain).
Clay soils usually evolve from the weathering of minerals and, therefore, take on the mineral’s crystalline
structure or chemical make-up. Typical clay minerals in our area are -silicates of either iron, magnesium or
aluminum. Some clay soil minerals have a very high attraction for water. Instead of wanting to add one or
two water molecules to their structure, they want to add many more. These are the expansive clays. When
this happens, the individual clay ion’s crystalline structure or lattice dramatically grows in size. When all
the millions and billions of clay ions/molecules underlying a foundation footing absorb large numbers of
water molecules, the soil dramatically grows in size. In the real world, where we live, this volume change
can be significant. The reverse is also true. And here is where the foundation problems seem to arise.
Whenever the clay ions give up attached water molecules (from evaporation or plant root uptake) they
shrink in volume. Extreme examples of this type of shrinkage are the formation of large cracks in the
ground surface and/or the ground pulling away from a home/foundation during the hot, dry summer
months or during droughts. Examples of foundation problems are differential settlements caused by
shrinkage of the clay soil.
A simple analogy for this phenomena would be, “clay soils are like sponges”. Whenever sponges soak up
water they swell in volume. When left on the counter to dry, however, they shrink back down to a very
small size…only to puff-up again when placed into contact with water. Clay soils are also like sponges in
that when they become wet, they become soft or softer. When dry, they become very hard. Place a heavy
load on dry clay soil and it goes nowhere or settles very little. The ground will support a sky-scraper!
When wet or saturated however, don’t even think about driving a riding lawn mower across the ground. It
will sink up to its axle.
Hence, when living in a house constructed on highly plastic clay soils (particularly swelling clay soils) it is
very important that the owner make sure that the drainage conditions around the home are monitored and
maintained annually, so that surface water runoff always flows away from the home and never stands or
ponds beside it. If this ever occurs, and the ground alongside and beneath a home (foundation footing)
becomes wet or saturated during heavy rains or throughout the rainy season (due to poor drainage
conditions, overflowing gutters, lack of gutters, etc.), then the house may slowly settle into the ground in
the areas where the clay soil has become softest. This, alone, can lead to differential (or uneven)
foundation settlement. But another, and often more serious problem occurs during the following summer or
fall after the hot, dry weather we typically experience in the North Alabama geographic area. The soils that
stayed extremely wet throughout the year, and swelled accordingly, shrunk dramatically by the time July
and August rolled around. The portion of the house resting on this formerly wet ground also settles
(dramatically) along with the shrinking clay.
 Believe it or not, however, this common problem can always be avoided during foundation construction if
builders would simply admit that these soil conditions exist and recognize that they need to have each
building site evaluated by a professional soil scientist or geotechnical engineer prior to house construction.
If not, it is likely that the builder will utilize the standard shallow-bearing foundation, and place the
footings or foundation just below or within a few feet of the ground surface. Soil shrinkage-related
settlements or movements will eventually lead to foundation settlement cracking and/or the formation of
large cracks in brittle construction materials such as brick veneer and sheetrock. This is almost guaranteed.
1.3 Study Objectives
1.3.1 Main Objectives
Improvement of bearing capacity of clay soil in construction
1.3.1 Specific Objective

i. To determine the penetration test;

ii. To find the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture content on clay soil;
iii. To determine the moisture content of clay soil;
iv. To determine the particle size distribution of clay soil
v. To find the atterberg limit of clay soil;
vi. To find water absorption of clay soil;

1.4 Research question

 What is the test penetration of the clay soil?
 What is the maximum dry density and Optimum moisture content of clay soil?
 What is the moisture content of clay soil?
 What is the particle size distribution of clay soil?
 What is the atterberg limit of clay soil?
 What is the water absorption of clay soil?

1.5 Scope
1.5.1 Content scope
The study focuses on the improvement of the bearing capacity of clay soil in the construction. The
purposive sampling method will be used in the research.
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LTERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introdduction
This chapter presents a review of literature concerning the Improvement of bearing capacity of clay soil
in construction in all parts of the world. At the end of the chapter, a summary of literature is synthesized which
highlights the gaps in the existing body of knowledge on the subject that this study seeks to address.
2.2 Theoretical revie
2.1 Clays: The term clays was assigned early to fine grained material in geological formations by Agricola in
1956 or soils by De Serres in 1600 [4] [5]. The clay is a universal material therefore it cannot be limited to one
particular definition.

2.1.1 Dictionary definitions of Clay: Clay is a very fine grained soil of colloidal size consisting mainly of
hydrated silicate of aluminium. It is a plastic cohesive soil which shrinks on drying, expands on wetting and
when compressed gives up water. Clays are described for engineering properties by their consistency limits [6]

Clay is a fine textured, sedimentary or residual deposit. It consists of hydrated silicate of aluminium mixed with
various impurities. Clay for use in the manufacture of pottery and bricks must be fine grained and sufficiently
plastic to be moulded when wet, it must retain its shape when dried and sinter together forming a hard coherent
mass without losing its original shape, when heated to a sufficient temperature [7].

Clay is thick, heavy soil that is soft when wet, and hard when dry or baked, used for making bricks and
containers [8].
Clay is very fine-grained material that consists of hydrated aluminum silicate, quartz, and organic fragments
and occurs as sedimentary rocks, soils, and other deposits. It becomes plastic when moist but hardens on heating
and is used in the manufacture of bricks, cement, ceramics, etc [9].

2.1.2. Definition of Clay in various disciplines: The definition of clay in different disciplines is as follows,

Geologists consider clay as a geologic product of generalized occurrence and of fine granularity that occurs at
the surface or near the surface of the Earth, and that is formed at the interfaces between the earth crust and the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere as the result of the mechanical and/or chemical alteration of rocks [10]
[11].
Mineralogists consider clay as an aggregate or mixture of minerals of fine granularity, consisting principally of
clay minerals, which are hydrous phyllosilicates based on Si, O, OH, H2O, and that elements such as Al, Mg,
Fe, K, Ca and Mg can participate on their composition [10] [11].

Civil and geotechnical engineers consider clay as the less than 4 μm fraction of the soil and classify clays or
clayey soils as swelling or non swelling, soft or hard, that is selecting the most relevant properties that should be
taken into account when the foundation of housing and public construction works is based on them [10] [11].

Based on particle size, the clay size is defined differently in different disciplines. In geology, the clay grade as
material finer than about 4 microns in Wentworth scale [12]. In soil investigations, the tendency is to use 2
microns as the upper limit of the clay size grade as specified by Atterberg [13].

2.2.Clay Minerals: Research on clay minerals started in 1930s; the clay materials are basically composed of
tiny crystalline substances of one or more members of a small group of minerals commonly known as clay
minerals. Chemically, these minerals are hydrous alumina-silicate with other metallic ions. Their particles are
very small in size, very flaky in shape and thus have considerable surface area. They can only be viewed with
an electronic microscope. Clay minerals are formed from two basic structural units: tetrahedral and octahedral.
On the basis of their crystalline arrangements, clay minerals are divided into three types namely, Kaolinites,
Montmorillonite and Illite the properties of all three minerals are presented in Table I [14][15] [16][17][18].

Table I : Some Properties of Clay Minerals

Kaolinites Montmorillonite Illite

1:1 Layer 2:1 Layer 2:1 Layer
Hexagonal Flakes Thin Flakes Elongate
Moderate Base Exchange
Low Base Exchange Capacity High Base Exchange Capacity Capacity
Minimal Layer Charge High Layer Charge Moderate Layer Charge
Low Surface Area Very High Surface Area High Surface Area
Largest Grain Size Smallest Grain Size Intermediate Grain Size
Lowest Dry Strength Highest Dry Strength Intermediate Dry Strength
 Intermediate Swelling and
Lowest Swelling and Shrinkage Largest Swelling and Shrinkage Shrinkage
Behaviour Behaviour Behaviour

2.3 Engineering Significance of Clayey Soils: Clayey soils are common in certain regions of the country
including our area (Coimbatore). Clayey soil cause damage to the structure founded in them because of their
potential to react to change in moisture regime [19]. The uplift pressure due to change in volume of clay leads
to foundation failure, resulting in damage to the upper floors of a building. On the other hand, clay also shrinks
where they dry out, causing settlement of building. The shrinkage and swelling of clay puts repeated stress on
concrete foundation. The volume change experienced by clay can cause serious damage to concrete foundation
and floor slabs as well as the rooms above them. Therefore it is essential to identify the characteristics of clayey
soil before any construction activities carried out. Many criteria are available, to identify and characterize
expansive soils. The soil classification suggested by Chen [20], Holtz and Gibbs [21], Seed et al [22] and IS
1498 [23] are presented in Table II, Table III and Table IV.

Table II : Soil classification based on Liquid Limit

Degree of Liquid Limit (WL) in %

Expansion Chen [20] IS 1498 [23]

Low <30 20-35
Medium 30-40 35-50
High 40-60 50-70
Very High >60 70-90

Table III : Soil classification based on

Plasticity Index

Degree Plasticity Index (IP) in

of %

Expansio Chen Holtz and

n [20] IS 1498 [23] Gibbs
 [21]
Lo
w 0–15 <12 <12
Medium 10–35 12-23 12–34
High 20–55 23-32 34–45
Very High >35 >32 >45

Table IV : Soil classification by other

measures

Shrinkage Shrinkage Percent expansion

Degree of Limit Index Free Swell in
Expansi
on [21] [23] Index [23] Oedometer
[21] [22]
0-
Low >18 <15 <50 <10 1.5
1.5-
Medium 8-18 15-30 50-100 10-20 5
High 6-12 30-60 100-200 20-30 5-25
Very
High <10 >60 >200 >30 >25

III. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The term “ Clay Mineral” refers to phyllosilicate minerals and to minerals which impart plasticity to clay and
which harden upon drying or firing as per the Nomenclature Committees of AIPEA. The behaviour of soil as a
foundation material is affected both by the total amount of water and by the energy with which it is retained.
Consistency, strength and density parameters are affected by water content and volume change characteristics
and moisture content movements are due to engineering considerations. To overcome problems caused by
moisture content and its movements, footings and foundations may be placed below the level affected by
seasonal fluctuations of water content. Further, the soil affected may be replaced by a fill, soil stabilization
procedures may be adopted or stiffened slabs or raft foundation may be used. Economics is a major concern in
determining which option can be adopted. Hence, the clayey soils are termed as Expansive soils.
 References
1.Budhu M. Soil Mechanics and Foundations. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley; 2007. 656 p
2.Coduto DP. Geotechnical Engineering Principles and Practices. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA:
Prentice Hall; 1988. 759 p
3.Özüdoğru K. Establishment of modern soil mechanics. Karl Terzaghi and Turkey. İstanbul
Technical University Journal/d Engineering. 2003;2(5):3-11
4.Holtz RD, Kovacs WD. An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall; 1981. 733 p
5.Al-Khafaji AW, Andersland OB. Geotechnical Engineering & Soil Testing. United states of
America: Sounders College Publishing; 1992. 714 p
6.Dunn IS, Anderson LR, Kiefer FW. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Analysis. New York,
United states of America: John Wiley & Sons; 1980. 414 p
7.Ingles OG. Soil chemistry relevant to the engineering behavior of soils. In: Lee IK, editor. Soil
Mechanics—Selected Topics. New York: Elsevier; 1968. pp. 1-57
8.Diamond S. Microstructure and pore structure of impact-compacted clays. Clays and Clay
Minerals. 1971;19:239-249
9.Rahman M, Sıddıque A, Uddin K. Microstructure and chemical properties of cement treated
soft Bangladesh clays. Soils and Foundations. 2010;50:1-7
10.Vichan S, Rachan R, Horpibulsuk S. Strength and microstructure development in Bangkok
clay stabilized with calcium carbide residue and biomass ash. Science Asia. 2013;39:186-193
11.Kiki YT, Saiyouri N, Gbaguidi V, Anguy Y, Gaborieau C, Fabre R. Microstructural, chemical
and mineralogical analyses for understanding the geotechnical properties of clayey soils. Journal
of Minerals and Materials Characterization and Engineering. 2016;4:305-319
12.Norsyahariati NDN, Hui KR, Juliana AGA. The effect of soil particle arrangement on shear
strength behavior of Silty sand. MATEC Web of Conferences. 2016;47:03022
13.Lambe TW. The structure of inorganic soil. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers. 1953;79(10):1-49
14.Tan TK. Structure Mechanics of Clays. Vol. 8/1. Harbin, China: Academia Sinica; 1957. pp.
83-87
15.Push R. Influence of salinity and organic matter on the formation of clay microstructure.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Soil Structure. Gothenburg, Sweden: Swedish
Geotechnical Society. 1973. pp. 161-166
16.Yong RN, Sheeran DE. Fabric unit interaction and soil behavior. Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Soil Structure. 1973. p. 176-183
17.Collins K, McGown A. The form and function of microfabric features in a variety of natural
soils. Géotech-nique. 1974;24(2):223-254
18.Bennet RH, Hulbert MH. Clay Microstructure. Boston: International Human Resources
Development Corperation Press, Prentice Hall; 1986. p. 161
19.Das BM. Principles of Foundation Engineering. 6th ed. New York, USA: Thomson; 2007.
480 p
20.Jones DE, Holtz WG. Expansive soils-the hidden disaster. Civil Engineering ASCE.
1973;43:87-89
21.Krohn JP, Slosson JE. Assessment of expansive soils in the United States. Proceedings of the
4th International Conference on Expansive. Denver, CO; 1980. pp. 596-608
22.Holtz WG, Hart SS. Home construction on shrinking and swelling soils. Colorado Geological
Survey Publication SP-11. Denver. 1978. 18 p.
23.AMEC Earth and Environmental. Boulder County Multi-Hazard Mitigation Plan. CO Hazard
Mitigation and Emergency Management Programs. Denver. 2008
[1].Anand J. Puppala, P.E.; Koonnamas Punthutaecha and Sai K. Vanapalli, P.E., “Soil-
Water Characteristic Curves of Stabilized Expansive Soils”, Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 132, No. 6, 2006 pp. 736-751.
[2].Radhakrishnan G, Anjan Kumar M and Prasad Raju GVR, “Swelling Properties of
Expansive Soil treated with Chemicals and Flyash”. American Journal of Engineering
Research, Vol.03, No.4, 2014 pp.245-250.
[3].Lee D Jones, “ Institution of Civil Engineers Manual Series – C5 Expansive Soils”,
Institution of Engineers 2000, ch.5.
[4].Stephen G and Martin R T, “Definition of Clay and Clay Minerals: Joint Report of the
AIPEA Nomenclature and CMS Nomenclature Committee”, Clay and Clay Minerals,
Vol.43, No.2, 1995 pp.255-256.
[5].Bailey S.W., “Summary of Recommendations of AIPEA Nomenclature Committee”’
Clays and Clay Minerals, Vol.28, 1980 pp.73-78.
[6].Penguin Dictionary of Civil Engineering, Revised 2005.
[7].The Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology, Vol.1, 1975.
[8].Cambridge Dictionary, 1995.
[9].Collins Dictionary, 2010
[10]. Gomes CSF, Argilas: O que são e para que servem, Fundação Calouste
Gulbenkian ed, 1998.
[11]. Gomes CSF, Argilas: Aplicações na Indústria. In: Gomes C (ed), Universidade de
Aveiro, 2002.
[12]. Chester K Wentworth, “A Scale of Grade and Class terms for Clastic Sediments”,
The Journal of Geology, Vol.30 No.5, 1922.
[13]. Gopal Ranjan and Rao ASR, “Basics and Applied Soil Mechanics”, New Age
International Publishers, 2000.
[14]. Grim RE, “ Clay mineralogy”, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953.
[15]. Mielenz R C and King M E, “ Physical Chemical Properties and Engineering
Performance of Clays”, Proc. First National Conference on Clays and Clay Technology,
California Division of Mines and Geology, 1954.
[16]. Brindely G W, “X-ray Identification and Crystal Structures of Clay Minerals”,
Taylor and Francis, London 1951.
[17]. Grim RE, “Clay mineralogy, geological science series”, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1968.
[18]. Dimitri P K and William R J, “Principles of Engineering Geology and
Geotechnics”, CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd., 2005.
[19]. Gillott J E, “Some Clay Related Problems in Engineering Geology in
North America”, Clay Minerals Vol.21, pp.261-268.
 [20]. Chen F. H. “Foundations on Expansive Soils”, Elsevier, Amsterdam,
1975.
[21]. Holtz W. G. and Gibbs H. J. Engineering Properties of Expansive Clays.
Trans. of ASCE,1956, Pp.641-663.
[22]. Seed H. B., Woodward R. J. and Lundgren R., “Prediction Of Swelling
Potential For Compacted Clays”, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, ASCE, 1962, pp53-87.
[23]. Bureau Of Indian Standards, “Indian Standard Classification and
Identification of Soils for General Engineering Purposes”, BIS, New Delhi,1970,
IS 1498.

AUTHORS

First Author – Dr.K.Murali, Professor in Civil Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna Institute of

Technology, Coimbatore, murali.vlb@gmail.com

Second Author – K.Sambath, Final Year, BE - Civil Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna Institute of
Technology, Coimbatore
Third Author – S.Mohammed Hashir, Final Year, BE - Civil Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna
Institute of Technology, Coimbatore

Correspondence Author – Author name, email address, alternate email address (if any), contact
number.